A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE GROUNDS FOR DIVORCE IN
HINDU LAW AND ENGLISH LAW
-By
Parm iader Kaur V ir d i, LL.M* ( L o a d .).
THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN LAWS
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON SEPTEMBER 4 1 9 6 6
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ABSTRACT
Chapter I i s ait in t r o d u c t io n o f th e s u b j e c t .
C hapter I I d e a ls w ith th e n a tu r e o f Hindu m arriage and
i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e q u e s tio n w hether d iv o r c e a s su ch was r e c o g n is e d by t h e d harm asastra-
Chapter I I I g i v e s a b r i e f o u t l i n e o f th e h i s t o r y o f d iv o r c e i n E ngland.
Chapter IV i n t e r p r e t s th e term s * a d u lt e r y 1 and ’l i v i n g i n
a d u lter y * a g a in s t th e s o c i a l background o f Hindu and E n g lis h s o c ie t y * I t a l s o c o n s id e r s th e q u e s t io n o f e v id e n c e and t h e stan d ard o f p r o o f .
Chapter V d is c u s s e s th e c o n c e p t o f d e s e r t io n and i t s in g r e d ie n t s by r e f e r e n c e to c a s e la w . I t e x p la in s t h e d e fe n c e o f 1 j u s t cause*
in c lu d in g what amounts to a * grave and w eighty* m a tter f o r th e p u rp ose o f d e s e r t io n and i t s r e l a t i o n to c r u e l t y .
Chapter VI d e f in e s ’ c r u e lt y * ; how th e co n cep t o f c r u e lt y h a s changed from tim e to tim e; th e e f f e c t o f i n s a n i t y i n r e l a t i o n to c r u e lt y and th e p r o t e c t io n o f th e a g g r ie v e d s p o u s e . The e f f e c t o f o f f e n c e s com m itted by t h e g u i l t y spouse a g a in s t t h ir d p a r t i e s .
C hapter V I I d e a ls w ith i n s a n i t y a s a ground f o r d iv o r c e and th e t e s t to be a p p lie d i n su ch a c a s e . The d if f e r e n c e betw een th e Hindu and E n g lis h s t a t u t e s r e g a r d in g i n s a n i t y .
Chapter V III i n v e s t i g a t e s th e c ir c u m sta n c e s le a d in g t o
p resu m p tion o f d ea th and d i s s o l u t i o n o f m arriage in c lu d in g th e burden o f p r o o f i n su ch a c a s e .
Chapter IX d e f in e s grounds f o r d iv o r c e a v a ila b le o n ly to th e w if e . Chapter X d e a ls w ith grounds f o r d iv o r c e p e c u lia r to Hindu la w . T hese in c lu d e r e n u n c ia t io n o f t h e w o rld , c o n v e r sio n to an oth er
r e l i g i o n , s u f f e r i n g from le p r o s y and v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e , secon d
m arriage o f th e husband (where th e seco n d m arriage took p la c e b e fo r e th e Hindu M arriage A ct* 1955) a s a ground f o r d iv o r c e a v a i l a b l e t o a Hindu w ife* D iv o r c e on th e grounds o f f a i l u r e to comply w ith a d e c r e e f o r r e s t i t u t i o n o f c o n ju g a l r i g f t t s and n on -resu m p tion o f c o h a b ita t io n f o r a p e r io d o f two y e a r s or upwards a f t e r a d e c r e e o f j u d i c i a l
s e p a r a tio n h a s been p a s s e d , h a s a ls o been c o n s id e r e d .
I am g r a t e f u l t o P r o f e s s o r d.D.M . D e r r e t t and P r o f e s s o r A* G le d h il l f o r t h e i r g u id a n c e , h e lp and p a t ie n c e d u r in g th e p r e p a r a tio n o f t h i s t h e s i s . P r o f e s s o r T .E . James o f K in g’ s C o lle g e d e s e r v e s my s i n c e r e th a n k s f o r h i s h e lp and v a lu a b le c r i t i c i s m s on E n g lis h la w . 1 am a ls o th a n k fu l t o M iss O liv e M. S ton e H eader i n Law o f th e London S ch o o l o f Econom ics and P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e , f o r r e a d in g and commenting on t h e
s e c t i o n o f ’r e a s o n a b le c a u s e 1.
P .K .V .
If
f t
CONTENTS
TITLE . ... ... 1
ABSTRACT... 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... 3
CHAPTER I . INTRODUCTION ... 7
CHAPTER H . THE INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE AND THE PRE-STATUTORY HINDU LAW OF DIVORCE... 1 2 1. The N atu re o f Hindu M a r r ia g e ... 12
2 . The P urpose o f th e Samskaras ... 13
3* M arriage i n th e V ed ic P e r io d ... 14
4. M arriage i n th e S u tr a P e r io d ... 14
5* M arriage i n t h e S m r lt i P e r i o d ... 15
( i ) The B rah m a... 1 5 C ii) The D a i v a ... 15
( i i i ) The A r s h a ... 15
( i v ) The P r a j a p a t y a ... 16
(v} The A s u r a ... 17
( v l ) The Gandharva ... *... 13
C v ii) The R akshasa ... 18
C v ili) The P a i s a c h a ... 13
6 . N u p t ia l Cerem onies ... 21
7 . The O b je ct o f M arriage ... 24
8 . The D i s s o l u t i o n o f Hindu S a s t r i c M arriage . . . 26
9* Rem arriage o f F e m a l e s ... 27
IQ. The D i s t i n c t i o n betw een Abandonment and S u p e r s e s s i o n ... 35
1 1 . D iv o r c e under Custom or Usage 40 1 2 . L e g i s l a t i v e M e a s u r e s ... 45
CHAPTER I I I . THE HISTORY OF DIVORCE IN ENGLAND... 52
1 . Background to S ta t u t o r y D i v o r c e ... 52
2 . The C oncepts o f Hindu and C h r is t ia n M arriage 57 CHAPTER IV . ADULTERY ... 61
1 . A d u lte r y a s a M atrim on ial F a u l t ... 61
2 . Kens Rea i n A d u lte r y ... 65
3 . The O ther P a r t y ... 68
Jf. I n s a n it y i n A d u l t e r y ... . ... _ 69 5 . C o n tra st betw een E n glish. Law and Hindu Law . * 72 6* L iv in g i n A d u l t e r y ... * ... 7 3 7* A p p lic a t io n o f E n g lis h Law t o Hindu S o c ie t y . 78 CHAPTER V. DESERTION...* ... . ... 83 1 . The I n g r e d ie n t s o f D e s e r t i o n ...*... 8 3 Ci) The F a c t o f S e p a r a t i o n ... . . . 8 8 C ii) The I n t e n t i o n to D e s e r t . . . ... 93 2 . C o n s tr u c tiv e D e s e r t i o n ... 9 9 3* W ithout th e C onsent o r a g a in s t th e Wish o f th e
O ther S p o u s e ... . ... * ... . . . ...110 4. R ea so n a b le Cause i n E n g lis h and Hindu Law • • • • 119 5 . W illfu l N e g l e c t ... 129 6. The P e r io d o f D e s e r t i o n ... * 130 CHAPTER V I, CRUELTY...13 3 1 , C r u e lty a s a M atrim on ial F a u l t . . . ... . . . . 13 3 2 . Changes i n th e C oncept o f C r u e l t y ♦ • • • • . . 1 3 8 3 , D e f in in g C r u e lty . . . ... 1 4 4 4. I n a b i l i t y to perform th e D u t ie s o f M arried
L i f e ...148
3. Mens Rea i n C r u e lty 156
6* P r o t e c t i o n o f th e A ggrieved Spouse . . . . ...1 75 7* I n s a n it y a s a D efen ce t o C r u e lty . . ♦ ...1 8 4 CHAPTER V I I . INSANITY... 19 3
1. I n s a n it y a s a Ground f o r R e l i e f i n
M atrim on ial C a u s e s • % 1 9 5
2* The T e s t o f Unsoundness o f M i n d ... 1 9 6 3 . The S ta t u t o r y P e r io d . . . ... . ... 2 0 6 CHAPTER V I I I . DISSOLUTION OF MARRIAGE BY PRESUMPTION OF
DEATK ...212 1 . P resu m p tion o f D eath a s a Ground f o r
D i s s o l u t i o n . ... 21 2 2 . P resu m p tion o f C ontinuance o f L i f e . . . 213 3 . P resu m p tion a s to th e D ate o f D e a t h ... 221 CHAPTER IX . GROUNDS OF DIVORCE AVAILABLE ONLY TO THE WIFE . . 225
6
1 . S ex u a l Crimea ... 225
Ci) Rape ... 2 2 6 C ii) S o d o m y ... 2 3 1 t i i i ) B e s t i a l i t y ... 237
CHAPTER X. GROUNDS FOR DIVORCE PECULIAR TO HINDU LAW... 239
1. R e n u n c ia tio n o f th e W o r ld ... 239
X. K inds o f A s c e t i c ... 241
I I . Who can become a S a n y a si ... 243
I I I . R e n u n c ia tio n must be C o m p le t e 245 2 . C on version to A nother R e l i g i o n ... 247
3 . L ep rosy ... 250
4» V e n e r e a l D is e a s e • « . . . ... 252
5. Second M arriage o f th e H u sb a n d 256 6+ F a ilu r e to Comply w ith a D ecree f o r R e s t i t u t i o n o f C onjugal R ig h ts o r to Resume C o h a b ita tio n a f t e r J u d i c i a l S e p a r a t i o n ... 258
BIBLIOGRAPHY... 264
COMMENTS IN NOTES... 2?2 TABLE OF STATUTES... 2?3 TABLE, OF CASES ... 275
ABBREVIATIONS ... 294
INDEX... 297
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
Under both th e Hindu and th e E n g lis h sy stem s o f law m arriage was fo r m e r ly a sacram ent and, t h e r e f o r e , i n d i s s o l u b l e , b u t th e n a tu re o f th e m arriage was d i f f e r e n t i n t h a t , w h ile an E n g lis h m arriage was a v o lu n ta r y union f o r l i f e o f one man and one woman to th e e x c lu s io n o f a l l o t h e r s , a Hindu m arriage was a g i f t o f th e b r id e by h er
f a t h e r to h e r husband. A ccord in g to Hindu r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f th e
m arriage s u b s is t e d n o t o n ly d u r in g th e l i f e tim e o f th e sp o u se s but a ls o i n . su b seq u en t " e x iste n c e s; a Hindu widow was n ot a llo w e d to
rem arry, a s h e r p r e v io u s m arriage was; n o t d is s o lv e d bjp/the d eath o f h er husband. An e s s e n t i a l elem en t i n E n g lis h m arriage i s c o n se n t o f th e p a r t n e r s . I t was n o t so i n a s a s t r i c m a rria g e. Under S. 5 o f th e Hindu Na r r ia g e A c t, 1955 c o n se n t i s n o t enumerated among th e
" c o n d it io n s 11 e s s e n t i a l to th e v a l i d i t y o f a Hindu m a rria g e, though S . 12 ( c ) o f th e same A ct r e n d e r s a m arriage v o id a b le i f c o n se n t h a s been o b ta in e d by f o r c e o r fr a u d , which m ight be regard ed a s
im p ly in g t h a t such c o n se n t i s r e q u ir e d . Presum ably no m ention o f c o n se n t i s made i n S . 5 o f th e Hindu M arriage A c t, 1 9 5 5nt e c a u s e
m arriages i n I n d ia a re s t i l l arranged by th e p a r e n ts o f th e p a r tn e r s and c o n se n t o f th e p a r e n t s i s regard ed a s co n se n t o f th e c o u p le .
U n lik e E n g lis h m arriage a Hindu s a s t r i c m arriage was a r e l i g i o u s n e c e s s i t y f o r th e p r o c r e a t io n o f a son,, whose f u n e r a l o b l a t i o n s were e s s e n t i a l t o h i e s a l v a t i o n in h i s n e x t e x i s t e n c e . A Hindu was
a llo w e d to rem arry and su p ersed e h i s f i r s t or su b seq u en t w if e , i f sh e f a i l e d to bear him a s o n . Even i n p r e s e n t Hindu s o c i e t y much im p ortan ce i s a tta c h e d to th e b ir t h o f a son* The Hindu s a s t r i c m arriage im posed many d i s a b i l i t i e s on th e w if e , f o r a man co u ld abandon or supersede h i s w ife w ith o u t j u s t c a u se . He cou ld be
p olygam ou s, w h ile a secon d m arriage was net a llo w e d even to a widow u n t i l th e Hindu Widows* Rem arriage A c t, 1 8 5 6 , was p a sse d and th e h a r s h n e s s o f t h i s r u le was m it ig a t e d . The stan d ard o f m o r a lity
r e q u ir e d o f waren was h ig h e r than p e r m itte d to men. The lo w er s t a t u s accord ed to th e w ife was jb c o n siste n t w ith modern d em ocratic id e a s , w hich s t r e s s e q u a lit y o f th e s e x e s .
&
The ten d en cy to move away from s a s t r i c n o t io n s o f m arriage le d to th e p a s s in g o f th e Hindu M arriage A c t, 1955# w hich brought about fundam ental ch an ges i n th e Hindu m atrim on ial la w . The p u r e ly
sa cra m en ta l c h a r a c te r o f th e Hindu m arriage h as b een r e p la c e d by th e E n g lis h co n cep t o f m arriage i n so f a r a s i t a llo w s d iv o r c e when i t i s n o t r e a s o n a b le to e x p e c t th e husband and w ife to l i v e t o g e t h e r and perform t h e i r m a r ita l d u t i e s . The amendments in tr o d u c e d in t o E n g lis h la w by A .P . H e r b e r t 's A ct o f 1937 assume t h a t m arriage i s a sacram ent and an i n s t i t u t i o n e s s e n t i a l f o r th e p r e s e r v a t io n o f
m o r a lity and s o c i a l i n t e g r i t y ; so t h a t d iv o r c e sh o u ld o n ly be
g ra n ted i n c ir c u m sta n c e s which s t r i k e a t th e r o o t o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n . The p r o v is io n s o f th e Hindu M arriage A c t, 1933 a re m o stly d e r iv e d
from th e E n g lis h A ct o f 1 9 3 7 .
B e fo r e 1937 d iv o r c e was im p o s s ib le w ith o u t p r o o f o f a d u lte r y ; t h i s was p r e j u d i c i a l to p u b lic m o r a lit y , a s a p erso n who w ish ed to b r in g an end to h i s m arriage had e i t h e r to commit a d u lte r y or
p e r ju r y ; th e la w was an in c ite m e n t to im m o r a lity . The developm ent o f th e E n g lis h law o f d iv o r c e w i l l b e d e a lt w ith i n b r i e f o u t l i n e i n ch a p te r I I I , a s th e Hindu M arriage A c t, 1 9 5 5 t THe Hindu M arriage and D iv o rc e O rdin an ce, I9 6 0 (Kenya) and th e Hindu M arriage and D iv o rce O rd in an ce, 1961 (Uganda) have borrowed th e p r o v is i o n s f o r d iv o r c e l a r g e l y from th e E n g lis h M atrim on ial C auses A c t s , 1937 - 193°
( r e c e n t l y amended and c o n s o lid a t e d by th e (E n g lis h ) M atrim onial C auses A c t, 1 9 6 3 ) . The above l e g i s l a t i o n b rou ght r e v o lu tio n a r y ch a n g es i n th e Hindu m atrim on ial law by in tr o d u c in g d iv o r c e and making m arriage a c i v i l c o n t r a c t , which can be term in a ted on
p r e s c r ib e d grou n ds. As we s h a l l see. i n ch a p ter I I a Hindu s a s t r i c m arriage was p u r e ly o f a sa c ra m en ta l n a tu re and d id n o t adm it d iv o r c e , so th e r e i s no I n d i a n c a s e - l a w to w hich c o u r t s can l o o k f o r p r e c e d e n t s i n a p p l y i n g th e modern Hindu law o f d iv o r c e , which i s s t i l l i n p r o c e s s o f d ev elo p m en t. The q u e s tio n i s how f a r th e Hindu c o u r t s can r e s o r t to E n g lis h p r e c e d e n ts? The. f o llo w in g o b s e r v a tio n s o f G ajendragadkar, J . ( a s he th e n was) can be o f some h e lp i n t h i s r e s p e c t . "When we a re d e a lin g w ith th e problem s o f c o n s tr u in g a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v is io n which i s n o t to o c le a r or l u c i d , you f e e l
i n c l i n e d to in q u ir e how o th e r j u d i c i a l mind.s have responded to th e c h a lle n g e p r e s e n te d by s im ila r p r o v is io n s i n o th e r s i s t e r .
c o n s t i t u t i o n s * 11^
S in c e th e Hindu M arriage A c t, 1955 i s based l a r g e l y on th e E n g lis h M atrim on ial C auses A c t, 195° th e r e i s a g r e a t ten d en cy to r e l y upon E n g lis h d e c i s i o n s . However, th e r e are d i f f e r e n c e s between th e two A c ts and g r e a t ca re h a s to be tak en w h ile a c t in g upon th e E n g lis h law and p r a c t i c e o f d iv o r c e ; f o r in s t a n c e , E n g lis h d e c i s i o n s o r d e r in g m ed ica l ex a m in a tio n o f an a ll e g e d l u n a t i c can have no
a p p lic a t io n i n a c a s e a r i s i n g under th e Hindu M arriage A c t, 1955*
b e c a u se , under th e M atrim on ial C auses R u le s i n E ngland, s p e c i f i c p r o v is io n h a s been made f o r ex a m in a tio n by m ed ica l i n s p e c t o r s . There i s no such p r o v is io n i n I n d ia . 2 There a re o th e r im p ortan t
c o n s id e r a tio n s * There a re d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e s o c i a l c o n d it io n s
between Hindu and E n g lis h s o c i e t y and i n th e la n g u a g e o f th e E n g lis h and Hindu A c t s . Hindu law i s q u it e d i f f e r e n t from E n g lis h law in th e f o llo w in g r e s p e c t s . S u f f e r in g from a v i r u l e n t form o f le p r o s y fo r a p e r io d o f a t l e a s t one y e a r , and s u f f e r i n g from a v e n e r e a l d is e a s e
i n a communicable form f o r a p e r io d o f n o t l e s s than th r e e y e a r s are ! grounds f o r j u d i c i a l s e p a r a t io n , but th e r e i s no such p r o v is io n in
E n g lis h la w , though th e com m unication o f v e n e r e a l d is e a s e may amount to c r u e l t y . C ea sin g to be a Hindu by c o n v e r s io n to a n oth er r e l i g i o n and r e n u n c ia t io n o f th e w orld by e n t e r in g a r e l i g i o u s o rd er are
grounds f o r d iv o r c e p e c u lia r to Hindu la w , which w i l l be d e fin e d and d is c u s s e d i n ch a p te r X.
A ll th e s t a t u t o r y p r o v is i o n s r e l a t i n g to th e grounds f o r d iv o r c e w i l l be c o n sid e r e d w ith s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e to t h e i r in t e r p r e t a t io n a g a in s t th e s o c i a l background o f Hindu s o c i e t y . I t w i l l be shown
t h a t , a lth o u g h some o f th e p r o v is io n s o f th e Hindu M arriage A ct, 1955 and th e Kenya and Uganda O rdin an ces appear to be i d e n t i c a l w ith
p r o v is i o n s o f th e E n g lis h M atrim on ial C auses A c t, 1 9 5 ° , th e p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t i s n o t a lw a y s th e same, when th e law i s a p p lie d to Hindu
^A t ia b a i Tea Co. L td . v . S t a t e o f Assam A .I .R . 1961 S .C . 232 a t P . - 2 5 7 .
2B irin ch a n d ra v . Madhurben A .I.R * 1 9 6 3 Guj. 2 3 0; s e e a ls o S . S . Higam, rtHindu Law11 (1964-) 6 J . I . L . I . 3Zf3 a t p . 3 3 0„
19,
s o c i e t y , e . g . , th e d e f i n i t i o n o f ‘ d e s e r t i o n1 h as been co n stru ed by r e f e r e n c e to E n g lis h c a s e - la w but what amounts to a j u s t cau se f o r an E n g lis h w if e l i v i n g a p a rt from h er husband may n o t be s u f f i c i e n t i n c a s e o f a Hindu w if e . I t i s im p o s s ib le to rep rod u ce th e whole E n g lis h c a s e -la w h ere but r e f e r e n c e w i l l be made to E n g lis h
d e c i s i o n s , w hich have been a c c e p te d by th e In d ia n c o u r t s a s c o n t r ib u t in g to th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e In d ia n S t a t u t e . The
c o n c e p ts o f a d u lt e r y , d e s e r t io n , c r u e lt y and th e e f f e c t o f i n s a n i t y b o th a s a ground fo r d iv o r c e and in r e l a t i o n to o th e r m atrim on ial f a u l t s w i l l be s tu d ie d i n th e l i g h t o f s o c i a l c o n d it io n s i n E n g lis h and Hindu s o c i e t y .
In th e words o f M.C. C hagla law i n I n d ia must be c o n sid e r e d i n th e c o n t e x t o f a d e v e lo p in g co u n tr y , which i s determ in ed to fo r g e ahead from an a g r i c u l t u r a l and p oor s o c i e t y to an i n d u s t r i a l and
p ro sp e r o u s on e. Sometimes S o c ie t y h as e v o lv ed and p ropagated n a tio n s i n advance o f th e la w but in I n d ia th e law h as g iv e n a llead to s o c i e t y by p la c in g b e fo r e i t new i d e a l s and v a lu e s and p r o v id in g s a n c t io n s
fo r t h e i r su p p o r t. One c r i t e r i o n o f a c i v i l i s e d s o c i e t y i s th e j
p o s i t i o n i t a c c o r d s to th e women. When one remembers th a t Hindus lo o k upon m arriage a s a sacram ent one must concede t h a t th e Act o f 195 5 h as a c h ie v e d a g r e a t r e v o lu t io n .
Compulsory monogamy and th e punishm ent o f polygamy i s a n o ta b le a ch ievem en t o f -the Hindu M arriage A c t, 1955^ th e p a r a l l e l
5 6
p r o v i s i o n s i n th e Kenya and Uganda O rd in an ces. They have p u t husband and w ife on term s ap p roach in g e q u a l i t y . The r e v o lu tio n a r y
c h a r a c te r o f th e grounds fo r d iv o r c e , a s in tr o d u c e d in t o Hindu law by l e g i s l a t i o n b ased on th e p r i n c i p l e s o f E n g lis h m atrim on ial la w ,
■z ' t h ' . f f s*Abv| Wt h >
-^M.C. C hagla, form erAHigh Comm issioner fo r In d ia in U .K .,
“In d ia n Law: An I n tr o d u c t io n11 f Some A sp e c ts o f In d ia n Law to d a y , p u b lis h e d by th e B r i t i s h I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t io n a l and Com parative Law, London, a t p . 1.
^ S e c t io n s 13 (2) and 17 o f th e Hindu M arriage A c t, 1955'*
5S . 1 0 (1) (g ) ( i ) ( i i ) o f th e Hindu M arriage and D iv o rce O rd in an ce, I9 60 (K en ya),
^S. 9 (1) (b ) ( i ) ( i i ) o f th e Hindu M arriage and D iv o rce O rd in an ce, 1961 (U ganda).
f in d o u t th e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s between th e two l e g a l sy ste m s, and w hether th e l e g i s l a t i o n h as made a llo w a n ce fo r th e d is c r e p a n c ie s which a re l i k e l y to occu r when th e E n g lis h law i s ad ap ted to Hindu s o c ie t y * T h is stu d y i s c o n fin e d to th e grounds fo r d iv o r c e , but th e f o llo w in g two c h a p te r s , which d e a l w ith th e
i n s t i t u t i o n o f m arriage i n E n g lis h and Hindu law in g e n e r a l w i l l f a c i l i t a t e com prehension o f th e problem s which are c r e a te d by th e s t a t u t e and which are d is c u s s e d in th e rem ain in g c h a p te r s .
■ 12
CHAPTER I I
THE INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE AflP THE PRE-STATUTORY HINDU LAW OF DIVORCE
1 . THE NATURE OF HINDU MARRIAGE
In Hindu law , th a t i s to say i n the d h a r m a -sa stra o r
’o rth o d o x1 j u r id i c a l thoery o f I n d ia , m arriage ( v iv a h a ) was one o f th e t e n samskaras n e c e ssa r y f o r men o f th e tw ic e born c l a s s e s and th e o n ly V edic sacrament f o r women# As i n canon la w and m oral : t h e o lo g y matrimonium i s t r e a t e d under sa cra m en ta , so i n Hindu law v iv a h a i s n ot tr e a t e d under raavah ara ( l i t i g a t i o n ) but under
sam skara. A samskara i s a sacram ent or a p u r i f i c a t o r y a c t . M arriage i s c o n sid er ed sacred because i t i s s a id t o be co m p lete o n ly on th e perform ance o f th e sacred r i t e s a tten d ed w ith s a c r e d p r o c e d u r e . T h is
g iv e s r i s e to th e s t a t u s o f w ifeh ood and i t s perform ance can n ot be an n u lled by th e f a c t th a t th e husband o r w if e l a p s e s from
. . . . P
v i r t u e , i . e . , by com m itting a d u lter y #
I t i s alm ost im p o s s ib le to d e fin e m arriage i n l e g a l term s b ut th e s a s t r i c concept o f m arriage would seem t o be a s a u n io n betw een a man and a woman which a r i s e s a t th e tim e When th e cdremony o f m arriage ( i . e . , samskara) h a s been com p leted , th e b ridegroom h a v in g
th e r e q u i s i t e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r ta k in g a g i r l i n m arriage and th e b r id e th e q u a li f ic a t i o n s f o r b ein g g iv en i n m a rria g e, and t h i s
p rocedu re having been com pleted b efo re the n u p t i a l f i r e . M arriage i s*
1 ~
Kanu I I , 6 7 -6 8 , P. Max M u lle r, Sacred Books o f th e E a s t , v o l . 25; K.M. Kapadia, Marriage and F am ily i n I n d ia . O .U .P .. 1959* P* 168 S .V . Gupte, Hindu Law o f M arriage, Bombay, 1 9 6 1 , p . 6; K. S r in iv a s a I y e n g a r , “Powers o f the Managing Member o f a H ita k sh a r a J o in t Hindu F am ily” (1 9 0 5) 15 M .I.J * , J o u r n a l, 211 a t p* 22if.
2P .V . Kane, H is t o r y o f Dfaarmasastra. P oona. 19*fl, v o l . I I , p a r t I , p . 620; Bwarka Hath H i t t e r , The P o s it io n o f Women i n Hindu Law.
C a lc u t ta , 1913, P« 1 95.
^J.D.M. D e r r e tt, Hindu Law P a st and P r e s e n t r C a lc u t t a , 1 9 5 7 , p . 8 6#
wt
a sacram ental r i t e , which i s perform ed f o r tlie g i r l f o r t h e p u rp ose o f making her a w ife and i s marked by th e h o ld in g o f h a n d s, a lo n g w ith i t s e n tir e procedure amd s u b s id ia r y d e t a i l s * I t g i v e s th e s t a t u s o f husband and w ife to th e m arried couple* The m antras u sed i n th e ceremony o f wedding c r e a t e a w i f e . The sacram ent becom es com p lete by th e u se o f th ose m antras, As r e g a r d s the m arriage o f a S ud ra. th e r e a re no mantras but o th e r r i t e s ap p ly e x c lu d in g th e m antras?
2* THE PURPOSE OF THE SMSKARAS
The ex a ct purpose o f samskara^ was l e f t r a t h e r vagu e i n our a u t h o r it ie s * A c r i t i c a l lo o k a t th e l i s t o f sam skaras w i l l r e v e a l t h a t t h e i r purposes were m an ifold * A ccord in g to a n c ie n t Hindu
r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f man was surrounded by superhuman i n f l u e n c e s w hich were pow erful fo r good or e v i l consequences* These i n f l u e n c e s c o u ld i n t e r f e r e in every im p ortan t o c c a s io n in m an's l i f e * T h e r e fo r e , t h e H indus t r ie d to remove h o s t i l e I n f lu e n c e s and a t t r a c t b e n e f i c i a l o n e s , so th a t man might grow and prosper w ith o u t e x t e r n a l h in d r a n c e s and r e c e iv e tim e ly d i r e c t i o n s and h e lp from gods and s p i r i t s .
A nother purpose o f th e eapis'karas was the a tta in m e n t o f heaven* I t had a l s o a p s y c h o lo g ic a l v a l u e , im p r e s s in g o»n th e mind o f t h e p e r so n concerned th a t he had assumed a new r o l e and must s t r i v e to o b se r v e i t s r u l e s . The V ivaha-sam skara c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y i n an a c c e p ta n c e , w hich produces th e m en tal im p r e ssio n th a t t h i s g i r l i s th e m an's
w if e , and w ifehood a r i s e s from her h a v in g undergone th e sam skara.
^ H edh atith i on Hamu. XX* M anu-Sm rlti t r a n s la t e d by <*♦ J h a , v o l . I I , p a r t I , C a lc u tta , 1921» P* 43*
^M edhatithi on Mann, The P r in c i p l e s o f Hindu Law - The
Commentaries t r a n s la t e d by J*C* Ghosie, v o l . I I > C a lc u t t a , 1 9 1 7 ,
p* 46; s e e a ls o J*D*H. D e r r e t t , "The D is c u s s io n o f M arriage by i Qadadharfi11. The Adyar L ib rary B u l l e t i n C 19 6 3 ', v o l . XXVII, p* 1 7 1 a t 1 8 7 .
®P.V. Kane, H isto r y o f Dharm asastra- v o l . I I , p a r t I , p . 1 9 2 ; R .B . Pandey, Hindu Sams k a r a s . Banar&s, 1949* c h . I l l , p p . 4 ° - 4 1 ; K .V. Rangaswami AiyaiLgar, A sp e c ts o f th e S o c ia l and P o l i t i c a l
System o f K a n u sa r ltl. Lucknow lP n lv e r s lty , 1 9 4 9, p p . 8 4- 8 6;
K.V. Rangaswami A iyan gar, Some A sp e c ts o f t h e Hindu View o f L i f e a cco rd in g to Dharma.sastra. Bar©da, 1 9 5 2 , p p . 1 2 9 -1 3 6 ;
J .R . Gharpure, Hindu la w . Bombay, 1 9 3 1 , p . 6 2 .
I k w hich I t s e l f c o u ld n o t o cc u r but f o r th e m arriage?
D u rin g th e 0 f m arriage a bridegroom I s s a id to be an a c t i v e r e c e i v e r o f t h e b r id e , who I s ta k e n by him and g iv e n by h er f a t h e r o r o th e r g u a r d ia n . From th e g a s t r i c p o in t o f view th e
r e l i g i o u s a s p e c t o f m arriage was so h ig h ly r a t e d t h a t a f a t h e r was su p p osed t o be under a s a c r e d d u ty t o g iv e h i s d au gh ter i n m arriage
o
a t th e a p p r o p r ia te a g e , n e g l e c t o f w hich d u ty was reg a rd ed a s a s i n . A c r i t i c a l lo o k a t t h e c o n c e p t o f Hindu g a s t r i e m arriage w i l l show
t h a t I t underwent ch a n g es from tim e to t im e . 3. MARRIAGE Hi THE TOPIC PERIOD
I t was a s im p le r e l i g i o u s ceremony c o n s i s t i n g o f g r a sp in g th e hand o f t h e b r id e by th e b rid egroom . The R igved a e n j o in s , "I ta k e th y hand f o r good f o r t u n e , t h a t th o u m ayest a t t a i n o ld age w ith me a s th y husband; th e god s have g iv e n t h e e t o me t h a t I may be th e m a ster o f th e h o u s e h o ld .
MARPTAflE jjj THE SUTRA PERIOD
The p ro ced u re o f m a rria g e became com plex d u r in g th e s u tr a p e r io d . The b rid egroom was t o l e a d th e b r id e t h r e e tim e s round th e n u p t i a l f i r e , and t h e ceremony w as co m p leted on t a k in g th e se v en s t e p s by t h e c o u p le . The w if e was shown t h e P o le S t a r , w hich was
• 10
sy m b o lic o f th e f a c t o f h er s t a b i l i t y In h e r h u sb a n d 's home.
D e r r e t t , "The D le c u a a lo n o f K a r r la r e bv Gadadhara". The Adyar L ib r a r y B u l l e t i n , 1963* v o l . XXVII, a t p . 1 8 0.
®Gautama XVIII 2 1 - 2 3 , S .B .E . v o l . I I * Manu IX, S .B .E ., v o l . 25; V a s is h th a X V II, 7 0, S .B .E ., v o l . I k ( t h e d e t a i l s o f t h i s o r th o d o x j u r i d i c a l th e o r y a r e beyond th e sco p e o f t h i s t h e s i s ) .
^R ig-V eda X# 8 5 , 36 In S .B .E ., v o l . 3 0 , p . 189; A tharva-V eda XIV„ I . 4 9 -5 ° * R*T.H. G r i f f i t h , The Hymns o f th e A tharva-V eda,
v o l . I I , B en a ra s, 1 9 1 7 , p . 1 6 9 .
1 0P a r a sk a r a -G r ih y a -S u tr a i n S . B . E . , v o l . 2 9 , O xford, 1 8 8 6 , pp. 283» 2 8 5 ; O r ih y a -S u tr a o f H ir a n y a k e s ln In S .B .E ., v o l . 3°»
p . 1915 X h a d ir a -G r ih y a -S u tr a i n S .B . E . , v o l . 29> p . 38^; soo a ls o Ben-Gupta., E v o lu t io n o f A n c ie n t I n d ia n Lqw. London, 1953» P*
1 1 9 ; A .S . A lt e k a r , The P o s i t i o n o f Woman i n Hindu C i v i l i s a t i o n .
B e n a r a s, 1 9 5 6 , p . 8 0 ; P .H . P rab hu , Hindu S o c i a l O r g a n is a tio n . Bombay, 1 9 5 8 , p . 1 6 7 .
D uring t h i s p e r io d we m eet w ith v a r io u s form s o f m a r r ia g e ^ e i g h t o f w hich w i l l he b r i e f l y d e a l t w it h below*
The g i f t o f a d a u g h te r, a f t e r d e c k in g h er w ith c o s t l y
garm ents and h o n o u rin g h er by p r e s e n t s o f j e w e ls , t o a man le a r n e d i n t h e Vedas and o f good c o n d u c t, whom th e f a t h e r h im s e lf i n v i t e s , i s c a l l e d th e Brahma r i t e * M e d h a tith i i p on Manu XXVII comments t h a t t h e r e i s n o th in g to i n d i c a t e t h e c o n n e c tio n o f s p e c i a l d r e s s in g w ith e i t h e r t h e b r id e o n ly o r w ith th e b ridegroom o n ly ; h en ce th e y sh o u ld be ta k e n a s r e l a t i n g to both# T h is seem s to be th e c o r r e c t v ie w , b e c a u se i n p r a c t i c e even tod ay b oth th e b r id e and th e bridegroom a re s p e c i a l l y d r e s s e d and adorned f o r th e wedding*
( i i ) The D aiva
T h is was a g i f t o f a d au gh ter whom h er f a t h e r had
b e a u t i f u l l y c lo th e d when t h e s a c r i f i c e had a lr e a d y begun, to th e o f f i c i a t i n g p r i e s t , who perform ed t h a t a c t o f r e l i g i o n *
( i l l ) The A rsha
When th e f a t h e r gave aw^y h i s d au gh ter a c c o r d in g to th e r u l e , a f t e r r e c e i v i n g from t h e b rid egroom , f o r th e f u l f i l m e n t o f th e s a c r e d la w , a cow and a b u l l o r two p a i r s , t h a t m arriage was term ed t h e A rsh a* On th e f a c e o f t h i s t e x t i t ap p ears t h a t t h e ta k in g o f th e c o n s id e r a t io n from th e bridegroom ren d ered t h i s form i n f e r i o r t o t h e above two and t h e P r a la o a ty a below* But t h i s i s d o u b tf u l, fo r
M e d h a t it h i^ on Manu I I I , 29 comments t h a t such r e c e i v i n g o f th a c a t t l e by t h e f a t h e r was done i n o b e d ie n c e t o la w , and n o t w ith th e
^ A p astam b a I I . 3 . 1 1 , 1 7 - 2 0 , S .B .E ., v o l* 2; Gautama IV , 6 - 1 3 , S .B .E * , v o l* 2 ; Manu I I I , 2 7 - 3 4 , S .B .E ., Vo l* 25; JIarada X I I , 3 8 -4 3 , S*B*E*, v o l* 33; V ishnu XXIV, 1 8 - 2 6 , S .B .E * , v o l . 7; Dwarka Hath
M i t t e r , The P o s i t i o n o f Women i n Hindu Law* t>t>* 2 1 0 -2 1 6 ; G* B a n e r je e , The_Hindu Law o f M arriage and S trld h an a* C a lc u tta * 1 9 2 3 , P* 8 6;
K*P* J a y a sw a l* Menu and Ya.imavalkya. C a lc u t t a , 193&, PP. 2 3 6 -2 4 0 ; V.M* A p te, S o c ia l and R e li g io u s L i f e i n G rihya S u tras* Bombay, 1 9 3 4 , pp* 2 0-2 1*
^ M e d h a t it h i on Manu, I I I , 2 7 t r a n s la t e d by G* J h a , H a n u -S m r iti.
v o l* I I , p a r t I , C a lc u t t a , 1 9 2 1, p* 5 1 .
^ ^ M ed h atith i on Manu, I I I , 2 9 , i b i d . , p* 35*
i d e a o f r e c e i v i n g i t i n exchange f o r th e p r ic e o f th e g ir l*
( i v ) The P r a la o a ty a
When t h e f a t h e r gave away h i s d augh ter w it h honour s a y in g d i s t i n c t l y , ^ a y h o th o f you perform t o g e t h e r your c i v i l and
r e l i g i o u s d u t i e s * H A gain M e d h a tith i^ comments t h a t th e form u la i m p l i e s t h e c o n d it io n th a t th e daughter i s t o he g iv e n t o th e
bridegroom o n ly i f h e f u l f i l l s h i s d u ty , p r o p e r ty and p le a s u r e a lo n g w ith her* T h e r e fo r e , t h i s form was regard ed a s i n f e r i o r by r e a so n o f t h i s c o n d itio n * Ludwick S tern b ach , 15 whose stu d y i s b ased on th e D harm agastra- A r th a s a g tr a - Kamasutra. G r ih y a -S u tra s and th e
M ahabharata. c o n c lu d e s t h a t when th e form s o f m arriage a re c l o s e l y exam ined t h e r e e x i s t e d i n a n c ie n t In d ia n o t e i g h t b u t e le v e n form s o f m arriage* The d if f e r e n c e between th e P r a la o a ty a and t h e Brahnya i s t h a t t h e b rid egroom i n th e former i s th e s u i t o r , i * e * , he h a s s o l i c i t e d t h e g i r l , and i s n o t in v it e d by th e f a t h e r o f th e b rid e*
He i s an a p p lic a n t f o r th e b r i d e * h a n d , and t h i s makes i t i n f e r i o r t o th e Brahma form , where th e bridegroom i s v o l u n t a r i l y and
r e s p e c t f u l l y i n v i t e d by th e fa th e r o f th e b r id e t o a c c e p t h i s
daughter* AHirtdu m a rria g e, b e in g a g i f t o f t h e b r id e , l o s e s a p a r t o f i t s m erit i f i t i s n o t v o lu n ta ry o r w i l f u l , b u t h a s to be a p p lie d fo r *
The P r a la o a tv a was probably used o n ly f o r a mono gamic
m arriage and t h e husband could n o t renounce h i s w if e and ta k e to th e o rd er o f « a » a v a m o r vanaorafltha w ith o u t h e r c o n s e n t o r h e r company*
I n f a c t t h e Brahma was o r i g i n a l l y I d e n t i c a l w it h t h e P r a la o a t y a .
b e c a u se Apastamba and V anishtha do n o t m ention Pra.1aoat.ya a t a l l * The P r a la o a t y a was added l a t e r , t h e r e f o r e , th e S m r iti w r it e r s f a i l t o
b r in g o u t t h e d if f e r e n c e between th e t w o ^ P r a la o a ty a i s th e secon d
^ M e d h a t it h i on Hanu I I I , 3 ° t r a n s la t e d by G* J h a , H a n u -S m riti.
v o l* I I , p a r t I , pp* 55- 5 6*
1 ^Ludwick S te r n b a c h , J f t r id lc a l,S t u d ie s i n A n c ie n t In d ia n Law.
D e lh i, 19 6 5 , p a r t i , p p . 347-348, 3 7 5 -3 7 6 .
■^A.S. A lte k a r , The P o s it io n o f women i n Hindu C i v i l i s a t i o n . P P . 46-2*7*
b e s t and approved form* ‘ As i n th e Brahma form 1 7 bo i n th e P r a la p a tv a o n e th e bridegroom i s i n v i t e d and h on ou rab ly r e c e iv e d by th e f a t h e r o f th e b r i d e ^
( v ) The Asura
The bridegroom h a v in g g iv e n as: much w e a lth a s he cou ld a f fo r d t o th e fa th e r * p a t e r n a l kinsman and t o th e g i r l h e r s e l f to o k h er a s h i s b rid e* T h is b e in g a s a l e o f th e b r id e was regard ed a s a b ase form o f m arriage and was p r o h ib it e d by Manu* 1 9 T h is form was
r e c o g n is e d by th e A nglo-H indu law* In K a ila sa n a th a v . P s r a s a k t h i 70 i t was h a ld t h a t th e d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e o f th e Agnra form o f m arriage i s th e g iv in g o f money or money*s w orth to th e b r id e * s f a t h e r f o r h is b e n e f i t o r a s c o n s id e r a t io n f o r h i s g iv in g th e g i r l i n m arriage*
However* a c o u r te s y or com plim entary p r e s e n t g iv e n to th e b r id e o r h er f a m ily h as t o be d is t in g u is h e d from b r id e - p r ic e * 21 M0n e y p a id by t h e bridegroom f o r th e s p e c e f i c purpose o f making J e w e lle r y f o r th e b r id e i s n o t b r id e - p r ic e and d o es n o t make th e m arriage an A£U£a one* pp How a f t e r In d ia n Independence th e w hole s i t u a t i o n was re v iew e d by t h e Supreme C0u r tf^ w hich h e ld t h a t th e Asura i s an unapproved forxm o f m arriage and th e t e s t o f i t i s t h a t t h e r e s hal l be n o t o n ly b e n e f i t to th e b r i d e ' s fa th e r * but t h a t b e n e f i t s h a l l form a
c o n s id e r a t io n f o r th e s a l e o f th e b rid e*
^B au d h ayan a I * I I * 20^ 3, S*B*E** v o l* 14? Gautama IV^ 7* v o l* 2*
^ H a r a d a XII* 4 0* S#B#E**, v o l* 33*
19Manu I I I * 51* S*B*E» * v o l* 25* *o r a c r i t i c a l stu d y o f th e Afftira s e e J* Gonda, " R e f le c t io n s on th e ,A r s a and, Asura form g-O f * - M arria g e" r Sgriroa^B haratl e d it e d by d*H* Agrawal and B*D* S h a s t r i , H oshiarpur* 1954* P* 223 f f *
v* PflMFtakthi A*I*R* 1935 Had* 740? s e e a ls o A n th ik e sa v u lu v* Ramanujam (1 9O9) 52 Mad* 512 ( t o th e same e f f e c t ) ; Rntnatham i v* Somasurdra* A.I*R* 1 9 2 1 Mad* 608 (th e r e must be an
elem en t o f m a te r ia l b e n e f i t to th e b r i d e ' s p a ren ts);; S ^ iu v* Anasl&t A*I*R* 19 2 6 Mad* 37*
^ S iv a n agalin gam v* Amt&layana* A.I*R* 1938 Mad* 479*
2 2V ela.yutha v* Su ryam urth i* A*I,R* 1 9 4 2 Mad* 219*
^ V e eraupg v* M ic h a e ls A*I*R. 1 9 6 3 S*C* 9 3 3; s e e a ls o comments b^
S*S* Ni-gam* 11 Annual Survey - Hindu Lawrt (1 9 6 4 ) 6 «T*I*L*I* a t p*
548 f f *
18
( v i ) The Gg.ndhe.rva
T h is was a m arriage a r i s in g ou t o f m utual d e s i r e o f a man and a woman, and can be compared w ith th e modern l o v e m arriage* I t was e n jo in e d by th e s a s t r a t h a t a Brahmana co u ld c o n t r a c t a m arriage l e g i t i m a t e l y i n one o f th e f i r s t fou r forms?** However, i n p r a c t i c e a t l e a s t a cc o rd in g to th e M ith ila School o f la w t h e Gandharva was r e c o g n is e d amongst th e Brahmins?^ In Bhaoni v . Mahara ^the t i h -rv^
was eq u ated w ith concubinage* I t was h eld t h a t t h i s form had become o b s o l e t e a s a form o f m arriage g iv in g the s t a t u s o f w if e and making th e i s s u e le g it im a t e * T h is c a se i s u n lik e ly to be f o llo w e d i n v ie w o f t h e Hindu M arriage A c t, 1955 and ch an ging p u b lic o p in io n , which t e n d s to encourage grown up p erso n s to make t h e i r own d e c i s io n i n th e c h o ic e o f t h e i r l i f e p a r tn e r s .
( v i i ) The Rakshasp.
T h is was a m arriage by s e iz u r e o f a g i r l by f o r c e from h er h ou se w h ile she wept and c a l le d f o r a s s i s t a n c e , a f t e r h er kinsm en and f r i e n d s had been s la i n i n b a t t l e or wounded and t h e i r h o u se s broken open*
( v i i i ) The P a is? c h a
Where th e s u it o r s e c r e t l y seduced t h e g i r l w h ile she was a s le e p or drunk or d iso rd er ed i n i n t e l l e c t t h a t s i n f u l m arriage was c a l l e d P a lsa c h a > T h is i s th e e ig h th and th e b a s e s t *
The f i r s t fou r m arriages are regarded a s t!approvedtf m a r r ia g e s.
I t was a Hindu r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f th a t sons born o f t h e s e m a rria g es w ere r a d ia n t w ith knowledge o f th e Vedas and were honoured by good men. Having t h e s e q u a l i t i e s o f beauty and g o o d n e ss, p o s s e s s in g
w e a lth and fam e, o b ta in in g a s many enjoym ents a s th e y d e s ir e and * : ’ •/.
b e in g most r ig h t e o u s , th ey would l i v e a hundred y e a r s* The re m a in in g 21>Vlshnu XXIV, 2 7, S .B .E ., v o l . 7 .
2%amani D evi v . Kameshvar (1 9 4 6) 25 P a t . 5 8 ( a e a s e which c o n t a in s some anomalous p r o p o s it io n s beyond t h e sc o p e o f t h i s t h e s i s ) *
^^Bhaoni v> Mahara.1 ( l88l ) 3 AH* 733;; s e e a l s o M.L* J a in ,
"V a l id it y o f Hindu Ma r r ia g e Solem nised wifthout p erfo rm in g any Customary R itu a l or Ceremony11 A .I .R . 196lr, J o u r n a l, p* 8^ .
fo u r a r e regarded a s hlame w orthy, from which s p r in g s o n s who a re
c r u e l and l i a r s , who h a te th e Vedas and th e sa c r e d }aw?^ Rakshapa and P a is a c h a r which were condemned by Manu a s b ase and s in f u lf ^ h o w e v e r d id n o t l e g a l i s e f o r c e o r frau d a s th e m arriage ceremony had i n
th e o r y to b e perform ed w ith sa cred r i t e s f ^ w ith o u t which th e m a r ita l r e l a t i o n s h i p did n o t a r is e * T h e ir r e c o g n it io n can be j u s t i f i e d on th e ground th a t th e y e x i s t e d i n ord er to v a lid a t e th e c ir c u m sta n c e s o f w hich th e u n fo rtu n a te woman was th e v ic tim * The J u r i s t s were
con cern ed w ith th e r e s u l t s flo w in g from th e c ir c u m sta n c e s p r e c e d in g th e m arriage and c l a s s i f i e d th o s e circu m sta n ce s a c c o r d in g ly ♦
A cco rd in g to th e s a s t r a i n f e r i o r forms o f m a r r ia g e , n am ely, Asurftr Rakshasa and P a isa c h a do n o t in v o lv e a change o f th e g o tr a o f t h e b r id e , 30 which i s an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e ceremony o f th e V ed ic m a rria g e, b ecau se i n such forms th e r e i s no v o lu n ta r y g i f t o f
th e b r id e by her f a t h e r to th e bridegroom* Approved form s were meant f o r Brahmant^ 31 who were an Im portant c a s te * A cco rd in g to Manu th e f i r s t s i x form s o f m arriage were la w fu l fo r a Brahman a . t h e fo u r l a s t f o r a & ih a tr iy a r and th e same f o u r , e x c e p tin g th e R ak sh asa. f o r a
and a Sudra, The s i g n if ic a n c e o f th e approved and unapproved form s o f m arriage was th a t i t determ ined th e d e v o lu t io n o f a w om ans p r o p e r ty on her d eath . In th e form er th e husband and h i s f a m ily , w h ile i n th e l a t t e r th e fa th e r and h i s fa m ily su c c e e d to h er
^M anu I I I , 39-41*
28Maim XXI, 3> 3 4.
pqV a sish th a XVII, 73* S.B*E*, v o l* 14; s e e a l s o J*D* Mayne, A T r e a t is e on Hindu Law and U sage, Madras, 1 1th* e d * , 1 9 3 0 , pp* 123*
1 2 7 -1 2 8 ; P*H* Sen, T h e G e n e r a l P r in c i p l e s o f Hindu J u r isp r u d e n c e . C a lc u t t a , 1 9 1 8 , pp* 269-270*
30- ^ v iv a d a Tamdava t r a n s la t e d by J.C* Ghose, The P r i n c i p l e s o f Hindu Law; The Commentaries, v o l* I I , C a lc u tta , 1 9 1 7 , p* 1142*
^ V is h a u XXXV, 2 7, S .B .E ., v o l . 7.
^2Manu XIX, 2 3, S .B .E ., v o l . 2 5 .
20
S tr id h a n a . 33 Where a woman was m arried in th e unapproved form s, h er death, cerem on ies were to be perform ed by a member o f th e g o t r a o f h er f a t h e r , w hereas i n ca se o f th e approved m a rria g e, th e y m ight be
perform ed e it h e r by h er h usb an d's g o tra or h er f a t h e r * s . The r e a so n f o r t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n seems to be that: approved m a rria g es were
a u th o r is e d by th e f a m il ie s o f th e cou p le co n cern ed , w h ile th e
unapproved were c o n tr a c te d a g a in s t th e w ish o f f a m ily o f t h e woman co n cern ed , i f we r e s e r v e th e c a s e o f th e Asura m a r r ia g e , w hich o r i g i n a l l y d id n o t im ply a sacram en tal t r a n s f e r b u t o n ly a s a l e - s p i r i t u a l l y (s o th e s a s t r a seem s to im ply) sh e rem ained a member o f h er n a t a l g o tr a - That i s why she r e ta in e d th e g o tr a o f h er f a t h e r .
I f we lo o k c r i t i c a l l y a t th e above m entioned e i g h t form s o f
m a rria g e, i t w i l l be e v id e n t t h a t th ey were a mere e la b o r a t io n o f th e c o n ce p t o f m arriage ( v iv a h a ) - They took account o f l o c a l custom and u sa g e , which were d e v e lo p in g a lo n g s id e the s a s t r a . A su rv ey o f th e dharm a-sastrae T s m r i t i s . Kibandhaa and th e Commentaries w i l l prove t h a t Hindu law was n ever s t a t i c , but was m o d ifie d by th e p r a c t i c e o f th e tim e to s u i t th e J u st demands o f th e p e o p le - W ith th e ad ven t o f th e B r i t i s h r u l e , th e a n c ie n t so u r c e s o f Hindu Law began to be
m o d ifie d by j u d i c i a l d e c is io n s and l e g i s l a t i v e e n a c tm e n ts, w h ile Hindu s o c i e t y assumed a new ch a ra c te r because o f i t s c o n t a c t w it h th e
W estern e d u c a tio n , c i v i l i s a t i o n , economic and s c i e n t i f i c p r o g r e ss? *
^ B a ra d a X I I I , 9, S .B .E ., v o l . 33; Moosa v . H a ll (1 9 0 6 ) 30 Bom.
1 97; s e e a ls o S urind er S in g h , "The Hindu Law o f M a r ria g e: Old and
Hew" . The Law R eview , Pan jab U n iv e r s ity Law C o lle g e (19 6 5) > v o l . XVII, 24 a t p p. 111-112; P.W. R ege, "The Development o f Womqift* 3 P ro p a rtv in I n d ia " i n L egal E ssa y s - I by T.K. Tope, Bombay (1 9 6 1 -1 96 2) 46 a t PP. W -5 0.
^M.K* Lakshm ipathi C h e tty , "A Survey o f th e Hindu Code B i l l "
(1953) 1 ° 5 H .L .J ., J o u r n a l, p . 1 f f . ; U.C. S a rk a r, "Hindu Law: I t s C haracter and^ E v o lu tio n " , The Law Review, Pan ja b U n iv e r s it y Law : C o lle g e (1965)» v o l . XVII, 1 a t p p . 3 , 16-175 J.D .M . D e r r e t t , Hindu
> PP. 4 2 -4 3 .
In f a c t th e Hindu M arriage A ct, 1955 i s th e r e s u l t o f th e in f l u e n c e w hich had s t a r t e d i n th e B r it is h period* Thus t h e dharma- s a s t r a * s c o n ta c t w ith a c t u a l u sa g e, though som etim es d i f f i c u l t t o t r a c e , h a s b e e n , i n p r a c t i c e , continuous*
A ccord ing to K a u tily a , whose A rth a sa str q ( a p red o m in a n tly s e c u la r b o o k ), r e f l e c t s p r a c t ic a l u s a g e s , th e r e can be no d iv o r c e i n c a s e th e m arriage i s c o n tr a c te d i n one o f th e approved form s. But i f th e
m arriage i s i n an unapproved form, then i t can be d i s s o l v e d by m utual c o n s e n t , i f b o th have come to h ate each oth er* There can be no r e l e a s e a t th e in s t a n c e o f o n ly one p arty to th e m arriage who h a s begun to f e e l a v e r s io n to th e o th e r p a rty i n whatever form th e m arriage may have been performed* K a u tily a a c t u a lly s a y s amokso d h a r m a - v i a m
"The law d oes n o t a llo w th e d is s o lu t io n o f m arriage b etw een sp o u s e s who have undergone a dharmic xiYflha* 36 ^he f i r s t fo u r m a rria g es a re dharmva* i . e . , con n ected w ith r ig h t e o u s n e s s , b eca u se th e y a re b rou gh t about under th e a u th o r ity o f th e fath er* Such m a rria g es do no adm it d iv o r c e .
6. NUPTIAL CEREMONIES
A ccording to th e p la in s m r it i t e x t s m a rr ia g e s i n th e unapproved form s do n o t r e q u ir e th e perform ance o f th e r e l i g i o u s cerem ony, but th e s a s t r i c law a s a p p lie d by th e c o u r ts d u r in g th e B r i t i s h p e r io d i n I n d ia h e ld t h a t su ch ceremony was e s s e n t i a l f o r th e v a l i d i t y o f th e m arriage* 37 T h is i s so even i n modern Hindu Law* I t was h e ld i n D e iv a ^ i v* Chidambaram^ th a t th e r e a re two e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts to c o n s t i t u t e38
^ K a u t ily a I I I , 3» 15-19> K.P* K angle, The K a u tily a A rtfrasagtra*
P a rt I I , U n iv e r s ity o f Bombay, 1963; P*V. K ane, H is to r y o f
PJtegfflflfiflg.tra* v o l* I I , p a r t I , pp* 621- 6 2 2; S*R. S a s t r i , Women i n Sacred Laws. I9 3O, p* k9.
^^K autilya I I I , 3 , 1 9 , t r a n s la t e d by J.D .M . D e r r e t t . T h is
t r a n s l a t i o n d i f f e r s s l i g h t l y from th a t o f H.P* K a n g le , Bombay, 1963 ( " t h e r e i s no d iv o r c e i n p io u s m arriages11) *
^ P rlB g a y g a a V* Kadhaaant (1 8 9 9) 2 2 Had* 7 2*
3°D sivan t v . Chidambaram A .I .E . 1 9 5 4 Had* 657; f o llo w e d lit Kunta v* S j r i Ram A *I*5* 1963 P u n j. 235; se e a ls o Avodhva v* S h a n ti I*L.R*
1963 Madh* Pr* 917 (where th e v a l i d i t y o f th e m arriage i t s e l f i s i n d is p u t e , th e perform ance o f th e n ec e ssa r y r i t e s and ce re m o n ies h as to be proved)*
z z a v a l i d m arriage, v i z , a s e c u la r elem en t, which i s th e g i f t o f th e b r id e i n th e fo u r form s, th e tr a n sfe r e n c e o f dom inion f o r
c o n s id e r a t io n i n th e Asura form , or mutual c o n se n t o f th e sp o u s e s i n t h e Gandharva form* These must be supplem ented by th e a c t u a l
p erform ance o f m arriage by g o in g through th e form s p r e s c r ib e d by th e G rihya—S u tr a s . o f which th e e s s e n t i a l elem en ts a r e ’-nanigrahana1
( j o i n i n g o f hands o f th e b rid e and th e bridegroom ) and *s a u ta n a d i*
( t a k in g o f seven s t e p s by th e b r id a l c o u p le ) . In t h e c a s e o f R akshasa
f \ I ; 1 l k e . f i' S I k V v o J i r n I V m c S )
and P a is a c h a form s a l s o , th e r e should be a m arriage ceremony
p r e s c r ib e d by th e s a s t r a s . In Bhaurao v . S t a t e o f Ma h a r a sh tr a39 i t w as l a i d down th a t so le m n isa tio n o f th e m arriage w it h p ro p er r i t e s and cerem o n ies was e s s e n t i a l i n th e Gandharva 1 form *, S im ila r ly i t was r e c e n t l y h e ld by th e Supreme Court**0 in a c a se o f bigamy t h a t i n o rd er t o p rove th e v a l i d i t y o f th e second m arriage i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p rove t h a t t h e e s s e n t i a l n u p tia l cerem onies were p erform ed .
The perform ance o f r i t e s and cerem on ies a c c o r d in g t o r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s ( e » g , , sa u ta u a d i) or a cco rd in g to custom and u sa g e h a s been p r e s e r v e d by th e Hindu Marriage A ct, 1 9 5 5 ^ The modern la w h a s been d ev elo p e d i n such a way a s to show th a t th e ceremony though v i t a l to th e r e l i g i o u d purpose i s no lo n g e r v i t a l to th e w orking o f th e
s e c u la r r ig h t s * Thus where a man and woman l i v e a s husband and w if e and have c h ild r e n who a re r e c o g n ise d a s such by t h e i r community by th e custom th e r i g h t s o f th e sp ou ses and t h e ir c h ild r e n w i l l n o t be
d e str o y e d m erely by som eone's a tte m p tin g to b r in g f o r t h e v id e n c e t h a t n o cerem on ies o f m arriage were performed on th e c o u p le ?42
Whether or n o t su ch cerem onies are e s s e n t i a l , t h e i r
n on-perform ance or wrong performance can be ex c u sed under c e r t a i n
^ B h au rao v . S ta te o f Maharashtra A .I .R , 1 9 6 5 1564*
**°Kanwal v . A d m in istra tio n A ,I ,R , 1966 S ,C # 6 1 4 ; s e e a l s o P han k ari v , th e Stafte A .I.R * 1965 J* & 1 ° 5 ( to th e same e f f e c t ) .
7 ( l ) (2) o f th e Hindu Marriage A c t , 1955; M athur,
"V a lid it y o f Hindu M arriage s o l emn! aed w ith o u t p erfo rm in g any , Customary R itu a l or Ceremony". A .I .R , 1 9 6 2 , J o u r n a l, p , 27*
^ S h i v a lin g ia h v . Cfrowdamqfl A .I.R . 1 9 5 6 Mys* 1 7 ; M u lla , P r in c ip le s .o f _ H in d u haw. Bombay, 1 96 0 , p p . 6 1 5 -6 1 6 , 8 0 7; s e e a ls o Rewara v* Ramratan A .I .R . 1963 Madh, Pr* 1 6 0.
c ir c u m sta n c e s by th e d o c tr in e o f factum v a l e t . e * g * , where th e sa n ta n a d i ( ta k in g o f seven s t e p s ) i s n o t com p leted b eca u se o f an a c c id e n t a l f i r e or some o th e r m ish aps, th e v a l i d i t y o f su ch a m arriage cannot be u p se t su b seq u en tly* At a l l e v e n t s , i n o r d e r to
p rove any m arriage i t i s n o t n e c e sa r r y t h a t s a n ta n a d i sh o u ld be p r o v e # to have ta k en p la c e ; The presum ption th a t a v a l i d m arriage to o k
p la c e can be r a i s e d where i t i s e s t a b lis h e d t h a t th e m arriage was d u ly so le m n ise d b ut some u n e s s e n t ia l ceremony was n o t perform ed or th e r e was some d e f e c t i n t h e com p letion o f th e r i t e ^ Thus th e sa c ra m en ta l and s a s t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e Hindu m arriage so f a r a s th e
p erform ance o f th e r e l i g i o u s cerem on ies i s con cern ed i s s t i l l i n e x is t e n c e *
A ccord ing to th e s a s t r i c view th e s p i r i t u a l a s p e c t o f m arriage was so im p ortan t t h a t th e husband was s a id to have r e c e iv e d h i s w ife from t h e gods and n o t wedded h er a cco rd in g to h i s own w i l l , f o r he was d o in g what was a g r e e a b le to gods; The con sequ en ce o f m arriage was th a t man and woman became one p erso n , a s th e Veda e x p r e s s e s , "Her homes become i d e n t i f i e d w ith h i s homes, f l e s h w ith f l e s h , s k in w ith
s k i F r o m th e tim e o f th e m arriage, th e y are u n it e d i n body and mind a s w e l l a s i n r e l i g i o u s cerem o n ies;' As a r i v e r l o s e s i t s 4 7
i d e n t i t y by m erging i t s e l f in t o th e o ce a n , so a w if e was supposed to
^h.K.
P a r d e s i v . S u b balakshm i fLQ621 1 An.W.R. 9 1 ; J.D .M . D e r r e t t , In tr o d u c tio n to Modern. Hindu Law. 0 . 0 . P . , 1963* P* 1 6 6 .*^*P a r b ia v . Thopali. A .I .R . 1 9 6 6 Him. P r . 2 0 .
^ G r lh y a -S u tr a o f H ira n y a k esln , S .B .E ., v o l . 30* p p . 189-19® ; P a ra sk a ra -G r ib y a -S u tra , S .B .E ., v o l . 29* p . 282; Manu IX , 9 5, S .B .E ., v o l . 2 3 ; N.C. Sen-Gupta, E v o lu tio n o f A n cien t In d ia n Law. London, 1 9 5 3 , P. 9 1 .
^ a y a b h a g a c h . IV, s e c . I I , I k ; T a k a it Mon M obini v . Boftanta
Kumar (1 9OX) 28 C a l. 751 a t 7 58 ( th e u nion i s a sa c r e d t i e and ' . . s u b s i s t s even a f t e r th e d ea th o f th e h u sb an d ); P .H . Prabhu, Hindu
S o c ia l O r g a n is a tio n , pp. 1 7 2, 2 2 8 .
Apastamba U . £ . l i f , 1 6 , S .B .E ., v o l . 2 ; P r o f . In d r a , The
S ta t u s o f Women i n A n cien t I n d ia . B anaras, 1 9 3 5 , P . 82; K.M. K apadia, M arriage and FamiTv in I n d ia , p . 169; C la r is s e B ad er, Women i n A n c ien t
IffiH a, London, 1 9 2 5, p . 5 7 .
