MA Thesis Language Use in the Tibetan autonomous region

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MA Thesis

Language Use in the Tibetan autonomous region

Yu Liu S3635244

MA in Multilingualism Faculty of Liberal Arts University of Groningen

Supervisors:

Eva Juarros Daussà

Goffe Jensma

Date of submission: 28/06/2019 Words account: 1378

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Abstract

This thesis reports on a study that analyzes language identities, Lingua Franca and bilingual education implementation in the Tibet municipality. Drawing on the theory of linguistic diversity and Lingua Franca, the study focuses on how to balance the relationship between Putonghua and the Tibet language in the minority region” the Tibetan autonomous region” for national unity. The 10 participants, from the Tibetan autonomous region in China, were all university students who were all bilingual speakers but at different linguistic levels. They lived in different sociolinguistic contexts where Putonghua or Tibetan language dominates. Data were collected from former language policies, language laws and interviews. The analysis of the Tibetan language policy document revealed that linguistic diversity is foundation of national unity (Feng & Adamson, 2017). The study also uncovers practical function of standard language that plays an important role in defining the percentage and space for language policymaking in the Tibetan autonomous region. In other words, competence in Putonghua means more approaches and chances to better education and career resources. Bilingual education policy had been applied in The Tibetan autonomous region for many years but the percentage of Putonghua and the Tibetan language keeps changing. Therefore, it is necessary for policymakers to reexamine the status of the Tibetan language because the new tendency shows that more and more Tibetan people hope to work for the government.

Keywords

Language policy; minority region; multinational bilingual education; standard language;

Multilingual context

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1. Introduction

The impact of language policy and planning on people’s ideologies has been one of the significant arguments in LPP research area (Cooper, 1989; Shohamy, 2006). Different from usual Chinese provinces without autonomous regional language policy rights, the Tibet municipality can formulate local language policy. The Tibetan people have their national language-the Tibetan language. It is important to determine the status of the Tibetan language in the Tibetan language policies. Minority rights may be described as the cultural, linguistic, and wider social and political rights attributable to minority-group members within the context of nation-states (May 2006). In culturally diverse nations, language planning and policy inequality are maintained between majority and minority groups (James, 1991). In minority regions with their national languages, language policy and planning play an important role in national identity and equality.

So, minority language rights are useful to help minority people get national belonging. Language planning and policy affects speakers of regional and social varieties within the language. From this perspective, language planning and policy must consider the social, economic, political, and educational contexts in which groups with unequal power and resources contend with one another (Terrence, 2016). In order to achieve social equality from the language perspective, multilingualism and plurilingualism language policy are used in regions where inhabitants speak more than one standard language. language remains the ultimate barrier to aspirations of national harmonization (Freely, 2003).

In a multiethnic context, language policy stakeholders would have diverse backgrounds. They may also have different linguistic backgrounds. In the Tibetan autonomous region, the Tibetan language and Putonghua are both the daily languages. Therefore, policymakers in ethnolinguistic minority regions should more seriously balance the relationship between Putonghua, the Chinese term for Mandarin, and regional minority languages. Putonghua is based on the Beijing dialect as the standard variety, and the modern standard vernacular writing of the classic modern vernacular works as the grammatical standard.

The Tibetan autonomous region is the area whether lived people from different language background. The two languages assigned different values to the Tibetan people, but they are both important to the Tibetan people.

Putonghua is the modern standard Chinese language commonly used in the People's Republic of China.

Since the 20^th century, however, language policies in China have had a single aim: promotion of the national standard called Putonghua (Guo, 2004). The lingua franca “Putonghua” provides a medium for communication among minority nationalities other than the Han nation whose national language is Putonghua. The development of mass education in multicultural societies has often been at the expense of minority culture and ethnic identity (Bonnie & Nalini, 2000). Minority language status has been suppressed and destroyed to some extent under long-term nationwide Putonghua promotion. In 2000, the

"National General Language and Character Law of the People's Republic of China" was promulgated. The law legally determines the official status of Putonghua in the country. For example, state agencies, schools, and other educational institutions should use Putonghua; radio stations and television stations use Putonghua as the basic broadcasting language; public service industries should use Putonghua. Only one hegemony language in a multilingual context would destroy linguistic diversity and violate human rights（e.g., Pool, 1987; Skutnabb-Kangas & Phillipson, 1994; Teresa,1994). So far, the aforementioned analysis relating to national equality and minority rights seems to put forward the main controversy that condemns language policies that advocate one single language in multilingual regions. Language structure influences nonverbal behavior, they acted to change language policy in order to influence social behavior (Norton & Toohey, 2011). The controversy implies that language policy change would function in social change. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the current language policy in the Tibetan Autonomous Region; not only to protect national unity. but also to protect minority rights, and ultimately to achieve social development.

The language use of Tibetan people can show the implement of language policy of Tibet municipality and find out the aspects that need to be improved. This research is aim to find out the language use of the Tibetan language and Putonghua of Tibetan people. The factors that lead to their language use is also one of the focuses of this thesis. Since Tibet municipality located in western part of China, its unique culture and beautiful landscape attracted tourists form all over the world. The protection of culture and language should be paid attention. Whether Tibetan people have the awareness of cultural protection and language

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preservation is of significant meaning. The perception of language policy of Tibetan people may give inspiration of language policy making. Whether they are satisfied with their language policy and what is needed to be improved can help to make a better language policy.

This research attempt to conduct interviews with Tibetan people. Their language use and language proficiency are the first to be discovered. The reason why they choose the languages they speak is also asked in the interviews. The research of the status of the Tibetan language and Putonghua in four aspects which are education, social interaction, transmission and landscape provides a comprehensive knowledge of the language situation in Tibet municipality. An overview of the background information of participants will be provided, together with the results of interviews.

This thesis contains 6 parts. Part 2 provide the key concepts of related terminology of this study and the overview background information of the language policy and language situation in The Tibetan autonomous region. Methodology and content of interview are discussed in part 3. The results of interviews are presented in part 4 and the discussion is in Part 5. Conclusion of the research is in the last part, together with the suggestions for further research on the situation of language policy and the language use in the future.

2. Literature review

In the literature review, I will focus on the Tibetan language context, which I believe it has a great influence on language policy making. I will explain the meaning of language identity, standard language, and bilingual education policies.

2.1. Background of the language policy in the Tibetan autonomous region

2.1.1. Tibetan language policy developing process

Since the establishment of People’s Republic of China, there had been three mass adjustments in terms of language policy and planning in the Tibetan autonomous region. The Tibetan autonomous region language policy has changed from emphasizing the Tibetan language to Putonghua, and nowadays, the Tibetan language policy follows the principle of bilingual usage.

2.1.1.1. The first stage

The first language policy revolution, which emphasized language rights of minority people， happened in the 1950s. In the 17-Article Agreement, ethnic minority areas practiced regional ethnic autonomy, and ethnic minorities had the right to develop their own language and maintain or reform their customs and religious beliefs. Minority language rights are protected legally. During this period, education was given in the Tibetan language in primary schools. Textbooks were also written in the Tibetan language. In secondary schools, the dominant language was still Tibetan, mixed with small parts of bilingual education.

During the national meeting, interpreters were available for participants that did not have Putonghua competence. The Tibetan language was at an absolute dominant position during the first language policy revolution.

2.1.1.2. The second stage

During the second tide, the status of the Tibetan language was determined by specific laws. Over the course of the 1960s and 1970s, the study and use of the Tibetan language in the Tibetan autonomous region were severely damaged. The Tibetan language policy and the bilingual policies related to it were

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also trampled on. In order to enhance the cultural integration between the Tibetan and Han nations and promote the unity of the two nations, the study and use of the Tibetan language have been re-emphasized since the 1980s. The three cores contents of this law are the following:

Stage 1. Strong purpose. It is clearly stated that it is necessary to implement the principle of the Tibetan language, Tibetan and Chinese, and to enable Tibetan citizens to study Tibetan language and learn Chinese language in general.

Stage 2. Highly targeted. In education, relevant regulations have been formulated for the setting up of Tibetan courses and the teaching language, the cultivation of Tibetan teachers and the establishment of Tibetan language teaching system. In terms of use, the use of Tibetan language in terms of writing, meetings, markings, culture and art, and public prosecution is also regulated.

Stage 3. Strong operability. With regard to the terms of the study and use of Tibetan language, there are specific implementation steps, measures, methods and objectives to be achieve.

2.1.1.3. The third stage

The third language policy revolution was the foundation of current language policy happening in 2002.

The reform of the language policy is mainly reflected in a new legal document (the Regulations on the Study, Use and Development of Tibetan Languages in the Tibet Autonomous Region). The "Regulations"

emphasize the same effect of Tibetan language and Chinese and Mandarin Chinese as "official language"

in Tibet; it emphasizes the problem of Tibetan-Chinese bilingualism as a language for teaching and the establishment of Tibetan-Chinese bilingual courses of the compulsory education stage in Tibet; Use Chinese and Chinese in the same language.

This revision not only affirmed the status of Tibetan language as a common language in Tibet, but also clearly stated the national status of the country's common language and the equivalent status of Tibetan language, emphasizing the unity of language and writing.

Bilingual policy (Tibetan language & Putonghua) has been applied to The Tibetan autonomous region for many years. It is time to inspect policy results and take these into consideration for further policy making.

2.1.2. Standard language （lingua franca）

An official language is based on the construction of supra-ethnic civic identity（Redie, 2010). For many people, they only use one official language in their entire life. However, when a person can completely and fluently use one official language, he might have good potential in his career. Because in many areas, people can or cannot qualify use standard language is a key personal value.

As Ma (2007) described, the Chinese language, whether throughout several thousand years of cultural development, has, objectively speaking, become the “lingua franca”. When ancient China was dominated by Mongolians and Manchurians during the Yuan Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty, the official language in Chinese society was still “bei fang guan hua（official language of the north）” during those two historical periods. At that time, the official language of the north was a communication code or tool among people.

A Lingua Franca is used in inter-cultural communication between two or more people who have different L1s other than the Lingua Franca. It is therefore intended as an intermediary code (Clyne, 2000).

Nowadays, in most the urban areas in China, speaking Putonghua is an essential element of business, education, medicine, and many other fields. Therefore, social interactions and identities are more likely to be negatively influenced for people who do not speak Putonghua (Xu, 2019). Due to no competence in Putonghua, regional people do not have enough communication ability to understand other races. In order to get access to more business opportunities and essential resources, minority people have to learn and understand Putonghua. This led to extended language contact and the polyglottal needs of more and more members of minority groups (Boada, 2002). Therefore, it is important for Tibetan people to understand

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Putonghua. Moreover, according to Blommaert (2006), national language policy may not only seemingly be “national”, that is, confined and specific to the territory of a single state, and effected exclusively by state actors. States would take whole context conditions into consideration. Considering the function as mediator, Putonghua has been defined as an official language in the whole territory of China, including the minority gathering area. The language law is listed below:

“Law of speaking and writing language” determines the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese characters as the official language of the country, and reflects the national language and language planning and policies. It is the first specific law in Chinese speaking language and writing. 1. The provisions of this regulation on national language policy are embodied in two aspects. First, the national language and language policy: generally being called as standardized Chinese characters are the national Chinese language, the country promotes speaking Mandarin, and promotes standardized Chinese characters. Citizens have the right to learn and use the language of the national language. Local people's governments at all levels and their relevant departments should take measures to promote Putonghua and promote standardized Chinese characters. 2. is the national language policy (Law of speaking and writing Language, 2001).

In the greater China, Putonghua functioned as the mediate language on a national scale. Putonghua had been promoted as standard language for many years, not only in Han nation gathering area, but also in minority nation people gathering area.

2.1.3. Results of announced language law and policy

Language policy should adapt to the actual conditions in the area. It is necessary to review and summary former regional language policy. When social context changed, language policy should follow in these changes. Factors which influence former language policy adjustment may also function in current language policy. To get these factors, there is need to review former language policy forming process.

Since the establishment of the Tibetan Autonomous Region, the study, use and development of Tibetan language have been emphasized from both the legal level and the actual work, and great results have been achieved. On the other hand, with the deepening of economic exchanges and cultural exchanges between Tibetans and Han nationalities, Tibetans and other ethnic minorities, language education needs and language use in the Tibet Autonomous Region have undergone many changes. The bilingual phenomenon has become a true portrayal of Tibetan language life. The Sino-Tibetan bilingual policy of the Tibet Autonomous Region not only affirmed the status of Tibetan language as a common language in Tibet, but also clarified the official status of the country's common language and the same status in Tibet and Tibetan language, emphasizing the fairness and completeness of "language application law".

Since the establishment of the Tibet municipality in 1965, the language planning and policy experiment in The Tibetan autonomous region has achieved remarkable historical achievements. Since the peaceful liberation of Tibet municipality, especially since the reform and opening up (Reform and opening up is the policy of internal reform and opening up to the foreign countries initiated by the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee in December 1978.), under the long-term autonomous practice, Tibetan bilingual education have conscientiously implemented the principles and policies for the implementation of the work of the national language and the work of the country.

The Tibetan language policy has been effectively protected Legally and legitimately, passed down and developed, and has gone through four stages of development. First, the Constitution and the Law on Regional National Autonomy were conscientiously implemented, and the Regulations on the Study, Use, and Development of Tibetan Languages in the Tibetan Autonomous Region were promulgated, and the Tibetan language policy was incorporated into the legalization track. Second, the establishment of the Tibetan Autonomous Region Compilation Bureau in 1985, followed by the establishment of the Autonomous Region Tibetan Language Working Committee, and the establishment of compiling bureaus in various counties, and the Tibetan language and writing work organization system was gradually improved. Third, in the 1980s, on the basis of improving the Tibetan language education system in primary schools, Tibetan language education was gradually available to students from middle schools and colleges.

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In 1989, “Tibet University” began to implement a bilingual teaching program to re-promote Tibetan language. The teacher training base and the establishment of Tibetan language and literature majors laid the foundation for the improvement of the Tibetan language teaching system in The Tibetan autonomous region. Fourth, in recent years, Tibetan language has made new developments and progress. The circulation of Tibetan editions of People’s Daily and Tibet Daily continued to increase. The Tibetan language, radio, film and television, cultural publishing, ancient books, compilation and translation work developed rapidly, and the standardization, standardization and Informa ionization of Tibetan language were comprehensively strengthened. The software R&D work has made great achievements and made great contributions to Tibet's leap-forward development and long-term stability.

2.2. Bilingual education

2.2.1. The reasons for bilingual education policy in the Tibetan autonomous region

Tibetan Bilingual education policy already implemented in the public schools in the region of Tibet (Christiansen, 2009). Standard language and heritage language mean different value to people. This value normally accounts for their family language choice. This theory also accounts for language policy on national language (Tollefson,2006). The per capita salary of Tibetan area is lower than other areas in China, besides, Putonghua areas have more job and business opportunities than Tibetan areas. As the Tibetan language policy emphasize bilingual policy, many parents teach their children the Tibetan language and send children to get Putonghua education.

Because of their tradition, ethnic identity and cultural identity, most Tibetan families choose to speak the Tibetan language. However, it is important to speak and write Putonghua in public schools, as the standard language communication skill can improve Tibetan individuals' social value and intercultural sensitivity.

Putonghua may bring several benefits to native Tibetan speakers. If the Chinese government applies monolingual education policy in Tibet Autonomous Region, it will deliver huge damage to Tibetan culture and Tibetan language. In Chinese governmental policies toward minority groups, 融合（ Ronghe ） , meaning fusion or amalgamations), was frequently used in the long historical process of communication and cultural exchange, which had caused the disappearance of minority languages (Wang & Phillion, 2009). There is urgent need to promote Putonghua education in the Tibetan autonomous region.

Respecting the culture, religion and habits of ethnic minorities would not only mean them to learn Putonghua and Simplified character but also sponsor them to develop cultural education in the language of each nation（Sessions of the National People's Congress ，1938). Almost all Tibetan people believe in Tibetan Buddhism. This religion is also a sign of their national identity. The language they pray for is the Tibetan language. Therefore, the status of Tibetan language in ethnic religions also strengthens their understanding of Tibetan language as their national language. Culturally, it is essential to advocate bilingual education policy.

Putonghua is an essential tool for Tibetan people to communicate with outsiders, all ethnic minorities have the freedom to develop their language, script, and maintain or reform their customs and religious beliefs (Common program of the Chinese people's political consultative conference, 1949). Thus, the national language policy of advocating and upholding national equality, language equality, and the freedom of all ethnic groups to use and develop their own spoken and written languages has become the basis of Chinese minority language policy. The nationwide language policy support the Tibetan bilingual education policy.

With the development of ethnic minorities, the communications among different races become more and more important, Tibetan citizens use official language more frequently than before, it has affected the usage rate of Tibetan language in Tibet. Although Putonghua ability provides many beneficial resources, long time Putonghua monolingual use would result in minority language being endangered. language policy and language education can serve as vehicles for promoting the vitality, versatility, and stability of endangered languages (Hornberger, 2012). Therefore, it is necessary to apply bilingual policy in the Tibetan autonomous region. The Tibetan people need to get Putonghua competence from bilingual

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education policy to communicate with people who cannot speak the Tibetan language.

Basic orientations toward language and its role in society influence the nature of language planning efforts in any particular context (Ruiz, 1984). Three such orientations are language-as-problem, language-as-right, and language-as-resource. Considering these three orientations, appropriate language policy and planning could help local people to solve problem, have access to language rights and get better resource because of their great language abilities. A good language policy can assure the minority ethnic citizens to have the ability to work and settle in any areas in the country. Due to the three purposes of language planning, regional language planning and policy designation can provide adjustment or guidance on residents’

language competence mode. Language policy in multiethnic nations is often controversial and vulnerable to changing socio-political environments (Beckett & Postiglione, 2012). Theoretically, suitable language policy is beneficial to local people.

There has been little consideration for resources that learners possess as new multilinguals ( Cenoz &

Gorter, 2017). Language policy is important for regional development. Language policies are increasingly acknowledged as being a necessary component of many decisions taken in the areas of the labor market, education, minority languages, mobility, and social inclusion of migrants. (Gazzola, Templin &

Wickstrom, 2018). Poverty greatly hinders minority students from receiving an education in general and, in particular, minority literacy education (Wang & Phillion, 2009).

The Tibetan autonomous region is in the western part of China. Tibet's geographical location is far away from the developed cities and its natural environment is worse than inland. And due to the language barriers, Tibet’s economic development is relatively slow. Therefore, public resources such as education and occupations are scarce and it is difficult to develop public facilities in Tibet. Implementing a bilingual policy requires a large amount of Putonghua education resources, such as textbooks and language teachers.

In order to solve the problem of lack of resources in Tibet, the Chinese government needs to apply political policies to help the Tibetan people. The natural environment of the Tibetan autonomous region is very hostile. In addition, the economic development in the Tibetan autonomous region was lower than that in other areas. There were insufficient bilingual textbooks and teachers. In order to implement bilingual education practice, preferential policies were supported by central government.

These "preferential policies" have been made specifically for minority nationalities encourage affirmative actions, normally at regional levels for supporting minority groups in many aspects in education, including special investment on resources, preferential policies for minority students to gain access to higher education, policies to provide financial reward to teachers working in remote areas where minority groups dominate and policies to promote bilingual education (qtd. in Tang, 2002). For example, bilingual teachers who work in the Tibetan autonomous region would have extra allowance.

LPP (Language planning and policy) designation is useful, not just a reminder of how inextricably related language planning and language policy are, but also as a way around the lack of agreement on the exact nature of that relationship (Hornberger, 2006). According to the history and the development of the future, it is vital to apply bilingual education policy in The Tibetan autonomous region. Therefore, bilingual education policy is important for the Tibetan autonomous region.

2.2.2. Bilingual education development process in the Tibetan autonomous region

Language is the lifeblood of human cultures and the heart and center of issues of education (Panel discussion, 2017). Educational development lagging behind, especially the basic education lagging behind is a bottleneck restricting the social development of Tibet Autonomous Prefecture (dict.cnki.net). To accelerate economic and cultural development in The Tibetan autonomous region, it is essential to research education language there.

Since its establishment on September 1, 1965, the Tibet Autonomous Region has experienced political, economic, cultural, and social development in the past 50 years. Great progress has also been made at every level. Among them, the language level of the local residents at the educational level is even more

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obvious. These advances are inseparable from the exploration of practice and are inseparable from the guidance of theoretical policies. Bilingual education policy of Tibet Autonomous Region had experienced four stages: germination, formation, development, Perfect stage. The main focus of language policy in The Tibetan autonomous region was the relationship between Tibetan language and Putonghua.

Before the bilingual education policy, the Tibetan autonomous region it started from 1965 to 1970s. There was no practical foundation for the promotion of Putonghua because of poor economy at that time. So, the policy that Tibetan language as education language kept five years. During this period, fast economic development laid the foundation of bilingual education policy.

The following ten years “1966-1976” was the starting stage. Tibetan people started to learn Putonghua because of an unreasonable language policy. Under the “Cultural Revolution” background, Tibetan language like many other minority languages were disbanded. Tibetan culture was badly destroyed during this time. However, it promoted more frequent interaction between Tibetan people and people who speak Putonghua and other minority languages. So, bilingual education policy was the need of Tibetan people.

Tibetan language still actively survived after this dark period thanks to the high percentage of Tibetan language speakers in The Tibetan autonomous region. Chinese central government provided many preferential policies to support bilingual education.

The second stage was the formation stage. It started at 1980 and finished in 1988. At that time, the Weak education resource in The Tibetan autonomous region largely hinder regional development. Many preferential policies carried out. It is the start phase of official bilingual education policy in The Tibetan autonomous region.

The adjusting stage lasted from 1988 to 1990. During this period, bilingual education implementation practice gradually perfects the Tibetan language and Putonghua teaching language systems. The Tibetan education language policy has adjusted from the previous “the Tibetan language teaching” to “Tibetan- Putonghua language as the primary teaching language”.

The developed stage of bilingual education policy, it started from 21^st century. There was no meaningful development during the period “1990~2000”. The Tibetan language education policy had determined the status of this policy in Tibetan school curriculum.

2.3. Language and identity

Identity dictates to a significant degree how one views oneself, both as a person and with respect to other people, ideas and nature (Weinreich,2003). Language is not just a personal action, but also a group practice. A group of people cannot be identified by their appearances, but they may be recognized by their language and local dialect. Normally, local citizens have the capacity to understand and apply their local language in their local region, as well as a language has regional characteristics, for example, different dialects and accents. Even though newcomers who come from neighboring countries or neighboring region, or local citizens who come from far areas, their regional identities can be recognized and demonstrated by their different languages and different accents by daily conversations and social situations.

Identities are also traits and characteristics, social relations, roles, and social group memberships that define who one is (Leary, 2012). People who speak different languages or dialects may present the differences in cultural background, political opinions and social status. Besides, personal identity is related to people's social relations, and social interactions. A language can constitute cultural identity and cultural hatred, for instance, a well-preserved minority language is usually used by regional people during their daily communications and social interactions. Thus, minority language can also function as a label of cultural and regional identity. Moreover, based on minority language accent and speaking behavior, people can easily know the information about others’ regional information and background culture.

Similarly, identity is constituted in and through language (Rajagopalan, 2016). Tibetan people show strong local belonging and cultural identity to the Tibetan language, Tibetan culture and, Tibetan citizen. When Tibetan people are in the outside of the Tibetan area, Tibetan people can easily remember and get familiar

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with the strangers who show cultural identity and cultural endorsement to the Tibetan language. According to Zhizhang He, who is an ancient Chinese poet from the Tang Dynasty, he had described the accent and the dialect of a language is one of the regional identities and cultural identity of people. In his poem, he explained people who have been wandering for many years have returned to their hometowns, and their physical appearance has changed completely, but his accent and dialect of his hometown remains unchanged. Besides, social identity and cultural identity of a person can be shaped and represented through his language, his dialect and, his accent. Therefore, minority people themselves can get a cultural identity, social identity and ideology of minority nation from their regional language among others.

The importance of language in defining ethnicity and shaping ethnic group relations is well established (Stevens & Swicegood, 1987). People have to deal with people who have the different cultural background and who speaks a different language in daily business, in order to protect the rights and interests of a race or a region, people choose to learn a new language or only speak their own language. They also consume their linguistic capital for symbolic purposes, for instance, when they insist on speaking a particular language despite their good competence in other languages, probably only to demonstrate certain identities (Xu, 2019). A country can have many different races, culture, and languages, however, most of the countries only have one to two official languages. Language is not just a means of communication: it is a means of control (Ziauddin, 2008). In China, the CCP applied one official language policy in the mainland of China. it leads to two general phenomena, 1. Tibetan people want to improve their life quality, so many Tibetan chose to speak Putonghua, not Tibetan language anymore. It is a cultural loss. 2, In order to protect their local culture, parts of Tibetan people refuse to learn Putonghua, this is the start of cultural resistance.

Therefore, there is an effective relationship between language policy and national identity (Blommaert, 2006). When a country encourages cultural diversity and cultural identity, announcing an effective and cultural-friendly language policy is important for national citizens and local culture.

2.4. A general comparison between Tibetan language policy and minority language policy in European countries

First, China's minority language legislation includes Tibetan language legislation, based on ethnic policies, focusing on the unity with the Constitution and emphasizing the equality of the languages of all nationalities. The idea of European minority language legislation is mainly to highlight the respect for minority languages through legal provisions, but the lack of national equality policy as policy support for the bill. Second, the legislation of Chinese minority languages includes Tibetan language legislation, emphasizing the unity of ethnic languages and national lingua francs, and focusing on harmony and equality between different languages. Third, China's minority language legislation, including Tibetan language legislation, is concerned with actual manipulation, supervision, guidance, and management in addition to the expected linguistic development goals. The European minority language legislation aims to improve the legal status of the national language and the national lingua franca. However, it is challenging to implement. Countries like Belgium, Germany, France, and Ireland have a long way to go to achieve the same status as national and national languages. European minority language legislation has advanced in China and has produced many achievements. However, many countries' constitutions and minority language laws lack specific expectations for the protection and development of ethnic languages. Lack of supporting ethnic language guidance and management mechanisms, therefore, often resulted in the literal implementation of the regulations in these countries.

3.Methodologies

3.1. Method

This study adopted the cross-sectional study approach as it is suitable for the research focus and purpose of this study. Interviews and questionnaire about their background were applied. According to Levin (2006), the purpose of cross-sectional study can be descriptive, often in the form of a survey. Usually the aim is to describe a population or a subgroup within the population with respect to an outcome. The actual interviewees can better reflect the current situation of language use in Tibet. Therefore, this study used

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telephone interview as the major means of data collection as a supplement. Ten participants were selected randomly and interviews were conducted through phone calls respectively.

The interviews for this research was launched in March 2019 through online phone calls. Ten participants come from Tibet municipality were selected randomly to collect data. All of them are well-educated in Tibet municipality or inland China. Because all participants are in China and it is not easy to ask them do the questionnaire with computer, so interview was applied for the research. In addition, interview provides the opportunity to ask them further questions and interviewees can give some inspiring ideas for the research. Tibetan people who are well-educated is the target of interviewees because they have more chance to be able to speak fluent Putonghua. The most popular social media in China, WeChat, was the media that used to contact participants.

Literature analysis is applied to analyze the language policy and language situation in Tibet. A number of related cases can reflect the whole state more accurately. It is scientific and effective to adopt the research method of sublimation from individual to general.

This research studies the language use in Tibetan by taking college students who were born in Tibet as case studies. The horizontal span and age equilibrium in the region, and the longitudinal span of the interviewee's growth, are the important pillars underpinning this research. Research rarely involves a large amount of data, but rather more of the descriptive stuff of language and writing. But this does not deny the scientific nature of the study, because the purpose of the study is to study the impact of language policy and language environment, transportation and other factors on language use under the bilingual background. This provides a supportive basis for subsequent language inheritance and even the formulation of relevant policies.

3.2. Participants

The use of Tibetan language has regional characteristics. Therefore, the selection of individual cases is of great significance to the whole research process. 10 Tibetan college students were randomly selected at similar age. Eleven male students and seven female students did not know each other when they lived in The Tibetan autonomous region, and they all had the college education, which gave a better interpretation of the use of Putonghua and Tibetan language. Because of their unwillingness, resistance or even misunderstanding of interviewing questions, only ten valid documents were obtained. In addition to language policy, other policies have also affected bilingual education to some extent. One of them is the protection of minority national culture, compared with Tibet ghee, barley wine, Tibetan Buddhism and other tangible cultural symbols, Tibetan language is more invisible, imperceptible characteristics. Tibetan people have their own speaking and writing language. Tibetan is Tibetan and Burmese Chinese-Tibetan language branch, divided into Tibetan, Kang, Ando three dialects, and there are words, and Jia-velvet Tibetans are rarely seen in the dialect without words. The current Tibetan language is a phonetic character based on ancient Sanskrit and western characters in the early 7th century. The use of Tibetan has strengthened the links between Tibetans and the central Plains economy. All participants were informed that all these dialogues were anonymously recorded and transmitted.

All the subjects were native to Tibetan, and Chinese was used as a second language to learn, communicate and work abroad. Many older locals in Tibet do not use Chinese because the linguistic environment and Chinese language education were not widely available at that time. Therefore, compared with the field research in Tibet, it is of practical significance and research value to choose Tibetan College students with bilingual educational background.

The choice of gender is also prudent, as there is a tradition of inferiority of the sexes in China. Therefore, ancient China is basically male in the education. People who have foreign language learning opportunities or master foreign languages are also basically men. The role of a woman is to take care of her husband and children at home. Chinese became the official language after the founding of New China. Tibet has also gradually applied this policy and introduced bilingual education. So, a certain proportion of female Tibetan college students in the study can more reflect the use of language and the relationship between national policy, cultural environment.

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3.3. Content of interview

The interview contains six aspects. First, the proficiency in the Tibetan language and Putonghua of interviewees is asked separately. Their linguistic skills in understanding, speaking, reading and writing were rated by themselves. Their language proficiency in each language could tell their language use of each language. Second part is about their language acquisition. How they acquire Tibetan and Putonghua.

The language that they learned first is also asked in this part. The status of Tibetan and Putonghua in education could also reflect the implement of language policy. The next part is about language practice.

Who do they speak Tibetan and Putonghua with and how can their relatives and neighbors speak these two languages? The fourth part is language transmission. Whether they will transmit Tibetan and Putonghua to their children and how can they transmit these two languages. Language status is the next part. The status of Tibetan and Putonghua in Tibet could show the language use and implement of language policy. The language used in official places and the linguistic landscape could show the status of Tibetan and Putonghua. The last part focuses on the perception of language policy of Tibetan people. The first question is about the factors that people think could influence language use in Tibet. Second one is whether Tibetan should be an official language in Tibet in their point of view. Then they are asked how much do they know about language policy in Tibetan and how well the policy is implemented. Their ideal language policy is the next question. Whether Tibetan culture is well protected and whether a culture could be well-preserved without their language are the last two question. Some extra questions were also asked for some participants who gave inspiring ideas of the research, such as the use of English and the proficiency of their English.

3.4. Data collection

Telephone Interview served as the major source of data in the current study. I telephoned and conducted with each of the 10 participants a prolonged, semi-structured individual interview at their convenience time. The interviewees ranged in different parts of Tibet from the age of 19 to 28, and they currently attend universities in cities other than Tibet in China, and the cities they study in are different. This ensures the diversity and scientific nature of samples and data. Some interviewees have a low level of English mastery, so I generally communicate with them in Chinese. Of course, as a Chinese, while using Chinese communication can be more barrier-free communication, but at the same time I need to translate the content of the interview into English, in the process I try to maintain the original content of the interview.

Language used in this research is Putonghua because I can not speak the Tibetan language. Participants feel comfortable to speak Putonghua during interview. There were no language problems occurred because all participants have good communicating skills in Putonghua. All interviews are anonymous, participants are labeled by the consequence of the interview that they participated. Participant 1 means the participant is the first one who was interviewed.

Data collection is based on questionnaires on their age, gender, place of residence, education, time of residence in Tibet, family members, home education background, age of learning Tibetan, purpose of learning Chinese, etc.

The purpose of this study is to study the importance of language background and language policy for language learning. In addition, the protection of minority languages is also an important research topic.

Bilingual education is very common in China, where extensive learning of English is internationalized, and more attention needs to be paid to the protection of minority cultures. Language, as an important symbol of minority culture, undoubtedly plays an important role in cultural inheritance.

Most of the interviewees cooperated with telephone interviews, and a few did not fully answer the entire questionnaire because of time or other concerns, such as fear of fraud. Unrelated or abandoned interview questionnaires and content have been eliminated. Only 10 useful and reliable interview data are selected and analyzed.

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3.5. Data analysis

The credibility of the data is based on the diversity and inter relatedness of sample selection. The questionnaire was designed based on China's geographical environment, education policy, degree of economic development, Tibetan characteristics, historical origin, China's emphasis on minority education, and so on.

The study is generally divided into four stages. The first stage is the grasp of the overall background and the research of the main design. The second stage is the questionnaire design and study sample selection.

The third stage is the overall spread of interviews and the elimination of invalid content. The fourth stage is the generalization and integration of the overall interview content.

Through the study, it was found that 18 samples were basically proficient in Tibetan and Chinese.

However, some subjects said that there are some problems in Tibetan writing, because both learning and daily communication are not very much used to get Tibetan writing. They all think that both Tibetan and Chinese are important, but they all say that Tibetan is their native language and their emotional tendencies are particularly strong. At the same time, they have a strong sense of Tibetan roots, at the same time they feel that Chinese is only a tool for communication and work, in daily life and Tibetan master is more willing to use Tibetan to communicate. It is undeniable that in the widely used Chinese environment, mastering Chinese is indispensable for them to come out of Tibet and master higher education and find higher-paying jobs.

It is surprising to find that the Enlightenment of Tibetan is mostly family and relatives, while the Enlightenment of Chinese is school and teacher. It also shows that the different functions of language learning---Tibetan for daily communication, while Chinese is used for learning, finding work and so on.

3.6. Research question

Questions of the interview were designed for Tibetan people to find out the language use of them, language proficiency in the Tibetan language and Putonghua, status of the Tibetan language and Putonghua, perception of language policy in Tibet municipality. Research questions are at below:

1.What is the language proficiency of Tibetan language and Putonghua of Tibetan people?

2.What is the situation of language use in The Tibetan autonomous region (education, social interaction, transmission and linguistic landscape)?

3.What is the perception of language policy of Tibetan people?

4. What factors that would influence language use?

3.7. Hypothesis

For the language proficiency, since Tibetan and Putonghua are the languages used in education, students are expected to have a good proficiency in Tibetan and Putonghua. People in Tibet speak Tibetan more than Putonghua, so their language proficiency in Tibetan may be better than in Putonghua.

According to the language policy, Putonghua is the official language in China, and it is also a language used in school, Putonghua and Tibetan may have the same status in education. As for the status in social interaction, Tibetan is more used than Putonghua. Both Tibetan and Putonghua are important to Tibetan people so parents will transmit these two languages to their children but Tibetan may be the first one.

Tibetan is more widely used than Putonghua, so for linguistic landscape, Tibetan may be seen more often than Putonghua.

Putonghua is promoted in Tibet province, but people prefer to speak Tibetan, so Tibetan people may think Tibetan should also be the official language in Tibet province. In addition, Tibetan people value their culture, including their language, as precious and unique treasure, they may hope to improve policy that can protect their culture better.

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Since tourism in Tibetan is an important income source for Tibetan people, Putonghua is very important.

Language choice and use may be influenced by economic factors and language policy. In addition, Tibetan people believe in Buddhism, their religious belief may also influence their choice of language.

4. Results

4.1. Background information of participants

20.00%

30.00%

10.00%

20.00%

10.00%

Age

22 23 28 19 24 20

Figure1. Age of participants.

All participants are young people, the youngest one is 19 years old and the oldest one is 28 years old. The average age of all participants is about 23 years old.

40.00%

60.00%

Gender

Female Male

Figure 2. Gender of participants.

Male participants account for 60% and female account for 40%. Since this research needs people who can speak Putonghua, which means participants need to have a higher education background. The percentage of female is less than male, it may because the education background of male is higher than female (In The Tibetan autonomous region, there were not enough education resource for every Tibetan people. Higher percentage of Tibetan families chose to support their sons rather than daughters).

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4.2. language proficiency in the Tibetan language and Putonghua

All interviews were conducted through phone based on the basic interviewing questions. Participants who gave extra useful or interesting information related to research questions would be interviewed further to get data. The following results were obtained from specific interviewing questions which emphasized on Tibetan-Mandarin bilingual use and language policy. Listening, speaking, reading and writing abilities in Tibetan-Mandarin bilingual self-grading were asked firstly.

For the Tibetan language, ten participants all said that they have no difficulty in language usage in these four aspects. For Putonghua, seven of them said that they cannot remember right writing characters sometimes. Although they did not think they have problem in Putonghua usage, they commonly showed higher percentage of simple sentences and easy words when speaking Putonghua.

4.2.1. Proficiency in the Tibetan language

All participants can speak the Tibetan language and Putonghua, but their Tibetan language proficiency is better than Putonghua, and they reported their proficiency in the Tibetan language is native level. As participant 1, for instance, says,

Participant 1: … As I have lived in The Tibetan autonomous region for many years, I always talked with Tibetan people. Hahaha, I am very confident to say that I am a very fluent Tibetan language speaker. I don’t think I have problem in Putonghua. But you can find that I have obvious accent. Oh, sometimes, I cannot correctly write difficult Chinese characters…

According to participants, the Tibetan language is their mother language, they are surely proficient in Tibetan language. All linguistic skills like understanding, reading, reading and writing are native levels.

People from The Tibetan autonomous region who cannot speak Tibetan are abnormal in their opinion:

Participant 3: …As I grew up in The Tibetan autonomous region. Hahaha, I am very confident to say that I am a very fluent Tibetan language speaker… I started to learn to write the Tibetan language when I went into primary school. Before that, I could not read or write Tibetan language…I think people who were born and live in The Tibetan autonomous region should be able to speak Tibetan language. It is strange to speak Putonghua with Tibetan people…

All participants claimed that the Tibetan language is their first learned language. They learned it in family from their parents or grandparents first and then in Primary school:

Participant 2: … I learned the Tibetan language as mother tongue. My grandparents took care of me since I was a baby. They can only speak Tibetan language; they even cannot read or write Tibetan language. I learned to write the Tibetan language when I had primary school…

For all participants, the Tibetan language is mother tongue for Tibetan people. Their reading and writing competence are improved since they attended primary schools. They are all confident in their Tibetan competence.

4.2.2. Proficiency in Putonghua

According to participants, they are also good at Putonghua but their proficiency level is not as good as the Tibetan language. Some of them have difficulty in Putonghua writing:

Participant 1: … I don’t think I have problem in Putonghua. But you can find that I have obvious accent. Oh, sometimes, I cannot correctly write difficult Chinese characters…

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Participant 3: … Putonghua also doesn’t bother me in daily dialogues. But sometimes I would make some writing faults…

All participants think that they can communicate well with others in Putonghua. But some participants mentioned that people who live in small villages can speak only the Tibetan language. As participant 6 says,

Participant 6: …I come from a small village; it is in a remote area. For old generation, only village head can speak Putonghua. Young people who attended school can also speak it but we only use it when we have to…

Most old people cannot speak Putonghua at all, because they have never learned it and they don’t have the need to learn it. Young generation can speak it because: firstly, it is a compulsory lesson, and second, they learn it as a tool for finding a better job. One participant learns and practices Putonghua because he wants to have a better career:

Participant 2: … I have no problem in the two languages usage. But when I studied in inland, I lived with roommates who are also from The Tibetan autonomous region. My Putonghua ability was strengthened while my Tibetan language ability was a little weaken. I am studying some professional Chinese characters as I never learned them in The Tibetan autonomous region. I tried to speak fluent Putonghua because I wanted to have more choices for job. It is helpful to your career if you can speak Putonghua…

According to participant 2, his Putonghua proficiency was improved when he was studying in University in inland China. He mentioned that he had never learned professional Chinese characters in Tibet municipality. All participants who have attended university claimed that their Putonghua have been improved but different participant have different improvements:

Participant 6: … My Putonghua competence is improved since I studied in Sichuan province. I learned new expressions and new words. I also improved my reading and writing. Before, I can only write simple sentences but now I can write letters and some academic articles…

Participant 2: …I used to make a lot of mistakes in writing, because I couldn’t memorize characters rightly. Since I was reading my bachelor degree in Hunan province, my writing competence in Putonghua have been improved a lot…

Participant 3: …I attended my university in Hunan so I have many classmates who speak Putonghua.

All people around me speak Putonghua so I have to speak it every day. That’s why my Putonghua speaking is better than before…

According to these participants, their Putonghua competence have been improved when they lived in inland China. But for people who live in Tibet municipality all the time, their Putonghua competence have degraded:

Participant 2: …My sister attended university in Tibet municipality. She has been living in Tibet all the time. After graduation, she merely uses Putonghua and her Putonghua understanding and speaking are not as good as before…

Based on the interviews, Putonghua language environment is not sufficient in Tibet. People who live in Tibetan and don’t have many changes to use Putonghua may lose their Putonghua ability.

MA Thesis Language Use in the Tibetan autonomous region

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

2. Literature review

3.Methodologies

4. Results