• No results found

Increasing charity donations for identifiable and statistical victims by a poster design

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2021

Share "Increasing charity donations for identifiable and statistical victims by a poster design"

Copied!
41
0
0

Bezig met laden.... (Bekijk nu de volledige tekst)

Hele tekst

(1)

U n iv e rs i t y of Tw e n t e

B a c h e lo r Th es i s - BM S - C om m u n ic a t i on Sc i e n c e J un e 26 , 2 02 0

I n c r ea s in g c h ar i t y d on a t i on s fo r id e n ti f i a ble a n d s t a t is t i c a l v i c ti m s b y a p os t e r d es ig n

S t u d en t : G ia c om o F us ch i n i , s 1 94 41 8 5

S u p er v is or : D r. M i r ja m G a l e tz k a

(2)

A bst r a ct

T h i s s t u dy a i m e d a t d is c ov e r in g t h e b est c o mb i n a t io n of id e n t if i a b l e or s t a t is t i c a l v i c t i ms , pos i t i v e o r n e g a t iv e me ss a g e f r a m in g , a n d sh o c k in g o r n o n- sh o ck i n g i m ag es , t o be u s ed i n t h e pos t e r de s ig n of a ch a r i ty c a m p a ig n i n or d er to in c r ea s e w i l l i ng n ess to d o na t e . I n or d er to d o so , a s tu d y w i t h a 2 x 2x 2 b e tw e en -s ub j e c ts d es i gn w as c on d uct e d , t es t i ng ei g h t d i ff e r en t p os t e r d e s ig ns . M a n ip u l a ti o n ch e c ks s ho w ed t h a t t h e 2 00 h un dr e d pa r t i c ip a n ts of t h e t es t (M = 2 7. 48 ( SD = 9 .2 4) ,3 7 .5 % m al e , 6 1% f e m a l e , an d 1, 5 % o t h er ) w e r e a b l e to c or r e ct l y r e c og n i z e th e th r e e va r i a b l es w h en t h ey w e r e p r es en t e d w i t h t h e p os t er s . H ow ev e r, n o s i gn i f i ca nt e f fe c t of m ess a ge fr a m i ng o n w i l l i ng n ess t o d o na t e w a s f ou n d. A m a r gi na l l y s ig n if i c a n t e f f ec t o f t h e ty p e o f v i c ti m o n w i l l in gn es s to do n a t e w as fo u nd , s ho w in g a h i gh e r l ev e l of w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e f or th e id e n t if i a b l e v i c t i m . Sh o c k i m a ge s w er e f ou n d t o h av e a s ig n if i c a n t p os i t iv e ef f e c t o n f ea r , s a dn es s a nd s h o ck . H o we v e r, s ho c k w as m e a su r ed b y su r pr is e a n d d is gu s t, a n d w h e r e as s u rp r is e ha d a p os i t i v e ef f e ct o n w il l i n gn es s t o d o n at e , d is gu s t h a d a n eg a t i v e e f fe c t on t h e w i l l i ng n ess t o do n a t e. Th is f i nd i ng s ug g es ts t h a t o th e r ty p es o f s ho c k w o u ld b e mo r e b e ne f i c i a l fo r c h ar i t y c a mp a i g ns , c om b i n in g s u rp r is e w i th o t h er o f f en se e l i c i t or . Fin a l l y, t h e l in e a r r e gr es s io n t es t i ng t h e c o m b in e d e f f ec t of t y p e of v i c t i m, m e ss ag e f r a mi n g an d s h ock i m ag es d i d n o t g iv e s ig n if i c a n t r e su l t s. T h e m an y n o n -s i g n if i c an t r es u l ts a r e d u e to t h e s e ve r a l l i m i t at i o ns o f t he po s t er d es ig n an d o n l in e qu e st i o nn a i r e . N o n e th e l es s, t he f in d i ngs a b o u t s ho c k i m a g es, s ho c k m e as ur e m e n t, an d sh o c k ef f e c t on w i l l in gn es s t o d o n a t e pr es e n t m e a n in gf u l pr a c t i c a l i m p l i ca t i o ns an d pr e s en t a g o od s t ar t i ng p o i n t fo r f ur t h er r es e ar c h.

(3)

1 , In t ro du c ti on

N ow a d ays , m a ny p r oso c i a l c h a ri t y c a m p a ig ns ar e d es i g ne d t o a dd r ess e n v i ro n m en t a l a n d s o c i e t a l pr ob l e m s. H ow e v er , t h er e ar e s e ve r a l w ays in w h i ch o r ga n i z a t io ns c an ad dr es s a n is sue . V i c t i ms c an b e p r es e nt e d a s i d e n t if i a b l e or s t a t is t i c a l. I d e nt i f i ab l e v i ct i m s a r e p r es en t e d as in d i vi d u a ls ( o r s m a ll gr o ups s u ch as a f a m i l y) de s c r ib e d w i th d e t a i l e d p er so n a l i n f or m a t i on su c h as a g e , n a m e , fa c e , a nd sp e c i f i c d if f i cu l t i es ( L e e & Fe e l e y, 2 0 17 ; S m a l l & Lo ew e ns t e in , 2 0 03 ). On th e o t h e r h a nd , s t a ti s t i ca l v i c ti m s a r e p r es e n t ed as a l a rg e gr ou p d e sc r i be d w i t h on l y g en e r al i nf o r m at i o n a b ou t a l l g r ou p m e mb e rs , s uc h as t h e ir c ou n tr y of or i g i n an d co m m on d if f i cu l t y ( L e e e t a l ., 2 0 17 ). T h is s tu dy a i ms a t f i nd i ng the m os t e f fe c t i v e po s t er d es i gn s t o i n c r e as e w i l l in gn e ss t o d on a t e f o r bo t h id en t i f i ab l e an d s t a t is t i c a l v i c t im s . T h e f i c t io n a l c a mp a i gn d es i gn e d f or t h is s t ud y w as f o cus e d on c h i ld r en i n n e e d of m e d i c a l tr e a t m e nt s in Sy r i a , an is su e a dd r ess e d by w e l l- kn ow n o r g an i z a t i ons l i ke S a v e t h e C h i ld r en a n d U N I C E F . T h es e o rg a n i z a ti o ns ar e t r y i ng to h e l p t ho us a nd s of ch i l dr e n i n Sy ri a w h o a r e s u ff e r in g b e c au se t he y don’t have access to medical treatments . For this reason, it is extremely i m p o r ta n t t o d e si g n c a mp a i gns t h a t c an h e lp as m uc h p eo p l e as po ss ib l e , n o t o n l y f o cus i n g o n sp e c i f ic i nd i v id u a ls . I n o r de r to f in d a so l u t io n, e i gh t d i f f er e n t pos t e rs w er e d es i gn e d , ad d re ss i ng th i s s a m e p ro b l e m in d i f fe r en t w a ys , an d t h e ir ef f e ct w as t e s te d b as e d on a 2x 2 x2 b e tw e e n - su b j ec t s de s ig n . A s a m a t t e r of f a c t , b as ed o n l i t e r a tu r e, th r e e v a ri a b l es w er e id e n t if i e d, to f i n d t h e b es t co m b in a t i on to in c r e as e w i l l in g n ess to do n a t e .

T h e f i rs t v ar i a b l e w as t h e t yp e o f v i c t i m . Th e v i c t i m i n th e p os t e r w as e i t h e r id e n t if i a bl e , g i v in g a p e rso n a l n a m e ( Fa t i m a ) , w h i ch m a d e i t pos s ib l e t o i d e n ti f y th e v i c t im , or s ta t i s ti c a l , g i v in g on l y a n o v er a l l nu m b er o f th e c h i l d re n w h o ar e a ff e c t ed b y th e pr ob l e m . T h e s e co nd v ar i a b l e w as m es s ag e

(4)

f r a m i ng , wh i c h w as e i th e r p os i t iv e or n e g a ti v e . Th e pos i t i v e m e ss ag e fr a m i ng e m p h as i z e d t he po t e n ti a l b e n ef i t s of th e do n a t i on , st a t i ng how th e ch i l dr e n o r Fa t i m a w o u ld h a v e b e n ef i t e d f r om th e d o n a t io n. O n t h e o th e r h a n d, t h e n e g a t iv e m es s ag e fr a m i ng e mp h as i z e d t h e p o t e n t ia l l oss fo r th e v i c t im i f th e d o n a t io ns w e r e n ot pr o v id e d. Fi n a l ly , th e t h i r d v a ri a b l e co ns i de r e d w as th e u s e o f sh o ck i ng i m a ge s. Tw o i m a g es w e re u s ed , th e s ho c k in g o n e sh ow i ng a c h i l d w i t h b l oo d an d br u is es on h er f a c e, an d t h e p l e as i ng (o r no n - sh o ck i ng ) o n e s how i n g t h e s a m e ch i l d w i th ou t b l o od a n d b ru i s es.

T h e e f f ec t s o f t yp e o f v i c t i m , m ess a g e f r am i n g , an d s h oc k i m a g es on w i l l i ng n ess to do n a te or d o n at i n g b eh a vi o r h a v e a l r e ad y b e en t es t ed by p r e v io us s t u d ie s. T h is s tu dy a i m s at d is c ov e r i ng w h a t t h e b e st c o m b in a t i on o f th e s e t hr e e e l e m en ts t o i n cr e as e t h e w i l l in g ne ss to do n a t e fo r b o th i d e n t if i a b l e a nd s t a t is t i c a l v i c t i ms is .

2 . T h eo r e t ic a l f r am e wo rk

A s h i gh l i gh t e d b y G ri ns t e i n, H a g t ve d t and Kr o nr od (2 0 18 ), a c h i ev i ng t h e i n t e n de d g o a l is ch a l l en g i ng , a nd th es e c a m p a i gn s of t e n t ur n ou t to b e i n e f f ec t i v e. Fur t h er m or e , a s c an b e f o un d in th e l i t e r a tu r e, in d iv i d ua l i d e n t if i a b l e v ic t i m s s e e m to a tt r a c t m or e d o n a t io ns t h an s t a t is t i ca l v i c t i ms . H ow e v er , i f th e s a m e a mo u n t o f m o ne y w er e us e d t o h e l p mo r e v i c t i ms , t h e p e o p l e wh o w ou l d b e n ef i t w o ul d b e m o re , l e a d i ng t o b e t t e r o v er a l l ef f e c ts ( L o ew e ns t e in , S m a l l & S tr n ad , 2 00 5 ; Sm al l , Lo e w ens t e i n & S l ov i c , 20 05 ) . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , Lo ew e ns t e i n e t a l. ( 20 05) ar gu e t h a t e v en i f ra i s in g m on e y f o r s p e c if i c v i c t i ms m i g ht d i s to r t a i d a ll o c a t i on , i t mi g h t s t i l l b e m or e e f f e c t iv e th a n r a is i ng mo n ey fo r s ta t i s ti c a l v i c t i ms , si n c e i t w ou l d r es u l t i n a l o w er a m ou n t of do n a t io ns . Th e r ef o re , t h i s s t ud y w i l l c ons i d er c h ar i t y c a m p a i gn s ad dr e ss in g i de n t if i a b l e v i c t i ms a n d t ho se a d dr es s in g s t a t is t i c a l v i c t i m s of e q u al i mp or t a n c e , a i mi n g t o fi n d a s o lu t i on to i m p ro v e w i l l i ng n ess t o do n a t e fo r b o th s t a t is t i c a l a n d i d en t i f i abl e v i c t i ms .

T h r e e m a i n a n t e c ed e n ts o f w i l l in gn es s t o d o n a t e h av e b e e n i d e nt i f i ed i n t h e l i t e r a tu r e : po s i t iv e o r n e g a t iv e m essa g e fr a m i ng , us e of s ho c k i ma g es , a n d th e us e o f i d en t i f i ab l e o r s t a t is t i c a l v i ct i m s . T h er e fo r e , t h e e f fe c t of e a ch

(5)

o f th e se e l e m en t s a nd th e i r i n t er a c t i on i s in v es t i g at e d to f i n d t h e b es t c o m b i na t i o n t o i n cr e as e th e w i l l i ng n ess to d o n a t e.

2 . 1 Id en t if i ab l e an d st at i st i c a l v i ct i ms

A s m en t i on e d a bo v e. i d en t i f i ab l e v i c t i ms a r e d es c r ib e d w i t h d e ta i l e d p e rs o na l in fo r m a t io n s u ch as a g e, n a m e, fa c e , a n d s p e c if i c d if f i cu l t i es ( L e e

& Fe e l e y , 2 01 7 ; S m a ll & Lo ew e ns t e i n, 2 00 3 ). O n th e o t h er h an d, s t a t is t i c a l v i c t i m s r e pr es e n t as a l ar g er g ro up d es c r ib e d on l y b y g en e r a l i n fo r m a t io n , s u ch as th e i r c ou n t ry o f o r ig i n a nd c o mm on d if f i cu l t y ( L e e e t a l. , 2 01 7) .

T h e id e n t if i a bl e v i c t i m e ff e c t (IV E ) , w h i c h d ef i n es t h e t en d en c y p e o p l e h a v e to do n a t e mo r e to i d e n ti f i ed i n d i v id u a l v i c t i ms r a th e r th a n to u n i d en t i f i ed s t a t is t i c a l vi c t i ms , h as b ee n w id e l y in v es t ig a t e d in t h e l i t e r a t ur e . A s s ta t e d b y K o gu t ( 20 1 1) , p eop l e s e e m t o b e m o re ge n e ro us a n d w i l l i ng to co n t ri b u t e t ow ar ds id e n t if ia b l e vi c t i ms , ev e n w h e n t h e i d e n t if i c a t i on do es no t c on v ey a ny m e an i ng f u l i n fo r m a t io n a b ou t th e v i c ti m . A c c or d in g to C ry d er a nd L o ew en s t ei n (2 011 ) , ju st k now i n g t h e ag e , g e n de r , o r h a i r c ol o r of a v ic t i m ma k es p e op l e v a lu e mo r e h is o r h er l if e t h an ju s t a s t a t is t i c a l v i c t i m. A s a r es u l t, i d en t i f ia b l e vi c t i ms t r ig g er a s tr on g er e m o t i o na l ap p e al , m o re e mp a t hy , a nd m o r e d is t r ess , re su l t i ng in m o r e d o n a t io ns ( L e e e t a l. , 2 01 7 ; K o g u t 20 1 1 ) . Fu r t h e rm o r e, id e n t if i a b l e v i ct i m s c a n a t t r a c t mo r e d o na t i o ns be c a us e i t is c l e a r w h e r e th e m on e y of t h e d o n a t io n i s go i n g , h ow m an y p e op l e ar e a t r i sk , an d t h e v i c t i m r ep r es e n t s t h e w ho l e r e f er e n c e g ro up ( G ar c i a , Ma ss on i , a n d V i l l ev a l , 2 01 8 ; Je n n i e t al . , 1 9 97 ) . In d e ed , a s a rg u e d by G a r ci a e t a l . ( 2 01 8 ) , a do n a t io n th a t m a y h a v e a m b i g uo us c os ts or a m b i gu ou s b en e f i ts c an l e ad to ex c us e -d r iv e n b eh a v io r a n d r es u l t i n low e r d on a t i on s.

H ow e v er , id e n t if i a b l e v i c t i ms d o n o t n e c e ss ar i l y a t tr a c t m or e d o n a t io ns t h an s t a t is t i c a l v i c t i ms . A s ar g ue d b y K o gu t ( 20 11 ) , pe o p le o f t en t r y t o f i n d a ju s ti f i c a t io n t o r e du c e t h e ir a n x i e ty an d p e rs u ad e t h e ms e lv e s t h a t no i n jus t i c e o c c ur s. T hus , th e y o f te n f in d a r e as on t o j us t i fy th e w ro n gn es s b y b l a m in g th e v i c t i m, e sp e c i a ll y in t h e c as e of w e ak p eo p l e a nd g r ou ps s uc h a s r ef ug e es , p eo p l e w it h AI D S, un e m p lo y ed p e op l e , e l d er l y a nd p o or p eo p l e ( Ko gu t , 20 11 ). W h en t h e v i c t im i s p er c e iv e d as r esp o ns ib l e fo r

(6)

t h e pr o b le m , th e in t e n t io n to a gr e e w i th t he c a us e a nd th e i n te n t i on to h e lp i s d e c r e as ed co m p ar e d t o an u n id e n t if i e d v i c t i m i n t h e s a m e s i t u a t io n , as i d e n t if y i ng t h e v ic t i m c a n l e ad to m or e b e n e f ic e n c e or m or e p un i sh m e nt ( K o g u t, 20 1 1 ; L o ew e ns t e in e t a l. , 20 05 ) . E m p a t hy i s a c ru c i a l dr i v er of p r os o c ia l b e h av i or an d is t r i gg e r ed b y id e n t i fi c a t i on an d p er c e iv e d n e ed ( G r i ns t e i n e t a l. 2 01 8 ).

Fo r t h is r e as on , i d en t i f i ab l e v i c t i ms a r e e xp e c t e d t o tr i g ge r m or e e m p a t hy , as i d en t i f i ca t i o n a n d p e r c ei v e d n e e d ar e a n t e c ed e n ts o f e mp a t hy ( G r i ns t e i n e t a l. , 2 01 8 ; Le e e t al . , 2 01 7 ; K og u t 2 0 11 ). Bo t h e m o t io n a l a n d a n a l y t i c a l e l e m e n ts c an m o t iv a t e p eo p l e t o h e l p ( E r l an dss on , V ä st f j a l l.

S un d f e lt & S l o vi c , 2 01 6) . Mo r eo v er , i d en t i f i c a t io n is f o un d t o h e lp o n ly s i ng l e v i c t i ms w i t ho u t a f fe c t i ng gr ou ps o f v i c t i m s (K og u t & R i t o v, 2 0 05 ).

Fi n a l l y , Er l a nd ss on e t a l. ( 20 16 ) s ug g est t h a t b ot h a na l y t i c a l an d e m o t i o na l a rg u m en t s c a n b e b en e f i c i a l f or a c h ar i t y c am p a i gn , b u t m ix i ng d i f f er e n t ar g u me n ts , c ou l d b e d e t r i m en t a l . A s tu d y co n du c t ed b y Sm a l l e t a l.

( 2 00 5 ) d e m o ns tr a t e d th a t in c l ud i ng s t a t is t ic s a l o ngs i d e a n id e n t if i a b l e v ic t i m lowers the donations’ amount , maybe because people become unsure that the i d e n t if i e d v i c t i m w o u ld re c e i v e t h e d on a t io n .

H 1 a : Id e n ti f i ab l e v i c t i ms , as op p os ed to s ta t i s t i c a l v i c t i ms , h av e a p os i t iv e e f f e c t o n w i l l i ng n ess t o do n a t e.

H 1b : T h e e ff e c t of t y pe o f v ic t i m o n w i l li n g n ess t o do n a t e is m e di a t e d by e m p a t hy .

H 1 c : Id e n ti f i ab l e v i c t i m s , as op p os ed to s ta t i s t i c a l v i c t i ms , h av e a p os i t iv e e f f e c t o n e m p at h y

2 . 2 M es sa g e f r am in g

I n t h is s tu dy , m es s ag e fr a m i ng r e f er s to t he us e of n e g a ti v e (o r l oss -f r a m ed ) m e ss a g es a nd p os i t iv e ( or g a i n - fr a m e d) m e ss a g e (S m i th & P e t ty , 19 96 ) . A c c or d in g t o C h an g a nd L ee ( 2 00 9) , b o th po si t i v e a nd n e g a t iv e me ss a ge

(7)

I n d e ed , n eg a t i v e m ess a g e fr a m i ng c an ma k e p e o pl e f e e l m o r e co n c er n e d a b o u t po t e n t i a l l oss an d m or e co m p e l le d a b ou t d on a t i ng , i t c an b e mo r e p e rs u as i v e, an d i t c an b e mo r e e ff e c t i ve in g r ab b in g a t t e n t io n ( Ch a ng e t a l . 2 0 09 ) . A t th e s a m e t i m e, po s i ti v e m ess a ge f r a m in g c an m a k e t h e g o a l f e e l m o r e a t t a in a b l e co m p ar e d t o n e g a t iv e m es sa g e fr a m i ng a nd c a n f a ci l i t a t e w i l l i ng n ess t o h e lp (C h a ng e t al . , 2 00 9) . I nd e e d, fr a m i ng a m ess a g e a s p os i t i v e, fo r ex a m p l e, by s ta t i n g h ow m an y p eo p l e wo u l d b e h e l p ed b y a d o n a t io n, i ns t e ad o f t el l i n g ho w m a ny p eop l e a re i n d an g e r m i gh t in c r e as e t h e f e e l in g of h av i n g an i m p a ct . E v en i f p e op l e d e c la r e t o b e e qu a l l y c o n c er n e d ab o ut p o t e n t i a l r is k an d c e r t ai n ri s k, th e y t en d t o be u n co ns c i ou s ly m o r e c o n ce r n ed tow a r d t h e v ic t i m w h en a l ar g e p or t i on of th e r e f er e n c e gr ou p i s su b j e c t ed to a c er t a i n r isk ( J en n i & L o ew e ns t e in , 1 99 7) . W h en f r a m in g a m e ss a g e as pos i t i v e b y s t a t i ng t h e n u mb e r o f p eo p l e th a t w o ul d b en e f i t f ro m t h e d o n at i o n, t h e b en e f i c i ar i es w ou l d c ons t it u t e 1 0 0% o f t he r e f er e n c e gr ou p .

H 2 : Po s it i v e m e ss ag e f r a m in g , as op po se d t o n eg a t i v e m es s ag e f r a m in g, p os i t i v e ly in f l ue n c es w i l l in g ne ss to d o na t e

2 . 3 Sh oc k i m ag es

T h e us e of s h oc k i m ag es i s i n cr e a si n g ly po p u l ar i n a d v er t is i ng , a ls o i n th e p h i l a n th ro p i c co n t e xt ( J ans e n, 2 0 15 ; C oc k ri l l & Pa rs o na g e , 2 0 16 ). H ow ev e r, i t is ef f i c ac y i n t h e ch a r i ty d on a t i on co n t ext st i l l h as to b e t es t e d. A c co r d in g t o D ah l , Fr an k en b er g er , a nd M a n ch a n da ( 2 0 03 ) , sh o c k i m a g es a re f ou nd t o d r aw a t t en t i on , f a c i l i t a t e m e m or y, a nd tr ig g e r a c t u a l b eh a v io r th a nk s t o i t s f e a r a pp e a l . H ow e ve r , if a s o lu t i on t o t h e pr o b le m is no t p r es en t e d i n th e a d v e r ti s e me n t an d i f t h e a u d i en c e f e e ls di r e c t l y t h re a t e n ed by th e d a n ge r , t r i g g er i ng f e ar m i g ht b a c kf i r e an d r e su l t i n l o w er a t t e n t io n en g a ge m e n t, l ow r e c a l l , an d l ow f i n a nc i a l c on t r ib u t i on (Ja n s en , 20 15 ) . S i m i l ar l y, A lb ou y ( 2 01 7 ) fo u nd th a t n e g a t iv e e mo t i on s s u c h a s s ad n ess , f e ar , an d sh o ck a re f o un d t o i m p ro v e h e lp i ng b e h av i o r b e ca us e o f d ef e ns e r e fl e x es , c or r e c t iv e o r c o m p e ns a to ry ac t i o ns, a n d m i l i ta n t i nv o lv e m e n t. H ow ev e r, if e x c ess i v e ly t r a g i c v is u a ls a re us e d, t he e ff e c t is r e v er s ed , g i v in g a f e e l in g o f h e l p l ess n es s, c og n i t iv e r u mi n a t io n , an d r ea c t a n c e , th us r ed u c i ng c h ar i t a b le

(8)

g i v i ng . Fu r th e r mo r e, J a ns e n (2 01 5 ) a rg u es t h a t s ho c k i m a g es d o no t s e e m t o a f f e c t a t t e n t io n ho l d i ng an d m e m or y , c on tr a r y t o w h a t D h a l e t a l . ( as c i t e d b y J a ns e n 2 0 15 ) h a d f o un d. A c co rd i ng l y , sh o c k i ma g es c a n ca p t ur e p eo p l e 's a t t e n t i on , b u t th e y ar e no t e no u gh t o k e ep t h e m in t e r es t ed a nd m a k e th e m w i l l i ng to do n a te .

H 3 a : S ho c k i m ag es , as op p os ed t o p le a s ing v is u a ls , h a v e a p os i t i v e i mp a c t o n w i l l in g n ess to d o n at e

H 3b : Sh o ck i m a g es ' e ff e c t on w i l l i ng n ess to d on a t e is m e d i a te d by s a d ne ss , f e a r , a nd s ho c k.

Mo r e ov e r, G r i ns t e in e t a l. ( 20 18 ) i nv es ti g a t e d t h e r o l e of a pp e a l i ng a n d u n a pp e a l i ng i m a g es to t r i gg e r p r oso c i a l b eh a v i or . A t t r a ct i v e in d i v id u a ls ar e f o un d t o g e t m o r e a t t en t i on an d b e t t er tre a t m e n t , as pl e a si n g v is u al s a r e b e n e f ic i a l to tr i g ge r id e n t if i c a t io n a n d em p a t h y ( G r ins t e i n e t a l. , 2 01 8) . D is p l e as i ng v is u a ls a r e f ou nd to in c r e as e t h e p e r c e iv e d n e ed , w h i ch w ou l d b e b en e f i c i a l t o en h an c e th e h e lp i ng b eh a v io r i n f av o r o f g ro up s o f s t a ti s t i ca l v i c t i m s ( G r i ns t e in e t a l. , 20 1 8) . A c c or d in g t o t h is f i nd i ng , s h o ck i m a g es m i g h t b e b e n ef i c i a l t o in c r ea s e th e w i ll i n g n ess t o d o n at e i n f av or o f s t a t is t i c a l vi c t i ms . Fu rt h e rm o r e, us i ng sh o ck i m a g es t og e t h er wi t h a ne g a t iv e m e ss a g e ( as w e l l a s no n - sh o ck i n g i m ag es t og e t h er w i t h p os i t i v e m ess a g e f r a m i ng ) m i gh t i mp r ov e c o ng ru e n cy , r es ul t i n g in a m or e ef f e c ti v e o v er a l l d e s ig n ( Ch a ng e t a l . 2 00 9) .

H 4 a : Co m b in i ng i d e n ti f i ab l e v i c t i ms w i th p l e as i n g v i su a ls a n d p os i t i v e m e ss a g e fr a m i ng h as a pos i t i v e i mp a c t o n w il l i n gn es s to d o na t e , c o mp a r ed t o co m b i ni n g i d en t i f ia b l e v i c t i ms wi t h sho c k i m a g es a n d n eg a t i ve m ess a g e f r a m i ng

H 4b : C o m bi n i ng s t a t is t i ca l v i c t i ms w i th s ho c k i m a g es a nd n e g a t iv e me ss ag e f r a m i ng h as a po s i t iv e i m p ac t o n w i l l in g n ess t o do n a t e , c o mp a r ed t o c o m b i n in g s t a t is t i c a l v i c t i ms w it h p l e as in g v is u a ls a n d pos i t i v e m es s ag e

(9)

F i g ur e 1 . C on c e p tu a l mo d e l

(10)

3 . M eth od

3 . 1 P a rt i c ip an ts

P a r t i ci p a n ts w er e fo u nd by c on v e ni e n c e sa m p l i n g , a i m in g f o r a s am p l e o f 2 0 0 p eo p l e. Co nv e n i en c e s a mp l i n g is a n o n - p ro b ab i l i t y s a m p l in g w h e r e p a r t i c ip a n ts c an b e s e l e c t ed b e ca us e of e as y a c c es s ib i l i t y, av a i l a b i li t y , a nd w i l l i ng n ess to p a r t ic i p a t e ( E t ik a n, 2 01 6 ). Th e on l y l i m i t a t io n i m pos e d o n t he s a m p l e w as t h a t p a r t i c ip a n ts ’ ag e h ad to b e o v e r 1 8 y e ars , as p a r t ic i p a nt s ha d t o be p o t en t i a l d on o rs fo r c h ar i t y c a m p ai g ns . P ar t i c i pa n ts me e t i ng th e se c r i t e r i a w e r e r e a ch e d o n l in e th ro u gh s o c ia l m e d i a. T he on l i n e qu e s t io nn a i r e w as i nd e e d t h e m os t a c c es s ib l e d a t a co l l e ct i o n m et h od f o r ou r p a r t ic i p an t s . I n t o t a l, t h e s a m p l e o f t he s tu d y co ns is t e d of 2 00 p ar t i c i p an t s ( 37 . 5%

m a l e , 61 % fe m a l e a nd 1, 5 % o t h er ) w i th a me a n a g e o f M = 27 . 48 ( S D = 9. 2 4) . R e g a rd i ng pa r t i c ip a n ts ' oc c u pa t i on , 6 8% we r e s t ud e n ts , 2 4% w er e e mp l o ye d , 3 . 5% w er e c u rr e n t ly u n e mp l oy e d, an d 4. 5% s e l e c t ed “ o t he r ” as an o p ti o n.

R e g a rd i ng n at i o na l i t y, 13 % w er e D u t ch , 1 2 .5 % w er e G e r m an , 2 3% w e r e Italian, and 51.5% selected “other” as an option.

3 . 2 St i mu lu s ma t e r ia l

T h e s t ud y co ns is t e d of a 2 x2 x 2 b e tw e en -s ub j e c t s d es ig n . T hu s, e ig h t p os t e rs w e re d es ig n ed , w i th d if f er e n t c o mbi n a t i o ns o f s t a t is t i c a l o r

i d e n t if i a b l e v i c t i ms, po s it i v e o r n eg a t i v e m e ss a g e f ra m i n g, an d sh o ck i n g or n o n- sh o ck i n g i m ag e s (s e e f i gu r e 2 ) . B e l ow e a c h p os t er , in f i gu r e 2 , t h e p e r c en t a g e o f p ar t i c i p an ts w ho w e r e e xp ose d t o i t is r e po r t ed .

(11)

13.5% 12%

12.5% 13%

12.5% 12.5%

12.5% 11.5%

F i g ur e 2 . P os t er s d es ig n

(12)

3 . 3 P r e -t es t

I n o r de r to m ak e s ur e th a t th e m ess a g e fr am i n g , t yp e of v i c t i m , a nd i m ag e s w e r e p er c e i v ed as p l a nn e d, a p r e - t es t co ns is t i ng of t en in d iv i d ua l

q u a l i t a t iv e in t e rv i ew s w a s d es i gn e d. T he in t e r v ie ws w er e co n du c t e d

t h r ou g h S k yp e v i d eo c a l ls o r i n - p e rso n w i th tw o ex p er ts a nd e ig h t po t e n t i a l members of the study’s sample.

Fo r t h e pr e - t es t, tw o c o nt e x ts w e re d es ig n ed . Th e f i rs t o n e a b ou t m i g r a nt s i n t h e M ed i t e rr a n e an S e a a n d t h e s e c on d o n e a bo u t c h i ld r en i n S yr i a . Fir s t, th e t en in t e rv i ew e e s w e r e p rov i d e d w i t h a d ef i n i t io n of

i d e n t if i a b l e v i c t i ms a n d s t a t is t i c a l v i c t i ms . T h e y w e r e a sk e d t o w h a t ex t e n t t h e y co ns i de r e d e a ch of th e f o l l ow in g e i g ht s t a te m e n ts ( f ou r fo r ea c h

c o n t e xt ) to r e f er to s t a t is t i c a l o r i d en t i f i abl e v i c t i ms . A l m os t ev e ry p a r t i c ip a n t w as a b l e t o r e c og n i ze a l l o f t h e e i g h t s t a t e m e n ts c or r e c t ly .

P a r t i ci p a n ts w er e th e n pr e s en t e d w i t h f ou r i m a g e s, tw o fo r e a c h c o n t e xt . For e ac h i ma g e , p ar t i c i pa n ts w e r e a sk e d h ow su r pr is e d a n d

s ho c k ed t h ey f e l t w he n lo ok i n g a t t h e im a ge . T h e f ir st a nd s e co n d i m a g es w e r e t h e sh o ck i ng i m ag e an d th e n on -s ho ck i n g i m a g e fo r th e mi g r an ts ’ c o n t e xt (C a r l e to n & G a r en , 2 01 8 ; Ha r r is, 20 1 8) . Th e th i rd an d f ou r th i m a g e s w e r e t h e n on -s ho c k in g i m a g e a n d th e s h oc k i ng i m ag e f or t h e

children’s context. The fourth image was a non -copyrighted image retrieved f r o m P ix a b ay . co m , w h i l e th e th i rd i m ag e wa s th e s a m e p i c tu r e e d i t ed w i t h A do b e Ph o t osh o p 20 2 0. A f t er ev a l u a ti n g ea c h i m ag e , t h e y w e r e f i na l l y a s k ed w h i ch o n e d i d t h ey f i n d t o b e t h e m os t s ho c k in g a n d w h i c h on e d i d t h e y f i nd to b e t h e l e as t s ho c k in g . H a l f o f t h e p ar t i c ip a n ts r e f er r ed t o t h e f i rs t i m ag e as th e mos t s ho c k in g ; th e o t h er h a l f r ef e rr e d t o t h e f ou r t h p i c t u re as th e mo s t sh o ck i ng . T h us , t h e s ho c k i ng i m ag es of th e tw o c o n t e xt s w er e f ou n d t o b e e q ua l l y sh o ck i ng . H ow ev e r , m os t o f t h e p a r t i c ip a n ts s e l e c te d th e th i rd i m ag e as th e l e a s t s h o ck i ng , a n d s o m e r e f e rr e d t o t h e s e co nd on e as " s l ig h t ly l ess sh o c k in g t h an th e f irs t on e ."

T h e r ef o r e, th e tw o i m a g es o f t h e c h i ld r en 's c o n t ex t s how e d a br o ad e r d i f f er e n c e i n t h e sh o ck l ev e l , c o mp a r ed t o t h e m i gr a n t 's co n t ex t i m ag es . Fo r t h is r e as on , c h i ld r e n 's co n t ex t i m ag es w e r e pr e f er r e d fo r t h e s tu d y ,

(13)

e v e n th ou g h a f ew p ar t i c ip a n ts p o in t e d o u t t h a t th e n on -s ho c k i ng o n e " w as c l e a r l y p ho t os ho pp e d . "

T h e f in a l s e c t io n o f t h e pr e - t es t t e s te d me ss a g e fr a m i ng . P ar t i c i p an ts w e r e i nf o rm e d ab ou t th e m e an i ng of p os i t iv e a nd n e g a t iv e m ess a g e

f r a m i ng . T h en , th e s a m e se n t en c e s t h a t w er e s h ow n i n t h e f ir s t s e c t i on w e r e p r es e n t ed in a d i ff e r en t o r de r , as k i ng p a r t ic i p a n ts to r a t e to w h a t e x t en t t h e y co ns i de r e d e a ch s t a t e m en t t o h av e a po s i t iv e o r n e g a ti v e m e ss ag e f r a m i ng . I n or d er t o a vo i d c on f ou nd i n g v ari a b l e s, in ev e ry s t a t e m en t w i t h i d e n t if i a b l e v i c t i ms, t h e s a m e n a m e w as u se d . Ev e ry s t a t e m en t s ho w in g a price for the donation displayed the same price of 20€, and in order to m a k e th e s t a t e m en t s r e a li s t i c, d a t a r e g ar d in g th e p r i c e a nd b en e f i ts w er e r e t r i ev e d f ro m o r ins p i re d b y a re a l do n a tio n c a mp a i gn f r om U N I C E F, U N H C R , MS F, a nd O p en A r ms .

Fu r t h er m or e , d a t a a bo u t t h e n u mb e r o f d ea t h s i n t h e M ed i t e rr a n e an S e a w as r e t r i ev e d fr o m th e U N H C R r ep o rts ( UN H CR , 2 02 0 ). R e g ar d i ng m e ss a g e f ra m i n g , mo st p ar t i c ip a n ts g a v e w r o ng an sw e rs t o s t a te m e n t s 6 an d 8 , w h i le g iv i ng th e ri g h t a nsw e rs to a l l of th e o th e r s ta t e m e n ts . A l m os t e v e r y p ar t i c i pa n t w as f ou n d t o h av e no d ou b t w h en ask e d to r e c og n i z e s t a t is t i c a l a n d i d en t i f i ab l e v i c t i ms . T hu s, fo u r m e ss ag es w e r e s el e c t e d fo r t h e s t ud y , r e l a te d to th e ch i l dr e n 's co n t e xt

( on e p os i t i v e a nd on e n e g a t iv e f or t he s t a ti s t i c a l v i c t i m, o n e p os i t iv e an d o n e n e g a t iv e f or t he i d en t i f ia b l e v i c t i m) . Th e r e fo r e, th e s t a t e m en t ab o ut t h e n u m b er o f d e a t hs i n t h e M ed i t e rr a n e an S e a w as ad a p te d to th e S yr i a n

c o n t e xt , u si n g d a t a fr o m SO H R (S OH R, 2 02 0 ) . T he s e s t a t e m e n ts, t og e t he r w i t h t h e i m a g es o f t h e c h i ld , w er e p u t t o g et h e r in a d es i gn in sp i r ed b y c h a r i ty c a mp a i gn po st e rs b y S av e th e Ch i ld r e n. Fi n a ll y , t h e l og o o f a f i c t i on a l or g an i z a t io n w as ad d ed . T h e l o go o f a r e a l o r g an i z a t io n w as n o t u s ed i n or d er t o a vo i d b i as es g i v e n by pr e vi o us e xp e r ie n c es w i th t h e br a nd . 3 . 4 P r o c edu r e a nd m e asu r es

T h e fo l l ow in g p ro c e du r e w as ap pr ov e d b y t h e E th i c a l C o m m i t t ee BMS o f t h e U n iv e rs i t y of Tw e n t e. E a ch p a r t i c ip a n t w as p r es e nt e d w i th o n e v e rs io n o f th e p os t e rs . A f t er t h e v is io n o f t h e p os te r s , pa r t i c ip a n ts w er e as k ed to

(14)

s e l f- r ep o rt t h ei r em o t i ons a nd w i l l in g ne ss t o do n a t e on a 7 -p o in t L ik e r t s c a l e , r an g in g f ro m s t ro ng l y d is a gr e e to s tr o ng l y a g r ee (B a bb i e , 2 01 6 ; D a h l, Fr an k en b er g , Ma n c ha d a 2 00 3 ) (s e e qu e s t io nn a i r e i n a p p en d ix ) . E m p a t hy w a s m e as ur e d a s a co m b in a t i on of p er c e i v ed n e e d a nd

i d e n t if i c a t i on , o n a 4 - i t e m sc a l e ad j us t e d fr o m G r ins t e i n e t a l. ( 2 01 8) 3 - i t e m sc a l e w i t h t h e a dd i t i on of " I f ee l t ha t t h e v ic t i m (s ) n e ed (s ) h e lp ," to b e t t e r t e s t p er c e i ve d n e e d ( α= . 7 9) . A c co rdi n g to th e D i ff e r en t i a l E m o t i ons S c a l e (D E S) ( I z ar d , 19 8 2) , s ad n ess w as m ea s ur e d b y t hr e e i t e ms :

d ow n h ea r t ed , s ad , an d d is c ou r ag e d ( α= .6 0) . Fe ar w a s m e as ur e d w i th i n f iv e c o m p on e n ts : f e ar f u l, n e rv o us , s c a r ed , n a use a t e d , a n d un c o mf o rt a b l e ( α=

. 8 1) (B l o ck & K el l e r, 19 95 ) . Si n c e i m a g es s ho w in g b l oo d a n d h ar m w er e u s ed as s ho c k in g i m a g e s an d su rp r is e is t he o t h er co m po n en t of s ho c k ( D ah l e t a l ., 20 03 ) , t h e s i x co m po n en t s i n th e D E S r ef e rr i ng t o d is gus t (α = . 7 0) an d s ur pr i se (α = . 69 ) w er e u s ed . Fi n a ll y , w i l l in g ne ss to d o na t e w as m e a s ur e d b y a 4 - i t e m s c a l e ( α = .9 5 ) a d ap t ed fr o m M i t te l m a n a n d Ro j a s - M e nd e z ( 2 01 8) .

A t th e en d o f t h e q ue s t io nn a i r e, m an i p ul a t io n ch e c ks w er e in c l ud e d i n or d er t o t es t if th e ty p e o f v i c t i m, m ess ag e fr a m i ng , a n d i m a ge s w e r e p e r c e iv e d i n th e in t e nd e d w ay . P ar t i c ip a n ts w e r e as k ed t o a gr e e o r d is a gr e e o n a 7 - p o in t L ik e r t sc a l e w i th s i x s t a te m e nt s , t w o p e r a n t e c ed e n t.

4 . R es ul ts

4 . 1 M an ip u la t io n ch e c ks

I n d ep e nd e n t t - t es ts w e r e c on du c t e d t o t e s t t h e a bo v e - m e n t io n ed

m a n i p u la t i on c he c ks . Fi r s t, th e m ea n r es u l ts o f th e tw o s t a t e m en t s a bo u t t h e t y p e o f v i c t i m w e r e c o m pa r e d w i t h t h e s t a ti s t i c a l o r i d en t i f i ab l e v i c t i m c o n d i t io ns . T h e r es u lt s w e r e s ig n i fi c a n t, t ( 1 98 ) = - 5. 00 , p < .0 1, s h ow in g a d i ff e r en c e in m ea ns be t w ee n s t a t is t i c a l vi c t i m s ( M = 2 .8 7 , SD = 1 . 10 ) a n d i d e n t if i a b l e v i c t i ms ( M = 3 .6 2 , SD = 1 . 02 ). S e co n dl y , t h e m e a n r es u lt s o f t h e tw o s t at e m e n ts ab ou t m ess a g e fr a m i ng w e r e c o mp a r ed w i t h po s i t iv e o r n e g a t iv e m ess a g e f ra m i n g c on d i t io ns . T h e r e su l t s w e r e s ig n if i c a n t, t ( 19 8)

(15)

f r a m i ng ( M = 2 . 99 , SD = 1. 3 5) an d p os i t ive m e ss ag e f r a m in g ( M = 3 .7 7 , SD

= 1. 3 7) . T h ir d l y, th e m e an r e su l ts of th e tw o s t a te m e n ts ab ou t i m ag es w e r e c o m p a re d w i th s ho c k o r p l e as in g i ma g e c on d i t i ons . Th e r es u l ts w e re

s i gn i f i c an t , t (1 98 ) = - 4. 66 , p < .0 1, s h owi n g a d if f er e n c e i n m e a ns

b e t w e en p l e as i ng i m ag e ( M = 4. 38 , SD = 1 .2 7 ) a nd s h o c k i ma g e ( M = 5 .1 8 , S D = 1 . 16 ). Th e s e r esu l t s su gg e st t ha t p ar ti c i p a n ts co rr e c t l y r e co gn i z e d a l l t h e c on d i t io ns .

4 . 2 E ff e c t of typ e of v i c t im o n wi l l i ng ne ss t o d ona t e

A m ed i a t i on an a l ys is w as u s ed to t es t if the e f fe c t of ty p e o f v i c ti m on w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e is m ed i a t e d by e m pa th y ( H 1 b) (s e e f ig u r e 3) . T h e s t a t is t i c a l m o d el s h ow ed a n on -s i gn i f i ca n t e f f e c t o f t yp e o f v i c t i m o n e m p a t hy , b = .1 2 , s . e . = . 17 , p = .4 7 , 95 % C . I. ( - . 2 1, . 4 6) . A s i g n if i c an t e f f e c t o f e m p at h y on w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e w as f ou n d, b = .9 3 , s. e . = . 06 , p < . 0 1, 9 5 % C. I . (. 8 0, 1 . 06 ). Fur t h e rm o r e, a m a r gi n a l ly s i gn i f i c an t p os i t i v e d i r e c t e f fe c t o f ty p e of v i ct i m on w i l l in g nes s t o do n a t e w as f ou nd , b = .2 8 , s . e. = .1 5 , p = .0 7 , 95 % C .I . ( - .5 9 , .0 3 ), me a n i n g t h a t p ar t i c i pa n ts p r es e n t ed w i t h i d en t i f i ab l e v i c t i ms h a d a h ig h er w i l l in g n ess to do n a t e (H 1a ) . N o s i gn i f i c an t co rr e l a t i on w as fo un d b e tw e e n t y p e o f v i c t i m a nd e mp a t hy r = - . 5 3, p = . 46 , n = 20 0. A s i gn i f i ca n t co rr e l at i o n w as f o un d b e tw e en e mp a t hy a n d w i l l in g ne ss to d o na t e r = .7 1, p < . 01 , n = 2 00 . N o s i gn i f i c an t

c o r r e la t i on w a s fo u nd b e tw e e n t y pe of v i c ti m a n d w i l l i ng n ess t o do n a t e, r = - .0 5 , p = . 46 , n = 20 0 . A c c or d i ng to th e se r e su l t s, th e n u l l- h yp o th e si s w as n o t r e j e c t ed .

Fi g u r e 3 .

Type of Victim

Willingness to donate Empathy

a = .12

c’= .28

b = .93

(16)

A l in e a r r eg r ess i o n t es t e d t h e e ff e c t o f th e t y p e o f v i c t i m on e m pa t h y ( H 1 b ). N o s ig n if i c a n t i n te r a c t io n w as f ou nd , F ( 1, 19 8) = . 52 , p = . 4 7. A s p r e v io us l y m e n t io n ed , n o si g n if i c a nt c or r el a t i o n w as f ou n d b e tw e en th e t y p e o f v i c t i m a nd e mp a t hy . Th e r ef or e , t h e n u l l- hy p o th es i s w a s no t r e j e c t e d.

A l in e a r r eg r ess i o n t es t e d t h e e ff e c t o f typ e of vi c t i m o n w i l l in gn e ss t o d on a t e ( H 1 a ). N o s i gn i f i c an t i n t e r a c t ion w as f o un d, F (1 ,1 9 8) = . 56 , p = . 4 6. Fu r th e r mo r e, as pr e v io us l y m en t i on ed , no s i gn i f i c an t c or r e l at i o n w as f o un d b e tw e en th e ty p e of v i c t i m a nd w i l li n g n ess to d on a t e . T he r e fo r e, th e n u l l -h yp o t he s is w as n o t r e j e c te d .

4 . 3 E ff e c t of me ss ag e f r am i ng o n w i l l i ngn es s t o d on a te

I n o r de r to t es t H 2 , a l in e a r r e gr es s io n a n al y s is te s t ed th e ef f e c t of m ess a g e f r a m i ng o n w i l l in gn e ss t o d on a t e . N o s i gn if i c a n t e f fe c t w as fo un d , F

( 1 ,1 9 8) = 2. 10 , p = .1 5 . Fu r th e r mo r e, n o s ig n i f i ca n t co rr e l a t io n w as f o un d b e t w e en m ess a g e fr a m i ng an d w i l l in gn e ss t o do n a t e, r = .1 0, p = . 15 , n = 2 0 0. T he r ef o r e, th e n u l l - h yp o th e s is w as n ot r e j e c t ed .

4 . 4 E ff e c t of s ho ck im a g es on wi l l in gn es s t o do na t e

Fo u r m ed i a t io n an a l ys es w er e r u n t o t e st i f t h e ef f e ct of s ho c k i m a g es o n w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e w a s m e d ia t e d b y f e ar, s a d ne ss an d sh o ck (m e a su r ed b y s ur pr i s e a nd d i sg us t ) (H 3 a) . T h e f i rs t mo d e l te s t ed if th e ef f e c t o f s h o ck i m a g e s on w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e m e di a t e d b y f e a r (s e e f i gu r e 4 ) . Th e mo d e l s ho w ed a s ig n if i c a n t e ff e c t o f sh o ck i m ag es o n f e a r, b = . 43 , s. e . = . 17 , p = . 0 1, 95 % C .I . ( - .1 0 , .7 7 ) , m ea n i ng th a t p a rt i c i p a n ts p r es e nt e d w i th s ho c k i m a g e s pr e se n t ed a h i gh e r l e v e l of f ea r . Fur t h e r mo r e, a s ig n if i c a n t e ff e c t o f f e a r o n w i ll i n gn es s t o d on a t e w as f ou n d, b = .2 4 , s. e . = . 09 , p = . 01 , 9 5%

C . I. (. 06 , . 42 ) . T h e d ir e c t ef f e ct of s ho c k im a g e s on w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e w as fo un d to b e n o n - si g n if i c a nt b = . 19 , s.e . = . 22 , p = .4 0 , 95 % C .I . ( -. 2 5, . 6 3) . A c o rr e l a t io n w as f ou n d b e tw e en s hoc k i m ag e s a nd fe a r , r = .1 8 , p = . 0 1, n = 2 00 , a n d b e tw e en f e a r a n d w i l l i ngn e ss to d o n at e r = .1 9, p = . 01 , n

(17)

= 20 0 . No co rr e l a t i on w as f o un d b e tw e e n sh o c k i m a g es w i l li n gn es s t o d o n a t e, r = . 0 9, p = . 19 , n = 2 0 0.

Fi g u r e 4 .

T h e s e c on d m o d el t es t e d i f t h e e ff e c t o f sho c k i ma g es o n w i l l in gn e ss t o do n a t e is m e di a t e d b y s a d ne ss ( se e fi g ure 5 ) . Th e mo d e l sh ow e d a

s i gn i f i c an t ef f e c t of s ho c k im a g es o n s ad ne ss , b = .3 4 , s . e . = . 16 , p = .0 3 , 9 5 % C .I . ( .0 3, .6 5) , m e a n in g th a t p a r t ic i p an t s p r es en t e d w it h s ho c k i m a g es p r es e n t ed a h i gh e r l e v e l of s a dn es s . A s i gni f i c a n t e ff e c t o f s ad n ess on w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e w a s fo u nd b = .5 1 , s.e . = . 09 , p < .0 1 , 95 % C .I . ( .3 2 , . 6 9) . A n on -s i gn i f i c an t d i r e c t e ff e c t o f sh oc k i m ag e on w i l l in g ne ss to d o n a t e w a s fo u nd , b = . 1 2, s . e. = .2 1, p= .57 , 9 5 % C. I . ( - .3 0, .5 3) . A s i gn i f i c an t co rr e l a t i on w as fo un d b e tw e e n s ho c k im a g es an d s ad n ess r = . 0 9, p = . 19 , n = 20 0, an d b e tw e e n s ad n ess a n d w il l i n gn es s t o d on a t e, r = . 3 6, p < . 01 , n = 20 0.

Fi g u r e 5 . Shock images

Willingness to donate Fear

a = .43

c’= .19

b = .24

Shock images

Willingness to donate Sadness

a = .34

c’= .12

b = .51

(18)

T h e t hi r d m od e l t es t ed i f t h e e ff e c t o f sh o ck i m a ge s o n w i l l i ng n ess t o d o n a t e is m ed i a t e d by s u rp r is e (s e e f i gu r e 6 ) . T h e m o de l s ho w ed a

s i gn i f i c an t ef f e c t of s ho c k im a g es o n su r pri s e , b = . 1 2, s . e. = .1 6, p= .4 6, 9 5 % C .I . ( - .2 0 , .4 5 ), m ea n i ng th a t p a r t i c ipa n t s p re s en t e d w i t h sh o c k i m a g e s pr e se n t ed a h i gh e r l e v e l of s u rp r is e . Fu r th e r mo r e, a s ig n if i c a n t e f f e c t o f s u rp r i s e o n w il l i n gn es s t o d on a t e w as fo un d , b = . 46 , s .e . = .0 9, p < . 0 1, 9 5 % C. I . (. 2 9, . 6 4) . T h e d i re c t ef f ec t o f sh o ck i m ag es on

w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e w a s fo u nd to be no n -s i gn i f i c an t , b = . 2 3, s . e. = .2 1 , p = . 2 7, 9 5 % C. I . ( - .1 8, .6 5) . N o s i gn i f i c ant c o rr e l a t io n b e tw e e n sh o ck i m a g e s a nd s ur p ri s e w a s fo u nd , r = . 05 , p = .4 6 , n = 2 0 0 . A s ig n i fi c a n t c o r r e la t i on w a s fo u nd b e tw e e n su rp r is e and w i l l i ng n ess t o do n a t e , r = .3 5, p < . 01 , n = 20 0.

Fi g u r e 6 .

T h e fo ur t h m o d e l t es t e d i f t h e e ff e c t o f sho c k i ma g es o n w i l l in gn e ss t o do n a t e is m e di a t e d b y d is gu st (s e e f ig u re 7 ) . Th e mo d e l sh ow e d a

s i gn i f i c an t ef f e c t of s ho c k im a g es o n d is g us t , b = . 5 7, s . e. = .1 8 , p< .0 1, 9 5 % C .I . ( .2 1, .9 3) , m e a n in g th a t p a r t ic i p an t s p r es en t e d w it h s ho c k i m a g es p r es e n t ed a h i gh e r l e v e l of d i sg us t . Mo r eov e r , a s i gn i f i ca n t ef f ec t of

d i sg us t o n w i l l in gn e ss t o d on a t e w as f o un d, b = - . 2 4, s . e. = .0 8 , p= .0 1, 9 5 % C .I . ( - .4 1 , - . 07 ). Fi n a l ly , a m ar g in a ll y s i g ni f i c an t di r e c t e ff e c t o f s ho c k im a g es o n w i l l in gn e ss t o d on a t e w as f ou n d , b = .4 3 , s. e . = . 22 , p = . 0 6, 95 % C . I . ( - .0 1 , .8 7 ). A s ig n i fi c a n t c or r e l a t io n w as f ou n d b e tw e en s ho c k im a g es an d d is gu s t, r = .2 1, p < . 01 , n = 20 0, a nd b e tw e e n d is gu s t a n d w i l l in g ne ss to d o na t e , r = - . 1 7, p = .01 , n = 20 0 . Ac c o rd i ng to t he s e r e su l t s, th e n u l l - h yp o th e si s w as r e j e c te d

Shock images

Willingness to donate Surprise

a = .12

c’= .23

b = .46

(19)

Fi g u r e 7 .

A l in e a r r eg r ess i on t es t e d t h e e ff e c t o f sh oc k i m ag e s on w i l l i ng n ess to d o n a t e ( H 3 b) . No s ig n if i c a n t i n te r a c t io n w a s f ou nd , F ( 1, 1 98 ) = 1. 71 5 , p = . 1 9. Fu r th e r mo r e , a s p r ev i ou s ly m e n t io n ed , n o c or r e l a ti o n w as fo un d b et w e en s ho c k i m ag es a n d w i ll i n gn es s to d o n a t e. Th e r e fo r e, t h e n u l l - hy p o th es i s w as n o t r e j e c t ed .

4 . 5 E ff e c t of typ e of v i c t im , sh o ck i m ag es a nd m es sa g e f r am in g on w i l l ing n ess t o d ona t e

A l in e a r r eg r ess i o n t es t e d t h e e f fe c t o f typ e of vi c t i m , sh o ck i m ag e s, an d m e ss a g e fr a m i ng o n w il l i n gn es s t o do n a t e ( H 4 a , H4 b) . No s ig n i f ic a n t e ff e c t w as fo un d , F ( 1, 19 9 ) = 1. 7 15 , p = . 96 . Acc o r d in g ly , a s pr e v io us l y r ep or t e d , n o c o rr e l a t io n w as fo u nd b e tw e e n t he typ e o f v i c t i m a nd w i l li n gn es s t o d o n a t e, be t w ee n m ess a g e f r a m in g a n d w i ll i n g n ess t o d on a t e, a nd b e tw e en s ho c k im a g es an d w i l li n gn es s t o d on at e . Fu rt h e rm o r e, n o s ig n i fi c a n t c o r r e la t i on w as fo u nd b e tw e en t y p e o f vi c ti m an d s h o ck i m a g es , r < . 0 1, p = . 9 9, n = 2 00 . M o re o v er , no s ig n if i c a n t co rr e l a t i on w as f ou nd b e tw e e n ty p e o f v i c t i m an d m e ss ag e f r a m in g , r = . 01 , p = . 88 , n = 20 0 . T h er e fo r e, t he nu l l - h y po t h es es w e r e no t r e j e c t e d.

Shock images

Willingness to donate Disgust

a = .57

c’= .43

b = - .24

(20)

Overview of results from tested hypotheses

Results Hypothesis

H1a H1b H1c H2

Not supported Not supported Not supported Not supported Not supported Supported Not supported Not supported H3a

H3b H4a H4b

T a b l e 1 .

5 . D is cu ss i on

T h i s s tu dy a i m ed a t a n a ly z i ng th e ef f e c t t yp e of v i c t i m , m es s ag e f r a m in g, a n d s ho c k i m a g es o n w i l l i ng n es s t o do n a t e i n th e co n t ex t o f a c h ar i t y c a m p a i gn , in o r de r to f i nd t he b es t c o mb i na t i o n to in c r e as e w il l i n gn es s t o d o n a t e. B a se d o n t h e l i t e r a tu r e, a m o de l w a s t es t ed w h er e th e ef f e c t of t yp e o f v i c t i m (s t a t is t i c a l o r i d e nt i f i ab l e v i c t i m) on w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e w a s m e d i a t e d b y e m pa t h y, th e ef f e c t of s h oc k in g o r p l e as i ng i m ag es w a s m e d i a t e d b y s a d ne ss , f e ar an d sh o ck a nd me ss a g e f r am i n g (p os i t i v e or n e g a t iv e ) h a d a d i r e c t e ff e c t o n w i l li n gn ess to do n a t e. I n t h is s e c t io n , r e su l t s fr o m d a t a a n a ly s is a n d f in d in gs ar e d is c uss e d .

5 . 1 T yp e o f v i ct i m

M a n ip u l a t io n c h e ck s s u gg es t e d t h a t p a r ti c ip a n ts co r re c t l y i d e nt i f i ed

s t a t is t i c a l a n d i d en t i f i ab l e v i c t i ms . R es u l ts c o nf i r m ed th e s t ro ng c or r e la t i o n b e t w e en e mp a t hy an d w i l li n gn es s t o d on a te . H ow e v er , t h e t y p e of v i c t i m w as no t f o un d t o h a v e a s ig n i fi c a n t e ff e c t o n e mp a t hy , a n d t h e e ff e c t o f t h e t y p e o f v i c t i m on w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e w as o n l y m a rg i n a l ly s i gn i f i ca n t . T h e s e f in d in gs w e r e i n c on t r as t w i th l i t er at u r e , as e mp a t hy is f o un d i n th e l i t e r a t ur e to be on e o f t h e c r i t i c a l f a c to rs th a t e xp l a i n t h e e ff e c t o f t yp e of

(21)

K og u t 2 01 1 ) . H ow ev e r, t h e m a rg i n a ll y s ign i f i c an t d ir e c t e f fe c t o f th e ty p e o f v i c t i m o n w i ll i n gn es s t o d on a t e su p po r te d t h e l i t er a t ur e fi n d in gs b y c o n f ir m i ng th e IV E (K og u t, 20 11 ) .

A p os s ib l e r e as on w h y t h e t yp e o f v i c t i m di d no t af f e c t e m p a th y a nd o n l y a m ar g in a l i mp a c t o n w i l li n gn es s t o do n a t e c o u ld b e th e pos t e r

v i su a l s. I n de e d , s t a t is t i c a l an d i d en t i f i ab l e v i c t i ms w er e d if f er e n t ia t e d b y t h e fr a m i ng o f th e te x t , w h e re a s t h e i m a g es an d o t h er d e s ig n e l e m e nt s s t a y ed th e s a m e. A l l p a r t i c ip a n ts w er e s how n t h e i m a g e o f a ch i l d l oo k i ng a t t h e m. T hi s i m a g e m a y h av e in c r e as ed t he i d e nt i f i ab i l i t y o f t h e v i c t im , e v e n w h e n th e te x t ua l m ess a g e w as f r am e d a s s t at i s t ic a l ( C ry d er e t a l ., 2 0 11 ; K og u t 2 01 1 ). A no t h er r e as o n wh y t he t y p e of vi c t i m d i d n o t g iv e th e e x p e c t ed re su l ts , ev e n i f t h e m a n ip u l a t io n c h e c ks s ug g es t ed a co rr e c t

u n d er s ta n d in g f ro m p a r t i ci p a nt s , l i es in the p hr as i n g of t he s t a t e m en t s us e d f o r t h e m a n ip u l a t io n c h e ck . I nd e e d, t he s ec o n d s ta t e m e n t us e d t o c h e ck th e m a n i p u la t i on of th e ty p e o f v i c t i m (" Th e vi c t i m wa s r ep r es e n ta t i v e o f a l a r g e r po p ul a t i on " ) m ay h a v e b e en a mb i g uo us . P ar t i c i p an ts c ou l d h av e i n t e r pr e t ed t h e v i c ti m as a sp e c if i c id e n t if ia b l e in d i v id u a l a nd , a t th e s a m e t i m e , co ns i d er th e vi c t i m as r e pr es e n t a t iv e o f o t he r p e op l e in a s i mi l a r s i t u a t io n.

5 . 2 M es sa g e f r am in g

M a n ip u l a t io n c h e ck s s u gg es t e d t h a t p a r ti c ip a n ts co r re c t l y i d e nt i f i ed

p os i t i v e a nd n eg a t i ve m ess a g e f r am i n g. H ow e v er , wh e n t e st e d , no ef f e c t o f m e ss a g e f ra m i n g on w i l l i ng n ess to do n a te w as fo un d . In c on t r as t w it h l i t e r a t ur e , t h is w ou l d su gg e s t t h a t fr a m i ng a m e ss ag e as p os i t i ve or

n e g a t iv e ha s n o i m p ac t on th e w i l l in g n ess t o do n a t e. O n e e xp l a n a t io n f or t h i s r es u l t m a y b e t h a t b ot h p os i t i ve a nd ne g a t i v e m e ss ag e f r a m in g i s f ou nd t o h av e a m or e p os i t i v e i m p a ct on w i l l in g ne ss t o do n a t e, co m p ar e d to

n e u t r al fr a m e d m es sa g es ( C h an g e t a l. , 2 009 ) . I nd e e d, ev e n t h ou gh

m e ss a g es f r a m ed as p os i t iv e ar e usu a l l y mo r e f a vo r ed by co ns u m er s (S h iv , E d e l l an d P ay n e , 19 97 ) , n eg a t i v e ly f r a m ed m e ss a ge s a r e fo u nd to w or k b e t t e r i n h i gh - ri sk s i t u a ti o ns . A t th e s a m e t i m e , a c co rd i n g t o Sh i v e t a l.

( 1 99 7 ), n e g a t iv e m ess a g e fr a m i ng is ex p e ct e d t o w o rk b e t t e r i n c a se of an

(22)

i m p u ls e p u rc h as e . A s t h is s t ud y r e qu i r ed pa r t i c i p an t s t o r ef l e c t o n t h e p os t e rs an d r a t e a l ar g e n u mb e r of s t a t e m en t s a b ou t th e i r i m pr es s io ns an d e m o t i o ns, t he e ff e c t iv e n ess of n e g a t iv e m es sa g e f r a m in g m a y h av e be e n l o w er e d.

T h e r ef o r e, as n o n eu t r a l m e ss ag e w as in c l ud e d in th e s t ud y, no

d i f f er e n c e b e tw e en th e tw o gr o up s w o u ld em e r g e . Fu r th e r mo r e, th e co n t ex t o f ch a r i ty d o n at i o ns f or ch i l dr e n i n a w a r zo n e m ay h a v e i nf l u e nc e d t h es e r e su l t s.

5 . 3 Sh oc k i m ag es

M a n ip u l a t io n c h e ck s s u gg es t e d t h a t p a r ti c ip a n ts co r re c t l y i d e nt i f i ed s ho c k a n d p l e as i ng i m ag e s. Ev e n i f a d ir e c t e f f ect o f sh o ck i m ag es on w i l l in g n ess t o do n a t e w a s n ot fo un d , r es u lt s sh ow e d a n i n d ir e c t ef f ec t m ed i a t e d b y s a dn e ss, f ea r , a nd s ho c k ( m e as ur e d a s s u rpr i s e a nd d isg us t ). A c c or d in g to H a y es ( 20 0 9) , t h e r e as on w hy th e di r e c t e ff e c t is n o n -s i g ni f i c an t w h i l e a l l i n d i r ec t ef f e c ts ar e s i gn i f ic a n t i s t h a t t h e ef f e c ts o f th e me d i a to rs en d u p c a n c e l i ng e a ch o t h er . O n e re a so n i s pr o b abl y t h a t d is gus t ha s a n e g a t iv e e f f e c t o n w i l l i ng n ess t o do n a t e, w h i l e t h e o t h e r m e d i at o rs h a v e a p os i t iv e e f f e c t. T he s e f in d in gs ar e in l i ne w i t h t h e li t e r a t ur e . I nd e e d, a c co rd i n g t o A l bo u y (2 0 17 ), fe a r , s a d ne ss , a nd s ho c k im p r ov e d e f en s e r ef l e x es,

c o r r ec t i v e o r c o mp e ns a t or y a c t i ons , an d m il i t a n t b e h av i o r, th us in c r e as in g h e l p i ng b e h av i o r. Th e f i nd i n gs o f t h is s tu dy m a t ch w i t h t h os e o f D a h l e t a l.

( 2 00 3 ) , in co n t ra s t w i t h th e f i nd i ng s o f J a ns e n ( 20 15 ) , s h ow in g f e a r t o h av e a p os i t iv e ef f e c t o n w i l l i ng n ess t o do n a t e.

M or e o ve r , c on f ir m i n g t h e f in d in gs of th is s t ud y , A l l r ed a nd A m os ( 2 01 8 ) a rg u e t h a t e v en if us in g d is g us t in g i m a g e s c a n e vo k e m or e e mp a t hy , i t h as a n eg a t i v e e ff e c t o n d on a t i ng in t e n t io n , b e c au se d is gus t in d u ce s p e o p l e t o m a n ag e th e i r m oo d w i th av e rs i on, i ns t e ad of t ak i ng a c t io n.

5 . 4 Co mb in e d e ff e c t of typ e of v i c t im , me ss a g e f ra m in g and s ho ck im ag e s

(23)

N o s ig n if i c a n t c o mb i n ed ef f e c t c ou l d b e exp e c t e d. T he l as t tw o hy p ot h es es ( H 4 a , H 4 b ) a i m ed a t t e s t in g t h e a ssu m p t ion t h a t t h e tw o d i ff e r en t

c o m b i na t i o ns w o u ld h av e b o th ha d a po s i tiv e e ff e c t o n w il l i n gn es s t o

d o n a t e, t es t in g v e rb a l -v is u a l c o ng ru e n cy in t h e c on t e x t o f c h il d p ov e r ty , as a d v is e d f or f u rt h e r r es e ar c h b y Ch a n g e t al. (2 0 09 ). H ow e v er , g iv e n t h e r e su l t s, th es e ass u m pt i o ns c o u ld n o t b e t e st e d i n t h is s tu d y.

6 . L i m it a t ion s

T h i s s tu dy pr es e n t ed s e v er a l li m i t a t i on s. Fi r s t o f a l l, as th e da t a co l l e c t i on h a d to b e co n du c t e d du r i ng th e q u ar a n t in e i m p os e d b e c au s e of th e CO V ID - 1 9 p a n de m i c , t h e d es i gn of th e s t ud y a nd th e s a m p l in g m e t ho d w er e

n e g a t iv e l y a f fe c t e d. In d e ed , d es i gn i ng a n on l i n e q u es t io n n ai r e f or a s tu dy i n t h e c on t e x t of c ha r i t ab l e g i v i ng r i sk to b i a s t h e r es u l ts. Fi rs t o f a l l , s o c i a l d es ir a b i l i ty m ay re su l t in pa r t i c ip a nt s o v e r - r ep or t i ng t he i r w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e ( L ee & S ar g e an t , 2 01 1 ). Fur t h er m o r e, m ea su r in g w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e i n a f i c t i on a l s c en a r io , w h er e p a r t i ci p a nt s d o no t ha v e t o us e t h e ir r ea l m on e y, c an g i v e u nr e a l is t ic r es u l ts .

R e g a rd i ng th e s a m p l in g m e t ho d , c on v en i e nc e s a mp l i ng r e su l t e d i n h a v i ng th e q u es t i on n a ir e an sw er e d b y r an do m p eo p l e on s o c i a l m e d i a. Th is m a y h av e low e r ed p ar t i c ip a n ts ' i nt e r es t in f i l l i n g t h e s u rv e y i n a c cu r a t el y a n d p a y in g a t t e n t io n t o th e r e qu e st s, re su l t i n g in a l ow co m p l e t io n r a t e a nd p os s ib l y l ow e r q ua l i t y r es u l ts .

E v e n th ou g h t h e m a n ip u l a ti o n c h e cks s h owe d t h at p ar t i c ip a n ts

c o r r ec t l y r e c og n i ze d th e m an i pu l a t i ons , the o u t co m es w e r e no t as ex p e ct e d i n m os t c a se s. D ur i n g t h e pr e - t es t , t h e v ar ia b l e s w e r e t e s te d in d iv i du a l l y, w i t ho u t sh ow i ng th e f in a l p os t er d es ig n w it h t h e t yp e o f v i c t i m, m ess a g e f r a m i ng , a nd s h oc k im a g es co m b in e d. T h is m i g h t e xp l a i n wh y m es s ag e f r a m i ng an d t y pe of v i c t i m d i d n o t g iv e s i gn i f i c an t re su l t s, h as t h er e ma y h a v e b e e n s u pp r es s i ng v ar i a b le s.

7 . Fu r th e r r es e a r ch

(24)

T h i s s tu dy a i m ed a t i nv e s ti g a t in g th e ef f e ct t y p e of vi c t i m , m e ss ag e

f r a m i ng , a nd s h oc k im a g es in ch a r i ty c a mpa i g ns in t he c on t e x t of ch i l d re n i n a w ar zo n e . N o d i ff e r en c e in th e ef f e c t o f w i l l in g ne ss to d o na t e w as f o un d b e tw e e n po s i t iv e an d n eg a t i v e m es s ag e fr a m i ng . Fu r th e r r es e a r ch s ho u l d i nv e st i g a t e w h e t h er in c l ud i ng a n e ut r a l m ess a g e f ra m i n g i n t h e t es t w ou l d g i v e d if f er e n t r es u l ts , i n o rd e r t o d et e r m i n e b e t t er if m ess a g e

f r a m i ng as n o e ff e c t o n w i l l in gn e ss t o d ona t e o r i f bo t h n e g a ti v e a n d p os i t i v e m e ss ag e f r a m in g h a v e a p os i t i ve im p a c t o n w i l l in gn e ss t o d on a t e . A n i n t er e s ti n g f in d i ng o f t h is s t ud y r e ga r ds th e ro l e o f d is gu s t as a

m e d i a t or b et w e en s ho c k i m a g es a n d w i l l i ng n es s t o d on a t e . D i sg us t r es u l t ed i n l ow er i n g t h e po s i ti v e e f f ec t of s ho c k i ma g e s on w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e.

T h e r ef o r e, f u rt h e r r es e ar c h sh o ul d in v es t iga t e i n a s i m i l ar c on t e x t ho w s ho c k im a g es c an af f e c t w i l l i ng n ess t o do na t e i f o t h er ty p es o f sh o ck ar e i m p l e m e n t ed , us i ng o th e r t yp e s of of f en s e e l i c i t o rs , s u c h as re l i g io us t a b o os , m or a l o ff e ns i v en es s, i mp r op r i e ty , v u l g ar i t y, p r of a n i ty o r o bs c e ni t y ( D ah l e t a l ., 20 03 ) .

M or e o ve r , as t h is s tu dy d id n o t f i nd a s ig ni f i c a n t e ff e c t o f ty p e of v i c t i m o n em p a t hy , f ur t h er r es e a r ch s ho u l d i n v es t ig a t e t h e r o l e o f o th e r v a r i a bl e s m e d i at i n g b e tw e en th e ty p e o f v ic t i m a nd w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e.

I n d e ed , o t he r v a r i ab l es th a t w e re no t co ns id e r e d i n t h is s tu d y m a y m od e r a t e o r s up pr e ss t h e e f f ec t of ty p e o f v i c ti m on e m p a t hy a nd w i l l in g ne ss to d o n a t e, s u ch f or e x am p l e g u i lt , s ym p a t hy , o r d i s tr es s ( L ee & Fe e l ey , 2 01 7) .

8 . C on c lus i on

T h i s s tu dy tr i e d t o co m b in e th e f i nd i n gs f ro m l i t er a t ur e in or d er to f in d t h e m o s t p ra c t i c a l c o m b in a t i on o f a t yp e o f v i ct i m , m ess a g e f ra m i n g, an d sh o ck i m a g e s i n c h ar i t y c a m p a ig n p os t er s t o pr om o t e do n a t in g b eh a v io r . Se v e ra l r e s e ar c h qu e s t io ns w er e cr e a t e d i n o rd e r t o i n v es t ig a t e th is is su e . A g a i ns t i n i t i a l ex p e c t at i o ns, on l y i n o n e c as e , t h e n u l l -h yp o t he s is c o u ld b e re j e c t e d.

H ow e v er , t h e r ol e of s ho c k i m a g es a n d m ed i a t i n g e m ot i o ns i n af f e ct i n g w i l l i ng n ess to do n a t e is no t th e o n ly m e ans f i n d in g t h a t c a n b e l e a rn e d f r o m t h is s tu d y. Th i s s t u dy s e rv es as th e s ta r t i n g po i n t t o i n v es t ig a t e h ow

(25)

h o l is t i c ap pr o a ch i n t h is f i e ld is s t i l l m i ss in g in th e l i t er a t ur e , b u t i t is n e c e ss ar y t o co m e u p w i th mo r e e ff e c t i v e p r a c t i c a l i m p l ic a t i on s.

9 . R e fe r e nc e s

Albouy, Jeanne. “Emotions and Prosocial Behaviours: A Study of the Effectiveness of Shocking Charity Campaigns.” Recherche Et

A p p l i ca t i o ns En Ma rk e t i ng ( En g l is h Ed i t i on ) , v o l. 32 , no . 2 , 2 0 17 , p p.

4 – 25 . , D OI : 10 . 11 77 / 2 05 15 7 07 16 6 89 24 1 .

Allred, A.T. and Amos, C. (2018), "Disgust images and nonprofit children’s c a u s es, " Jo ur n a l o f S o c i a l M ar k e ti n g, V o l. 8 N o. 1 , p p. 12 0 - 1 40 .

h t t ps : / / do i .o r g /1 0. 1 10 8 /JS O CM - 01 -2 0 17 -00 0 3

B a b b i e, E . R . (2 01 6) . T h e p r a ct i c e of so c i a l r e s e ar c h ( 14 t h e d. ). B os to n , MA : W a d sw or t h C en g ag e L e ar n in g .

B l o c k, L . , & K e l l er , P . (1 9 95 ). W h e n to A cc e n t u a t e th e N eg a t i v e: Th e E ff e c ts o f P e rc e i v ed E ff i c a cy an d M ess a g e Fr a m i ng on In t e n ti o ns to P er f or m a H e a l t h - R e l a t ed B e ha v i or . J o ur n a l of M ar ke t i n g R es e ar c h , 32 (2 ), 1 9 2 - 2 0 3. D O I : 10 .2 3 07 / 31 5 20 47

Chang, C.‐T. (2007), Health‐care product advertising: The influences of m e ss a g e f ra m i n g a nd p e r c e iv e d p ro du c t cha r a c t e r is t i cs . P sy c ho l o gy &

M a rk e t i ng , 2 4 : 14 3 -1 69 . D O I :1 0 .1 00 2 / m ar .2 0 15 6

Chang, C.‐T., and Lee, Y.‐K. (2009), Framing Charity Advertising:

I n f lu e n c es

o f M es sa g e Fr a m i ng , I m a g e V a l e n c e, an d T e m p o ra l Fr a m in g o n a C h a r i ta b l e A p p e a l1 . Jo u rn a l o f Ap p l i ed S oc i a l Psy c h ol o gy , 3 9 : 29 1 0 - 2 9 35 . DO I :1 0. 1 11 1 / j. 1 55 9 - 18 1 6. 20 0 9. 00 5 55 . x

(26)

C r yd e r, C . , & Lo e w e ns t e i n, G . ( 20 1 1) . Th e C r i t i c a l L in k B e tw e en T a n g ib i l i ty a n d G e n e ro si t y . T h e Sc i e n c e of G i v in g : Ex p e r im en t a l A pp ro a ch es to t h e S tu d y o f C ha ri t y . D O I :1 0. 4 32 4 /9 78 0 203 8 65 9 72

D a h l, D . , Fr an k en b er g e r, K . , & M an c h an d a, R . ( 2 00 3) . D o es I t P a y to S h o ck?

R e a c t i on s t o Sh o ck i n g a nd N on sh o ck i ng A d v e r t is in g C on t e n t a m on g U n iv e rs i t y St u d en ts . Jo u rn a l o f Ad v er t i s ing R es e ar c h, 43 , 2 68 -2 8 0.

d o i : 10 .1 0 17 /S 0 02 18 4 99 03 0 30 33 2

Etikan, Ilker. “Comparison of Convenience Sampling and Purposive

Sampling.” American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, v o l . 5 , no . 1 , 2 01 6, p. 1 . , D OI : 10 . 11 64 8 / j. aj t a s .2 01 6 05 01 . 11 .

Gr i n s t ei n , A m ir , e t a l . “ A e s th e t i c a l ly (D is )P l e as i ng Vi su a ls : A D u a l P a th w ay to Empathy and Prosocial Behavior.” International Journal of R e s e ar ch i n M ar k e t in g , vo l . 3 6, no . 1 , 2 01 9 , p p. 83 –9 9 ., D OI : 10 .1 0 16 / j . i jr es m a r. 2 01 8. 0 9. 00 3 .

I z a r d, C a rr o l l E l l i s. M e as ur i ng E mo t i o ns i n I nf a n ts an d C h il d r en . C a mb r i dg e U n iv . Pr . , 19 8 6.

J a ns e n, J . a. ( 2 01 5) Ch ar i t y S ho c k Ad v er t isi n g : D o es I t Pa y to

S h o c k i n a P h i l an t hr op i c C on t e x t ? , p u r l. u tw e n t e. n l / ess a ys /6 9 03 4.

J e nn i , K. , Lo ew e ns t e in , G. E xp l a i n in g t h e I d e n t if i a b le V i c t i m

E f f e c t. J our n a l o f R is k a n d U n c er ta i n t y 1 4, 23 5– 2 57 ( 1 99 7) . h t t ps : / / do i .o r g /1 0. 1 02 3 /A : 10 07 7 40 22 5 48 4

K og u t , T . “ So m e on e to B l a m e : Wh e n Id e n ti f y i ng a V ic t i m D e c re a s es

Helping.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , vol. 47, no. 4, 2 0 11 , p p. 74 8 – 7 55 ., D OI : 10 .1 0 16 / j . j esp . 201 1 .0 2 .0 11 .

K og u t , T ., & R i t ov , I . (2 0 05 ). Th e s i ng u l ari t y e ff e c t o f i d en t i f i ed v i c t i ms in

(27)

D e c is i on P ro c ess e s, 9 7 (2 ), 1 06 – 1 1 6. h tt ps : / / do i .o r g /1 0. 1 01 6 / j. ob h dp .2 0 05 .0 2 .0 0 3

Lee, Zoe, and Adrian Sargeant. “Dealing with Social Desirability Bias: an Application to Charitable Giving.” European Journal of Marketing, v o l . 4 5, n o. 5, 20 1 1, pp . 7 0 3 – 71 9 ., D OI : 10. 1 10 8 / 03 09 0 56 11 1 11 19 9 94 .

L o e w ens t e i n, Ge or g e F. an d S m a l l, D e bo r ah a nd S t rn a d, J a m es (J ef f) Fr an k , S t a t is t i c a l , Id e n t if i a b l e a nd I c o ni c V i c t i ms a n d P er p e tr a t ors (M ar c h 2 0 05 ) . S t a n fo rd L aw a n d E c on o m i cs O l in W o r k in g P ap e r N o . 3 01 . A v a i l ab l e a t

S SRN : h tt ps : / /s sr n .c o m / ab s tr a c t =6 78 2 81 .

M i t t e l m an , R ., & R o j as - M en d e z, J . (2 0 18 ). W h y C an a d i an s g iv e to c ha r i ty : a n e x te n d ed th e or y o f p l an n ed b eh a v io ur mo d e l . In t e rn a t i on a l R e v i ew o n P ub l i c an d N on p ro f i t Ma r k e ti n g, 15 . D O I :1 0 .1 00 7 /s 12 2 08 -0 1 8- 0 1 97 - 3

S h iv , B ., E de l l , J. A ., & P ay n e , J . W . ( 19 97 ) . Fa c t o rs Af f e c t in g t h e I m pa c t o f N e g a t iv e l y an d P os i t i ve l y Fr a m ed A d M es s ag es . J ou r n al o f C o ns u m er R e se a r ch , 2 4( 3 ), 2 8 5 – 29 4 . D O I :1 0 .1 0 86 / 20 9 51 0

S l ov i c , P . ( 20 07 ) . I f I lo o k a t t h e m as s I w il l n e v er a c t : Ps y ch i c nu m b in g an d g e n o c id e . Ju d g me n t an d D e c is i on M a k in g, 2, 79 – 95 . D OI : 10 .1 0 07 = 97 8 - 90 - 48 1- 8 64 7- 1 _3

S m a l l , D . , & Lo ew e ns t e i n , G . (2 0 03 ). H e l pi n g a V i c t i m o r H e lp i ng t he V i c t i m : A l tr u is m a n d Id e n t if i a b i l i ty . Jo ur na l o f R is k a nd U n c er t a i n ty ,

2 6 (1 ) , 5 -1 6. R e tr i e ve d J un e 2 5 , 2 02 0, fr o m

w ww . j s to r. o rg /s t a b l e /4 17 6 10 95

S m a l l , D ., & S l ov i c , P. ( 20 05 ) . Ca n I ns ig ht Br e e d C a l lo us n ess? T h e I mp a c t o f L e ar n in g a b ou t th e I d en t i f i ab l e V i c t i m E f f e c t o n Sy m p a th y.

Referenties

GERELATEERDE DOCUMENTEN

Thus, if we select the significant effects from many tests of things that certainly have no true effect, we will fail to replicate about 95% of them.. The Open Science Collaboration

Volgens Kaizer is Hatra zeker (mijn cursivering) geen belangrijke karavaanstad geweest, want de voornaamste karavaanroute zou op een ruime dagmars afstand gelegen hebben en er zou

To address this concern, this research introduces an integrative framework of the leader emergence theory in which the effects of creative behavior on perceived leader potential

In order to handle categorical and continuous variables, the TwoStep Cluster Analysis procedure uses a likelihood distance measure which assumes that variables in the cluster

With the use of a survey, I investigated whether a like on the social media page of a charity could be seen as a substitute of a donation to charity, using a manipulation of the

Functions to test, execution of test, end goal, location, expected results, demands, stakeholders, role assignment, testing phase, risks during tests, specifications, Go/no go,

Olivier is intrigued by the links between dramatic and executive performance, and ex- plores the relevance of Shakespeare’s plays to business in a series of workshops for senior

Robin Cook would have had a better chance of beating Tony Blair to the Labour leadership had he looked more like Pierce Brosnan – or even, perhaps, a bit more like Tony Blair.. It