Testing the application of social accounting matrix-based structural path analysis to urban agriculture in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

TESTING THE APPLICATION OF SOCIAL ACCOUNTING

MATRIX-BASED STRUCTURAL PATH ANALYSIS TO

URBAN AGRICULTURE IN THE EASTERN CAPE, SOUTH

AFRICA

II IlI I IIII lIl IIl IIl IIII III III Il

BY

North-West University Mafikeng Campus Library

HARRISON KASUMBA

Thesis Submitted for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Geography

Z

at the Mafikeng Campus of the

North-West University

DECLARATION

I, HARRISON KASUMBA (student number: 23222514), hereby declare that this research is my original work. Unless specifically stated, all the references listed have been consulted. The work in this thesis is a record of work that has been done by me and has not been previously accepted for any higher degree or professional qualification at any other educational institution.

Signed ...

HARRISON KASUMBA

Date...

This thesis has been submitted with my approval as a university supervisor and I certify that the requirements for the applicable PhD degree rules and regulations have been fulfilled.

Signed...

PROF. T. M. RUHIIGA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Almighty God who has sustained me throughout this academic venture,

without your presence this victory would not have been achieved. My sincere gratitude and

appreciation are extended to my supervisor Prof. T.M. Ruhiiga for excellent supervision and

encouragement.

I wish to thank the North-West University (Mafikeng Campus) for financial support extended

to me which has made the completion of this research project possible. My family is

acknowledged for encouragement, emotional and material support. Finally, special thanks are

extended to Global Insight-Pretoria for study material provided and the research assistants for

ABSTRACT

The study was conducted in order to test the application of the social accounting matrix-based

structural path analysis to urban agriculture at the local level. This was part of an attempt to

advance an alternative methodology that could guarantee higher levels of precision and

reliability in the measurement and analysis of the role of urban agriculture. A quantitative

field survey research design characterised by stratified random sampling of respondents and

consultation of secondary SAM data based on South Africa already in the public domain

were used. Field observation and administration of interviews were the main primary data

collection methods. In-depth literature review helped to establish elements of SAM-based

SPA and the conditions that favour its application to urban agriculture at the local level. The

prerequisites for application of SPA include regular data capturing on the performance of an

activity in local and national accounts and compilation of local SAMs. The lack of a local

SAM for Lukhanji could not allow feeding the collected primary data into such a local SAM

for analysis using the SimSIP SAM software. As a result of the dominance of subsistence

farming operations in the study area the primary data generated could not be deployed in

testing the requirements for application of SPA. Descriptive statistical techniques were

applied to the primary data sets and inferential statistical methods including the Pearson's

chi-square analysis and variance of analysis (ANOVA) were used to analyse primary data

and to test the study hypotheses. The results show poor performance in terms of gross and net

output value, contribution to household income, food security, low levels of participation in

market processes, and employment in the local economy. These results reveal that little is

known about the internal operations of urban agriculture.

Quantitative based studies can help in bridging this gap. Lack of formalization,

minimal participation in the mainstream market economy are the key factors that impact

urban agriculture performance in Lukhanji. Contemporary descriptive and qualitative-based

studies have not generated sufficient statistics that can help in tracing the growth patterns of

the activity over time and space. The environment that favours application of SPA to the

activity requires the formalization and commercialization, regular capture of data on

performance in local and national accounts, and compilation of local SAMs.

The contribution of this research centres on several issues. It has highlighted current

limitations in contemporary approaches in the study and analysis of urban agriculture. It has

brought to the fore possibilities for the application of SPA method to raise the level of

reliability in measurement of the activity. The study has shown that the nature of the activity

is poorly understood partly because no standard classification framework exists and

quantifying the contribution to the household economy remains an area requiring further

research.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content

DECLARATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF ACRONYMS

LIST OF APPENDICES

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1

Background

1.2

Research problem

1.3

Conceptual and Theoretical framework

1.4

Aim of study

1.5

Objectives and hypothesis

1.5.1

Objectives

1.5.2

Hypotheses

1.6

Justification of study

1.7

Significance of study

1.8

The study area

1.9

Key concepts

1.10

Structure of the thesis

1.11 Summary

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Introduction

2.2

Urban Agriculture

2.2.1

Introduction

2.2.2

The scanty information on UA inputs

2.2.3

Urban Agriculture output value

2.2.4

Overstating the contribution to food security

2.2.5

Non-quantitative benefits

2.3

SAM-Based SPA

2.3.1

Introduction

2.3.2

Background of SAM framework

2.4

SAM's dual function

2.5

Application of Structural Path Analysis

2.6

South African SAMs

2.7

Knowledge gaps

2.8

Summary

CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1

Introduction

3.2

Sources of information

3.3

Lukhanji Local Municipality

3.4

Research design

3.5

Population and unit of analysis

3.6

Sampling procedure

3.7

Planning data collection

3.8

Pilot study

3.9

Data collection

3.10

Data analysis

3.11

Reliability and Validity

3.12 Summary

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

4.1

Introduction

4.2

Socio-economic profile

4.2.1

Introduction

4.2.2

Age-structure

4.2.3

Gender distribution

4.2.4

Marital status

4.2.5

Educational levels

4.2.6

Main sources of food

4.2.7

Sources of household income

4.2.8

Annual household Income

4.3

Reasons for participation

4.4

Crop and animal husbandry practices

4.4.1

Background

4.4.2

Sites used

4.4.3

Garden size

4.4.4

Labour

4.4.5

Seeds

4.4.6

Fertilizer

4.4.7

Pesticides

4.4.8

Water

4.4.9

Implements

4.5

Expenditure on inputs

4.6

The annual output value

4.7

UA contribution to household income

4.8

Duration of UA output consumption

4.9

Summary

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vii

CHAPTER 5: INFERENTIAL STATISTICS AND

INTERPRETATION

124

5.1

Introduction

124

5.2

Pearson Chi-Square Analysis

125

5.2.1

Total household income and Contribution of UA

125

5.2.2

Contribution of UA compared to total output per annum

127

5.2.3

Total farming cost compared to contribution of UA

128

5.3

Analysis of Variance

130

5.3.1

Introduction

130

5.3.2

ANOVA for total household income

131

5.3.3

ANOVA for total output per annum

133

5.3.4

ANOVA for contribution of UA against total farming cost

135

5.4

Comparing Performance of Different Variables for Different Sites

137

5.4.1

Introduction

137

5.4.2

Performing the Analysis of Variance comparison

138

5.5

Significance of hypothesis testing

144

5.6

Bridging measurement gaps in UA

144

5.7

Summary

146

CHAPTER 6: TESTING THE APPLICATION OF SAM-BASED SPA 148

6.1

Application of SAM-based SPA to UA

₁₄₈

6.2

Strengths of SAM-based SPA

148

6.3

Elements of SAM-based SPA

149

6.4

Prerequisites for application of SPA

150

6.5

Status of UA at global level

152

6.6

Status of UA in the study area

₁₆₇

6.7

UA in the rest of South Africa

170

6.8

Measuring transaction flows in UA

173

6.9

Limitations of SAM-based SPA application

174

6.10

Implication of findings

175

6.11

Summary

176

CHAPTER 7: CONTRIBUTION, CONCLUSION AND

178

RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1

Introduction

178

7.2

Classification of UA activity

178

7.3

Measurement of production

₁₈₀

7.4

Formalization potential of UA

181

7.5

Myths and Misconceptions on the Role of UA

183

7.5.1

Introduction

₁₈₃

7.5.2

Survivalist engagement

183

7.5.3

UA as a temporary activity

184

7.5.5

Costly and unproductive

185

7.5.6

UA degrades the environment

185

7.6

Use of SLA and SAM-based SPA

186

7.7

Role of technology

187

7.8

UA and the mainstream market economy

189

7.9

UA and policy distortions

190

7.10

Scholarship

191

7.11

Knowledge frontiers in time and space

191

7.12 Conclusion

192

7.13 Recommendations

194

REFERENCES

196

APPENDICES

212

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1:

Eastern Cape Province and CHDM

14

Figure 2:

Lukhanji Local Municipality

16

Figure 3:

Age structure

68

Figure 4:

Gender distribution

69

Figure 5:

Marital status

₇₀

Figure 6:

Educational levels

72

Figure 7:

Main sources of food

73

Figure 8:

Main sources of income

₇₄

Figure 9:

Annual household income

₇₆

Figure 10:

Reasons for participation in UA

₇₉

Figure 11:

Garden size distribution

₈₂

Figure 12:

Annual labour cost

₈₇

Figure 13:

Expenditure on seeds

-

Ezibeleni

₉₁

Figure 14:

Expenditure on seeds

-

hinge

92

Figure 15:

Expenditure on seeds

-

Mlungisi

₉₂

Figure 16:

Expenditure on seeds— Sada

₉₃

Figure 17:

Expenditure on seeds

-

Whittlesea-Dongwe

94

Figure 18:

Total expenditure on cultivation inputs

₁₀₀

Figure 19:

Gross annual output value

₁₀₆

Figure 20:

Net annual output value

₁₀₉

Figure 21:

Contribution to household income

₁₁₃

Figure 22:

Duration of garden output consumption

-

Ezibeleni

118

Figure 23:

Duration of garden output consumption

-

Mlungisi

119

Figure 24:

Duration of garden output consumption

-

Whittlesea-Dongwe

120

Figure 25:

Duration of garden output consumption

-

Ilinge

121

Figure 26:

Duration of garden output consumption

-

Sada

122

Figure 27:

Total household income compared to contribution of UA

₁₂₇

Figure 28:

Contribution to household income against total output

128

Figure 29:

Farming cost and contribution of UA to household income

130

Figure 30:

Error graph for total household income against contribution of UA

133

Figure 3 1:

Error graph for total output against contribution of UA

135

Figure 32:

Error graph for contribution of UA against total farming cost

137

Figure 33:

Error graph for total household income for research sites

₁₄₀

Figure 34:

Error graph for total farming cost for research sites

₁₄₁

Figure 35:

Error graph for total output per annum for research sites

142

Figure 36:

Error graph for contribution of UA to income for research sites

143

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1:

Lukhanji Municipality Broad Economic sectors

17

Table 2:

Sector contribution to employment

18

Table 3:

Household income distribution

19

Table 4:

Expenditure distribution by item

20

Table 5:

Source area and stratification of informants

59

Table 6:

Sample size distribution

59

Table 7:

Popular seeds used by farmers

89

Table 8:

Chi-Square Test of Association

126

Table 9:

Chi-Square Test of Association

127

Table 10:

Chi-Square Test of Association

129

Table 11:

Descriptive statistics for total household income

132

Table 12:

ANOVA for total household income

132

Table 13:

Descriptive statistics for total output per annum

134

Table 14:

ANOVA for total output per annum

134

Table 15:

Descriptive statistics for contribution of UA to household income

136

Table 16:

ANOVA for contribution of UA to total income

136

Table 17:

Observation, Mean and Standard deviation for study sites

138

Table 18:

ANOVA for different comparison performed over study sites

139

04

LIST OF ACRONYMS

CHDM

Chris Hani District Municipality

DBSA

Development Bank South Africa

DID

Densely Inhabited District

ESAM

Environmentally Extended Social Accounting Matrix

FAO

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation

IES

Income-Expenditure Survey

IDRC

International Development Research Centre

LDCs

Least Developed Countries

LFS

Labour Force Survey

NAM

National Accounting Matrices

OECD

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

PAU

Programme for Urban Agriculture

RoSA

Rest of South Africa

RoW

Rest of the World

SAM

Social Accounting Matrix

SARS

South African Revenue Services

SIC

Standard Industrial Classification

SLA

Sustainable Livelihood Approach

SNA

System of National Accounts

SPA

Structural Path Analysis

SSA

Sub-Saharan Africa

StatSA

Statistics South Africa

UA

Urban Agriculture

ULA

Urban Like Area

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1:

Research Questionnaire

212

Appendix 2:

Observation Schedule

₂₁₉

Appendix 3:

Data Capturing Sheets No.1 to 3

222

Appendix 4:

Basic SAM format

226

Appendix 5:

A Simplified Schematic Social Accounting Matrice

227

Appendix 6:

Endogenous and Exogenous Accounts in a SAM

227

Appendix 7:

Schematic South African national SAM

228

Appendix 8:

Comparison of salient characteristics of South African SAMs

229

Appendix 9:

Comparison of salient characteristics of South African SAMs

230

Appendix 10:

Comparison of contents and focus of South African SAMs

231

Appendix 11:

Research Project Ethics Approval

₂₃₃

Appendix 12:

Thesis Language Editing and Proof Reading

234

06

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The farming activities conducted in urban areas constitute urban agriculture (Mougoet 2000).

Mougoet (2000:11) defines urban agriculture (hereafter shortened to UA) as the growing, processing

of food crops and non-food crops and the raising of animals both within and on the city outskirts.

Among the important features reported about UA in contemporary literature, include the notions that

UA is a world-wide phenomenon and that its contribution to urban well-being is tremendous.

Contemporary literature notes that UA is a world-wide phenomenon practised both in developed and

developing countries (SCM 2013). To a large extent, UA complements rural agriculture and

increases the efficiency of the national food system (Van Veenhuizen 2007). In the cities of England

thousands of people are involved in UA on local authority allotments (Carter 2013). In Petersburg,

Russia 50% of urban families practise UA (Moldakov 2001) while Duchernin et aI (2008) note that in Berlin, 8000 people are involved in UA. New York (VSA) has 10 000 community gardens on public

land; community vegetable gardens are also found in number of cities in Canada including Toronto,

Vancouver and Montreal.

A report on UA in Latin America and the Caribbean (Dubbeling 2001) presents the commitment of

Latin American and Caribbean cities and local governments to the promotion of UA as an urban

management improvement strategy. For example in Havana, Cuba, the City of Farmers (2006)

reports that by 2001, the Popular Garden Movement owned 8% of the total urban land which accounted for 18 000 urban gardens owned by local urban dwellers to improve food security and

household income. In Argentina, it is reported that by 2003, the number of urban vegetable gardens

on family, school and community plots had reached a total of f3ur hundred and fifty thousand. The

same source notes that in Belem (Mango city) Brazil, UA is practised mainly in residential areas on

many countries in Asia. For example, it is reported that in Dhaka, Bangladesh, UA is practised on

rooftops and in open spaces within the city and on urban fringe (Smit et al 2001). In India, urban and

pen-urban agriculture is an important livelihood strategy (Te Lintelo et al, 2001). Furthermore, a

number of independent scholars and development agencies have researched on UA in the

Sub-Saharan Africa. Recent research reports on UA indicate that the activity constitutes an important

industry in West Africa that enhances food security, a sustainable livelihood for the urban poor,

improves environmental management, and alleviates poverty (Cofie 2008). In East Africa, Mireri et

al (2006) note that in spite of the lack of official recognition by governments, UA has become an

important feature of urban land-use system and contributes to the survival of many low-income urban

residents. A report by IRIN (2011) indicates that in the Democratic Republic of Congo, UA

supported by FAQ is an important source of livelihood for thousands of city dwellers. Kutiwa et al

(2010) assert that in Zimbabwe for many years, UA remains an important input in the livelihood

strategy package of urban households. In Namibia, it is reported that urban and pen-urban agriculture

is practiced by over 70% of urban dwellers of Windhoek and Oshakati (Dima et al 2002). A bigger

volume of the recent research work on UA in South Africa show that the activity has the potential to

provide a sustainable livelihood for the urban poor, contributes to poverty alleviation, food security,

and a solution to a variety of social and psychological problems common in poor urban communities

(Slater 2001, Rogerson 2003, Kirkland 2008).

The second notion noted about UA in the literature concerns the claim that its contribution to urban

wellbeing is tremendous especially in the developing world. In developed countries, UA is practised

mainly to provide fresh food products, for educational and socialization purposes (Duchemin et al

2008). However, the reported role of UA in the Sub-Saharan Africa is rather exaggerated and based

on generalized findings from a few isolated case studies (Webb 1996 and Kasumba 2007). Rapid

urbanization without economic growth has contributed to development problems in urban areas in

the Sub-Saharan Africa. These include: increasing urban unemployment, high levels of poverty, lack

of basic amenities, expansion of informal settlements and slums, environmental degradation, food

insecurity and malnutrition (UNFPA 2006, 2011). In this problematic urban context, a number of

international development agencies and independent scholars assert that UA is a viable livelihood

strategy with considerable potential to contribute towards the alleviation of most of the development

problems outlined (Jacobi et al 2000, Rogerson 2003). However, these generalizations do not agree

with the recent research findings from Eastern Cape, South Africa which demonstrate a modest

contribution of UA to urban wellbeing (Webb 1996, Webb 2000, Kasumba 2007, Webb and

Kasumba 2009). On the basis of this background, this study has undertaken the challenge to conduct

an empirical, quantitative based investigation in Lukhanji local municipality (Eastern Cape, South

Africa) to measure and analyse the impact of UA on the wellbeing of the participants at local level.

The purpose being to, test the application of the Social Accounting Matrix-based Structural Path

Analysis to the assessment of the status and role of UA at local level. The SAM-based SPA is an

empirical, quantitative based approach (Usami 2008) deemed to provide a more meaningful

methodology of assessing the role of UA.

1.2 Research Problem

Notwithstanding the research effort already invested in UA in the Sub-Saharan Africa, it is important

to note that a bigger part of the contemporary literature on UA is dominated by generalizations

pertaining to the role of the activity based on a few isolated case studies (Kasumba 2007). The

majority of the current literature asserts that UA has potential and contributes greatly towards

poverty alleviation through: creation of employment for the unemployed, pensioners, and the

handicapped; provision of primary or secondary householdjncome to the participants; improved

poor; stimulation of development of agricultural related enterprises in urban areas that supply UA

inputs and those that process and market UA produce; enabling participants to save on food expenses

as they do not need to buy everything (Mougeot 2000; Rogerson 2003; Foeken et al 2004; FAO

2007; Onyango 2010). Generalizations of this nature may misrepresent the actual gains the majority

of UA practitioners derive from the activity at the local level in the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). A

case in point is the findings from Eastern Cape, South Africa (Webb 1996, 2000; Kasumba 2007;

Webb and Kasumba 2009), which demonstrate modest contribution of UA to urban wellbeing. This

anomaly draws attention to the inappropriateness of the research approaches used by the majority of

the contemporary researchers to measure and analyze the role of UA. Most of these approaches lack

the empirical and quantitative base thus cannot generate reliable results on the structure and role of

UA at local level. This opens up a gap that calls for alternative research methodologies in UA that

will guarantee a more reliable assessment of the role of UA in South Africa. It is in this context that

the study seeks to test the application of social accounting matrix-based structural path analysis to the

role of UA at the local level. But before a specification of the purpose, objectives and hypotheses of

the study, a section on the conceptual and theoretical framework is justified because this provides the

basic structure within which the problem is housed and the rest of the research built.

1.3 Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks

The quantitative-normalive-objeclive-lheorybased framework forms the basis of this research. This framework acknowledges-but steers clear contemporary debates in economic geography since the

early 1990 that centre on relational geography, the pitfalls of pure quantitative frameworks, the place

of agglomeration, networks, assets in local and regional development, firms and organizations and

the production of space (Yeung 2005). In line with the conntional scientific approach (Wagner et

al, 2011 ), the conceptual platform selected allows for the application of basic procedures of

observation, measurement, data collection, specification of scales, hypothesis, precision and analysis

using statistical techniques and the derivation of conclusions aided by decision-making theory

(Bateman et al, 2013 ). 1-ligher levels of inferential statistics are used to generate conclusions based

on statistical outputs (Bettany-Saltikov and Whittaker 2013). Relationships and or spatial linkages so

generated are analysed and graphically presented using conventional computer aided Excel graphics.

The framework allows for the recording and testing of relationships in time-space as a first step

towards understanding the nature of the phenomena under investigation. In this case, the area of

interest is a focus on "the practice of urban agriculture". But beyond this, being housed in a

nomothetic approach (Punch 2014), it allows for the drawing of generalisations through

deductive-logical- reasoning from the particular to the general thereby extending the application possibilities of

the findings (Tsang 2013). In this framework, urban agriculture is treated as an economic activity

whose distribution in time and space shows locational variations. As an economic activity, it falls

within the broad field of production with its underlying dynamics (Negishi 2014). Those households

which practice UA are essentially actors (Aatola et al 2013) required to make decisions on literally a

daily basis in order to sustain the practice. The household unit is treated as a firm because it becomes

the basis of production. Input factors and their impact on the production process become critical. But

this study is concerned with more than an analyse of conventional production —for- in choosing to

test SAM and SPA, it requires information on flows of payments and receipts within the local

economy (Roberts et al,2013 ) in which these actors operate. Markets then become important in the

transaction flows that are generated by any production activity (Negishi 2014).The participation of

households in the local market economy becomes the means to acquire required inputs and avenue

for disposing of their produce in return for receipts.

A significant body of theoretical knowledge already exists to explain drivers of the production

supply (Luo and Zheng 2013) underlies the workings of the market economy and shifts in the price

regime for and across different products. It is both a theory and a theoretical framework because it

provides a significant basis for mainstream economics. Decision-making theory (Bateman et al 2013)

explains the decision patterns of households as they engage in the practice of UA. Linear functional

relations are captured through regression modeling and ANOVA (Bettany-Saltikov and Whittaker

2013). Structural path analysis (Robert 2005) provides an appropriate statistical and accounting

method for computing the size and direction of transaction flows between actors in the local

economy. These flows can be subjected to different loadings to estimate the impact on the economy.

Economic growth theory (Kalecki 2013) advances explanations as to how economies change as a

result of variable drivers in time and space all linked to production. It provides the base for

understanding the role of UA in the local economy. Household make choices in division of labour,

specialisation, resource allocation. Systems theory (Rice 2013) provides the base for understanding

the market system and its internal and external dynamics through time and place. The market itself

accordingly becomes a system for optimizing resource allocation in the context of

demand-supply-price-competition planes. Parts of the institutional theory of economics provide the means for

explaining the role of government regulations, control, monitoring and policies that dictate the

growth tempo of the economy within which UA practitioners operate. As will be noted in the rest of

the thesis, the conceptual and theoretical frameworks so described here inform the objectives,

hypotheses and research design.

1.4 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to test the application of SAM-based SPA to UA at the local level as part of

an attempt to advance alternative methodology that could assure an accurate and better measurement

research was conducted in five Lukhanji urban centres to capture the current status of UA. The study

findings have provided a platform for logical deductions pertaining to the suitability of the

application of SPA to UA and the current role of the activity at the local level. Aspects covered in

this research, among others, include the socio-economic characteristics of UA practitioners, the

practice of on-plot cultivation and animal husbandry, inputs used, cost of inputs, levels of output and

the socio-economic gains derived from UA.

An imbedded aim of this study is to establish clarity about the wide-spread claims on the basic

socio-economic roles of UA. Increasing levels of unemployment and poverty in urban areas (especially in

the developing countries) have made many scholars and development agencies to consider UA a

viable income generating strategy and a means of improving food security and nutrition. Thus they

advocate for its promotion in poor urban communities as a mechanism for poverty alleviation (Mireri

et al 2006, City of Farmers 2006, Kirkland 2008, Kutiwa 2010, FAQ 2012). Lukhanji municipal area

is a good example of parts of LDCs where high unemployment (36%) and poverty (46%) rates have

been recorded (Global Insight 201 l).This study has conducted several tests based on the data

generated from the field survey to ascertain the contribution of UA to household economy.

1.5 Objectives and Hypotheses

1.5.1 Objectives

In order to ensure a systematic research process, the following objectives were advanced to guide the

study:

To characterise the state of urban agriculture in the study area.

To comment on the measurement of the role UA in contemporary research.

To test the contribution of urban agriculture to household economy.

(v)To test SPA on the primary results of UA in the field

(vi) To generate new insights on VA based on the findings

1.5.2 Hypotheses

The hypotheses stated here make it possible to test the basic socio-economic role of VA namely, its

contribution to household income or source of livelihood in low-income urban communities. The

research denoted the hypotheses as follows: H0: Null hypothesis and HA: Alternative hypothesis. H0: There is no association between total household income and the contribution of urban agriculture to household income.

HA: There exist some association between total household income and the contribution of urban

agriculture to household income.

H0: There is no association between urban agriculture total output per annum and the contribution of urban agriculture to household income.

HA: There exist some association between urban agriculture total output per annum and the

contribution of urban agriculture to household income.

H0: There is no association between total farming cost and the contribution of urban agriculture to total household income.

HA: There exist some association between total farming cost and the contribution of urban

agriculture to total household income.

H0: There are no differences between the means of contribution of urban agriculture to household income over the different levels of total household income.

HA: There are significant differences between the means of contribution of urban agriculture to

H0: There are no differences between the means of total output per annum over the different

levels of contribution of urban agriculture to household income.

HA:

There are significant differences between the means of total output per annum over the

different levels of contribution of urban agriculture to household income.

I-Jo: There are no differences between the means of contribution of urban agriculture to

household income over different levels of total farming cost.

HA:

There are significant differences between the means of contribution of urban agriculture to

household income over different levels of total farming cost.

Ho: There are no differences among site means arising from the performance of variables

included in the inferential analysis of this study.

HA

: There are significant differences for at least two of the site means arising from the

performance of variables included in the inferential analysis of this study.

In Chapter

of this thesis, the researcher has employed inferential statistical methods namely,

Pearson Chi-Square and Analysis of Variances (ANOVA) to test and provide a comprehensive

analysis and interpretation of the relevant variables.

1.6 Justification of the Study

The justification of this study is built on the basis of knowledge gaps identified in the research

approaches reported in contemporary research about the measurement and analysis of the role of UA.

Based on the contemporary research approaches used, two dominant groups of research work could

be identified from the existing literature. The first group consisted of research work which is silent

about the theoretical frameworks adopted. The second category consisted of research work which

had adopts a qualitative oriented theoretical frameworks/models to assess the role of UA. A bigger

part of the contemporary literature on UA consists of research work where researchers attempt to use

theoretical frameworks in assessing the status and role of VA (Cofie 2004, Averbeke 2007, and

Merwe 2011). The greatest danger associated with this group is noted in the work of Borgatti (1999),

who asserts that 'it is impossible for human beings not to have preconceived notions." The logic is

that in the absence of the use of theoretical framework, deductions and generalizations made are

greatly influenced by the researcher's preconceived constructions about VA drawn mainly from

development literature (Kasumba 2007) and not based entirely on the reliable measurement of the

key aspects of VA that can provide concrete evidence pertaining to the role of the activity at local

level (Webb 2000). The research work that falls into this category totally ignores the role of

theoretical frameworks towards the generation of credible research results in VA. Russell (2012)

notes that a theoretical framework establishes a vantage point, a perspective in which to view,

interpret and solve the research problem. Eisenhart (1991) asserts that theoretical frameworks

promote systematic research programmes and contribute to the accumulation of knowledge among

scholars that work on similar or related research problems using the same framework. He also argues

that theoretical frameworks facilitate communication, in that scholars using the same theoretical

framework share: a set of terms, concepts, expected relationships, and accepted procedures for

testing and extending the theory. Lastly, Damschroder and Damush (2011) note that theoretical

frameworks provide a systematic approach that makes programme implementation on the ground and

evaluation manageable. Thus theoretical framework does not only contribute towards the generation

of credible research results, but also facilitates design, implementation and evaluation of

development programmes. In the interest of improving the research outcomes, this study argues that

VA should not be treated as an exceptional research field that attaches no value to the benefits of

adopting theoretical frameworks.

Turning to the research work that use qualitative oriented frameworks among others include, the

gender-oriented model of urban agriculture (Slater 2001), the crisis model of urban agriculture

(Jacobi et al 2000), sustainable livelihood framework (Kirkland 2008) and sustainable development

framework (Onyango 2010, Mougeot 2006) are noted. As stressed by Matveev (2002), qualitative

based research work is associated with a high degree of subjectivity, prone to researcher bias and

result often lack accuracy, consistency and reliability. The implication of this is that continued

application of qualitative based approaches to investigations of UA will carry forth the generation of

inaccurate and unreliable data that does not give the true picture of the status and role of the activity

at the local level. Secondly, most qualitative based research works use small sample sizes which in

most cases are not representative of the urban population. For example, a sample of only 14 women

was used to assess the role of UA in the welt-being of low-income women in Cape Town (Slater

2001). The use of such small samples limits the credibility of the data extracted and does not give a

true picture about the role of the activity at local level. Thirdly and more often, researchers using

qualitative based approaches in assessing the role of UA capitalize on unquantifiable benefits of UA

to heighten its significance in urban areas (Kasumba 2007). Whereas on one hand, this should be

considered a great contribution to a holistic assessment of the role of UA, one needs to realize that

the lack of reliable assessment techniques is still a great hindrance to achieving accurate and

consistent results on the unquantifiable benefits of UA (Kasumba 2007). For instance, UA is claimed

to contribute towards achieving urban sustainable development in the developing countries (Mougeot

2006, Onyango 2010). Yet, Carter (2001:3) asserts that to date there is a critical need to advance

assessment criteria against which progress towards sustainability can be judged or measured. A

similar concern is about the lack of accurate conventional measurement criteria for assessing

psychological and social benefits (Slater 2001) claimed for UA. Researchers use a variety of

qualitative based data collection techniques to elicit data from the informants about these benefits

and informants can choose to give particular information and ignore others. Consequently, the data

generated lack credibility (Matveev 2002) and cannot offer a firm base for generalizations about the

role UA in SSA. Thus it is not surprising that the researchers who have adopted qualitative based

research approaches have not been in a position to generate reliable conclusions about the role of UA

at local level. Indeed this study considered the weaknesses outlined above to be the basic factor

accounting for the discrepancies between the generalized claims for UA and the actual gains derived

from the activity at the local level.

1.7 Significance of the Study

First and foremost, given the contradicting assertions on the role of UA as a development strategy,

with many scholars considering the activity to be one of the viable development strategies for

poverty alleviation in the LDCs, a study that focused on advancing alternative measurement and

analysis approach to guarantee accuracy and reliability in assessing the role of UA at local level

should be deemed important and appropriate at a time when the issue of poverty alleviation has

become a world-wide concern. Secondly, this is one of the few studies that have examined the

potentials of applying the SAM framework at micro level to gauge economic performance. To date

(as elaborated in chapter 2), the majority of studies have managed to use SAM frameworks to test

economic performance at macro (national/regional/provincial) level only. Thirdly, this is the first

study that has examined the potential of applying the SAM-based SPA methodology to UA, which

marks a significant step in the process of establishing a better research approach that can guarantee

improved accuracy in the assessment of the role of UA at local level. Furthermore, this study is

deemed valuable because apart from examining the potential of applying the SAM-based SPA

methodology to the measurement of the role of UA, the results of the study are expected to influence

decisions taken by international development agencies, non-governmental organizations, national

and local authorities, and research institutions pertaining to the status accorded to UA as a viable

development strategy for the urban poor in SSA and the rest of the developing world.

1.8 The Study Area

Lukhanji local municipality covers an area of 4,231 km2 (Lukhanji Local Municipality-IDP 2011/12). It is made up of Queenstown, Whittlesea, Sada, Ilinge and Ntabethemba. A bigger part of

Lukhanji Municipality (96%) is rural and agricultural (SALGA 2010). The Lukhanji municipality is

one of the eight local municipalities (Intsika Yethu, Engcobo, Sakhisiwe, Emalahleni, Inkwanca,

Tsolwana and Inxuba Yethemba) that fall under the jurisdiction of the Chris Hani District

Municipality (CHDM) in Eastern Cape Province, which covers a total area of 36,561 km2. Figures 1 and 2 show the location of CHMD and Lukhanji local municipality in Eastern Cape Province. The

Lukhanji municipality is landlocked by municipalities of Tsolwana and Inkwanca to the west,

Emalahleni and Intsika Yethu to the north, and Amahlathi to the east. However its central location

within CHDM is strategic as it has enabled Queenstown to grow as the largest economic and

administrative centre within CHDM, attracting a daily flow of people from the surrounding

predominantly rural municipalities for urban services, and house the administrative offices of CHDM

(Lukhanji Local Municipality 2011). Because of its inland position (about 200 km from the

South-East coast), Lukhanji municipality generally experiences extreme weather conditions. In winter, dry

and cold conditions prevail with an average maximum temperature of 16°C and an average minimum

of 3.1°C (Lukhanji 2012b).

Very little rainfall is received during this season, with a monthly average of 10 millimetres (Boleswa

1996:22). Lukhanji receives much of its rainfall in summer, with an average annual rainfall of

1000mm (Boleswa 1996:22). Most of this rainfall falls in the form of thunderstorms during summer

months. This together with the high summer temperatures, with average maximum of 29°C and an

Figure 1: Eastern Cape Province and CHDM

Global Insight (2011) indicates that by 2011, Lukhanji had a total population of 199 490. Black

Africans constitute the majority of Lukhanji population (94.5%); other population groups are the

Coloureds (2.7%), Whites (2.6%), and Asians (0.2%). The gender distribution of Lukhanji

population shows that female population (5 1%) is slightly higher than the male population (49%).

The Chris Hani situational Analysis (CHDM 2012) attributes this imbalance to the migration of

young male adults to large cities for jobs and better opportunities.

According to the local Municipality- IDP (Lukhanji 2007), the population density of Lukhanji

municipal area is 54.6/km2. The total number of households in Lukhanji municipal area is 51,876. Of this total 48,827 households belong to Black Africans, 1639 to Whites, 1300 to Coloured, and 110 to

Asians (Global Insight 2011). The local Municipality (Lukhanji 2010) notes that 58% of the Lukhanji population live in urban areas, 21% live in rural areas, 16% in pen-urban areas, and 5% in

the farm areas. The average number of persons per household is estimated to be around four. The

same source notes the following areas as the most populous locations within Lukhanji: Mulungisi

with 6745 people per km2; Sada with 4040 people per km2; Ezibeleni with 2716 people per km2; Ekuplumleni with 2535 people per km2; and Didimane with 989 people per km2. The educational status of Lukhanji population as provided by the IDP for 2012-17 (Lukhanji 2012b) indicates a high

adult literacy level of 75%, and only 10% of the population has never attended school. The number of people infected with HIV/AIDS in Lukhanji municipal area is estimated to be 21,738 that is, 11%

of the total population (Global Insight 2011). In terms of economic development, the local

municipal ity—I DP for 2011/2012 (Lukhanji 2012a) asserts that Lukhanji Municipal area is an

important economic sub-region in CHDM. It has the highest concentration of settlements, industrial

activities, commerce, transport infrastructural services, regional administration service centres, social

development services (schools, hospitals and other social amenities). According to the Global Insight

(2011), the GDP of Lukhanji Municipal area is R3.8 billion (calculated at constant 2005 prices),

5m Municipality: LU K HANJ I, Eastern Cape 2630'OE 26.40*0-n 26'50rE Terrestrial Biodiversity Summary Map YE 2r30'O'E lYv cocker's Park _\, Oceenttoson Phi Sad Bed W q

-

r<rJs baRd-based Prntanted Area formal) Laed-bnt.d CO3rs,enetlon 0,09 (informal) Ramsar Sine

Theeatened nerrestrlatgoonysne,ns CrOkaliy Eedengnr.d Rndaegmed

Vulnerable Area. R.enal,rb.g Nato,.) Least Threen.eed

Areas Where No Natural Rabin.! Ramabro FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS

Wetlands Major nec.,, - Reads

Location of municipality in province 0 *

I,I,,II,II

A

For more InformatIon Contact: Birodloerslty CII 80)5)

Sooth Afrloarr National Riodiroersity Inoltltote SANBI) Tl 021) 799873800

Entail: bgiohelp@s3nbl.er4

Disclaimer: The Municipal Hiodiversity Summary Proiert ones data generated as of December 2000 and is based on the best socIable national epatial layers. Piner-acale biodirersiny information in aue:table for some moolcIpalitien and, if aoadable, should be considered in land-one planning and decision-making withio the etaolcipality.

Figure 2:

16

The same source notes that Lukhanji municipality economy grew at an annual average rate of 2.0%

from 1996 to 2010, which increased to 3.9% in 2011. The noted economic growth rate is lower than

the provincial and national average GDP growth rates estimated at 4.6%, and 4.5% respectively

(ECSECC 2011). According to the Global Insight (2011) findings, Lukhanji municipality's GDP per

capita is estimated at R32147 (2011 prices) or R19919 (constant 2005 prices). There are nine main

economic sectors that contribute to Lukhanji municipality's GDP namely, agriculture, mining,

manufacturing, electricity, construction, trade, transport, finance, and community services.

Table 1: Lukhanji Municipal Broad Economic Sectors, 2011

Economic Sectors Contribution to Lukhanji GDP

(%) Contribution to RSA GDP (%) Agriculture 1.1 - 0.1 Mining 0.0 0.0 Manufacturing 6.0 0.1 Electricity 2.8 0.2 Construction 3.5 0.2 Trade 17.5 0.3 Transport 7.1 0.2 Finance 16.7 0.2 Community services 45.4 0.4

table 1 illustrates the relative contribution of the named economic sectors to Lukhanji Municipal

GDP and their share of national total GDP. Based on the data provided in Table 1, community

services contribute the lion's share (45%) of Lukhanji Municipality's GVA followed by the trade

sector (wholesale, retail and catering services) (17%), finance (16.7%), and transport (7%). In spite

sector to Lukhanji GDP is only 1.1%. This indicates that the farming production potential of this

region has not been fully exploited (Lukhanji 2012a). The overall share of Lukhanji in the national

GDP is still small (1.9%). Turning attention to employment, Global Insight (2011) notes the nine

economic sectors that contribute to formal-informal employment in Lukhanji municipality which are

shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Sector Contribution to Employment

Economic Sectors _{Contribution to formal-informal employment (%)}

Agriculture 4.0 Manufacturing 4.5 Electricity 0.5 Construction 6.7 Trade 19.4 Transport 5.1 Finance 4.2 Community services 41.8 Households 13.8 Total 100.0

)uurc; (1E(Jh?UI InIgIlt, JI I

The community services employ the highest percentage of Lukhanji labour force, followed by trade

(wholesale, retail and catering services), households, construction, transport, and manufacturing. The

contribution of the agriculture sector to employment is still very low - only 4%. Unemployment is

still one of the grave development challenges faced by Lukhanji Municipality (Lukhanji Local

Municipality-IDP 201 1/2012). According the Global Insight (2010) estimates, 29% of the Lukhanji

population is economically active and 36% of this is unemployed. A more detailed analysis of

Lukhanji unemployment status based on findings from the same source (Global Insight 2011)

indicates that unemployment level is not uniform across the four population groups.

Table 3: Household income distribution in Lukhanji Municipality

Income Category Number of Households %

0-2400 0 0 2400--6000 25 0.04 6000-- 12000 2,732 5.3 12000- 18000 5,076 9.8 18000- 30000 9,303 17.9 30000- 42000 7,860 15.2 42000- 54000 6,151 11.9 54000-72000 5,381 10.4 72000- 96000 4,012 7.7 96000-132000 3,247 6.3 132000- 192000 2,850 5.5 192000- 360000 2,815 5.4 360000 - 600000 1,377 2.7 600000- 120000 787 1.5 1200000- 2400000 232 0.5 2400000+ 29 0.06 Total 51 876 100.02*

'JIVULIL Ifl3Iflt, .U1 I

Based on the data given in Table 3, the number of households earning R1500 (or less) per month has

dropped from 28% (2008) to 15% (Global Insight 2010, 2011). However, this trend does not necessarily imply improvement in household real income/purchasing power if the inflation rate is

poverty to be 91,925 which makes up to 46.1% of the Lukhanji total population. The Black Africans

make up the majority of the poor people

followed by the Coloureds (1,322), Asians (24),

and Whites (21). Shifting attention to the household expenditure distribution pattern, Lukhanji local

Municipality-IDP (2012) indicates that the biggest percentage of household expenditure goes to food

and domestic workers (23%) followed by finance (16%), personal care and household goods and

services

and fuel and transport (14%). Table 4 summarises the comparative household

expenditure distribution pattern.

Table 4: Expenditure distribution by item

Expenditure Item Household expenditure (%)

Food & domestic workers 23

Finance (policies, taxes and others) 16

Personal care, household goods and services 15

Fuel and transport 14

Accommodation and holiday II

Skill, education and recreation 7

Light drinks, Alcohol and smoking 7

Clothing 6

Others

Total

100.0

,ource: Lilk/lanji nu,nzczpaI,tr lop 2(112-2017

In addition, one needs to consider the human development index (HDI) to get a better understanding

of the level of development achieved by the local economy. Again, the municipal IDP (Lukhanji

2012b) indicates that the overall HDI for Lukhanji is

Queenstown has the highest HDI of 0.60,

which splits into 0.51 and 0.45 for Hewu and Ntabethemba respectively. An HDI below 0.50 does

not represent acceptable levels of development. This means that the life expectancy at birth, adult

literacy and per capita income levels for Ntabethemba demand more improvement for the HDI of this

locality to rise to the satisfactory mark of 0.50.

1.9 Key Concepts

Sustainable livelihood: an economic activity that can cope with and recover from stresses and

shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in future, without negatively

affecting the natural resource base.

Commercialization: a transformation process which involve discarding subsistence production in

favour of market-orientated production to get income.

Community: is a group of people who share similar beliefs and customs and who may live in the

same area.

Food security: a household/community is food secure when it has access to adequate food (in terms

of quality, quantity, safety and cultural acceptability) for health life, for all its members and when it

is not at risk of losing such access.

Income distribution: the way a nation's total Gross Domestic Prod uct/N ati onal Income is distributed

amongst its population.

Communal resources: are resources collectively owned and/or used by a group of people who live in

the area.

Household economy: refers to the collective economic activities of the household.

Household productivity: measures the volume of goods and service outputs per adult member of a

household and the sum total expressed in monetary terms.

Employment status: refers to the category of employment, and include: employed, unemployed,

part-time work, full-part-time work, and permanent work.

Social accounting matrix (SAM): is defined as a comprehensive accounting system that captures all

transactions between production activities, factors of production and institutions within the economy

and the rest of the world.

Structural path analysis (SPA): is a social accounting matrix multiplier decomposition method used

to identify the whole network of paths through which the impact of exogenous shock is transmitted

from the one to other sectors the economy.

1.10 Structure of the thesis

The structure of the thesis is as follows: Chapter 2 is devoted to the discussion of the measurement

gaps identified in the current literature and the social accounting matrix (SAM) framework including:

its historical background, the dual function of SAMs, the application of structural path analysis

methodology, the salient characteristics of South Africa's social accounting matrices and the

advantages and weaknesses associated with using social accounting matrix framework. Chapter 3

discusses the materials and the methods employed in data collection. Chapter 4 deals with reporting

and analysing of field results drawn from Lukhanji Municipality on the status and role of UA.

Chapter 5 focuses on the use of inferential statistics to test the core hypotheses of this study and compare performances for key variables included in this study across the five Lukhanji urban

centres. Chapter 6 is devoted to testing of the application of SAM-based SPA to UA. Finally,

Chapters 7 presents the contribution of the study to knowledge, a conclusion and recommendations.

1.11 Summary

The first section of this chapter has presented the general background of UA. Sections two and three

focused on the research problem and the conceptual and theoretical frameworks within which the

study is housed. It has been noted that contemporary research approaches on UA which are

predominantlY qualitative, exaggerate the role of UA in Sub-Sahara Africa. This study has

undertaken the challenge to test the application of SAM-based SPA as an attempt to advance

alternative methodology that can guarantee reliable measurement of the role of UA at the local level.

Other aspects covered include, , aims, objectives , and core hypotheses of the study, the justification,

the significance of the study, an overview of the study area (Lukhanji Municipality), definition of

the key concepts in the study and finally the structure of the thesis.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The literature review is divided into two parts. Part one reviews the literature on UA, in general

looking at the current issues in the field of UA as a research area and in particular the weaknesses

associated with the measurement of the role of UA at the local level. Part two of this chapter reviews

the literature on the methodology for social accounting matrix-based structural path analysis.

2.2 Urban Agriculture

2.2.1 Introduction

Descriptive qualitative-oriented approaches dominate the assessment of the role of UA in the

developing countries. As a result, contemporary literature lack sufficient statistics on UA that can be

used to trace the growth patterns, allow for more reliable assessment of its role at local level, and

comparison of UA performance between localities. Many scholars have noted its potential and

contribution to urban household food security, income, savings on food expenses, employment,

poverty alleviation, and as a strategy for effective environmental management and sustainable urban

development in the developing world (Rogerson 2003, Lee et al 2010, FAQ 2012). However, such

claims do not tally with the actual gains derived from the activity at the local level. A case in point is

the findings from Eastern Cape, South Africa (Web 1996, Kasumba 2007, Web and Kasumba 2009)

which portrays modest contribution of UA to the well-being of the participants in term of food

security, generation of income and employment, poverty alleviation, and environmental

enhancement. The highlighted contradiction has prompted this study to suggest an alternative

measurement methodology - social accounting matrix-based structural path analysis - that can help

to improve the accuracy and reliability of measurement and analysis of the role of UA at local level.

Against this backdrop the first part of the literature review presented in this chapter focuses on

methodological weaknesses (identified in the literature) to which the lack of reliable measurement and analysis of the role of VA is attributed. The salient methodological defects include: the scanty

information on VA inputs, lack of sufficient data on output values, overstating the contribution of

VA to household food security, and the space accorded to non-quantifiable gains derived from VA.

The second part of the literature review is devoted to social accounting matrix-based structural path

analysis.

2.2.2 The scanty information on UA inputs

Sufficient statistics on inputs used by urban farmers is vital if logical assessment of the viability of

VA is to be achieved. On the side of crop farming VA inputs used include: land, labour, water,

garden equipment, seeds and seedlings, fertilizing agents, insecticides and herbicides, transport and

extension services (Averbeke 2007, FAQ 2012). The list of inputs used by livestock farmers include:

labour, grazing land, processed livestock feed, livestock medicines, and extension services. Livestock

farming inputs vary according to the type of livestock farming practiced (Mireri 2013, Firdissa 2007). In spite of the noted significance, the data presented in the current literature on VA inputs is

limited to statements that simply outline the inputs used by urban farmers, stress the need for

adequate use of inputs if VA is to flourish and highlight the lack of inputs as a factor hindering the

success of urban farming. The cost of inputs is ignored in the majority of research work (Kasumba

2007). The omission of this important variable means that net value of VA output cannot be

determined. This gap implies that logical assessments of the viability and sustainability of VA at any

scale is impossible. Examples of works cited in a couple of paragraphs that follow will help to throw

Firdissa (2007) looks at the major UA systems, the role of the activity in livelihoods of urban farmers

and UA related challenges in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. He provides a comprehensive list of inputs

used by both crop and livestock farmers. However, he overlooks the cost of these inputs. The

possible reason for this omission could be (as suggested by this work) the fact that some of the inputs

used are not purchased by most farmers. These include own or family labour, water for irrigation and

animals. manure, seeds, and family land used for UA activities. Nonetheless his report notes many

inputs that are purchased, including, hired labour, land rented for UA activities, processed livestock

feeds, milk cattle (calves), beef cattle (calves), livestock medicine and veterinary services. Excluding

the cost of inputs means that net output and income values cannot be determined and this renders the

assessment of the viability and sustainability of UA problematic (Kasumba (2007).

IRIN (2011) reports on the significance of UA in Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo) and

notes that small-scale urban farms produce 300 000 tons of vegetable annually within the city, which

has helped to create employment and provide income for 16 000 gardeners. However, apart from

mentioning the benefits and the number of urban dwellers (labour) employed in UA sector, there is

no sufficient data provided on other inputs such as water for irrigation, gardening equipment, seeds,

fertilizer, (and their cost) used by urban farmers to generate the mentioned volume of output. Dima

and Ogunmokun (2004) researched the importance of urban and pen-urban agriculture in two

municipalities of Namibia, namely Windhoek and Oshakati. They note that crop farming is the most

common type of urban agriculture practiced in the two urban areas. Urban livestock farming is

limited because of by-laws that prohibit livestock keeping in urban areas. The main reasons for urban

farming are to provide food household use, and sell to get income. They further note that because of

desert conditions, most crop farming activities occur in summer to take advantage of the summer

rain. Inputs used by urban farmers as noted in their report include, seed/seedlings, tap water for crop

irrigation, fertilizers (organic and inorganic), own/ family labour, and private land. In spite of the

rather extensive coverage of UA, Dima and Ogunmokun's report like those cited above overlooks

input costs.

Galloway (2011) reports on the success Cuba has attained in UA sector since 1990s. She notes that

the collapse of the Soviet Union in the mid 1980's led to severe food shortages in urban areas in

Cuba, which hitherto had relied heavily on trade with the USSR for food imports and supplies of

agricultural petro-chemical inputs and machinery to sustain the country's large-scale sugar and

tobacco plantations. During this crisis period, the Cuban government encouraged urban dwellers to

use unutilized open spaces in urban areas for food production. This has led to the development of

organic market gardens in and on the outskirts of Cuban cities, which produce all fresh vegetable

required to satisfy urban demand in the country. Though her report provides a comprehensive list of

the inputs used to sustain organic farming in urban areas in Cuba, it is silent about the cost of these

inputs. In addition, the cost of own/family labour used for UA purpose is ignored by the majority of

researchers (Dima and Ogunmokun 2004, Lee et al 2010, Kanu et al 2012, FAO 2012). The omission

of this variable makes the computation of the cost of UA inputs incomplete, inaccurate and unreliable

(Kasumba 2007).

2.2.3 Urban Agriculture Output value

The majority of the research work on UA is silent about the monetary value of UA output. Where

attempts are made, attention is only accorded to gross output value. The net output value of UA is

overlooked by most researchers. Net output value provides the real cash value of UA production. Overlooking this variable leaves a gap in the literature and makes logical assessments of the viability

and sustainability of UA at local level problematic (Kasumba 2007). To illustrate this gap a couple of

examples are cited here from the current literature. Lee et al (2010) conducted a research on UA in