Intergenerational transmission of attachment. Towards a contextual approach

l l l ( l I I I I ) i j i l l ! i, l»(

InteigLiiciational I t i n s m i s s i o n of Attachment

Towaids a Contcxlual Approach'

MARINUS H VAN UZENDOORN

MARIAN J BAKERMANS KRANENBURG

l udui Ui ivursiiy The Ni.lhL.rl ι et

ABSTRAC T ι eh \tinc ι of coni( \tnal facton In additton niain (hitditn {ton up in netvioik'i of al Inte {ciictcilional tiiin\ini\won of ollcjc hm t n! tat linieni ι i,liition\hip\ in\ oh mg motln ι /s wnhntood to intim llu infhumt of patai jalhci and olhtr ((tnqivcn A tno\c to llu !dl atUHhnit-nton f!u aliadumni nlation\htp conltxtital h\tl ma\ \hcd Itght on holli ihc \\ilh Ihm (hild lo II\\L\\ ραηηΐ\ nuntal mi(hannw ofinitt^tncmUtmaltwn\nn\\ton !(}JK stniülion of cift(i(limcnt llu Äcltilt Λ! of fitt(Uhnunf find litt (onnnuit} 01 di\(on tddtnunt I n i i i \ i t \ \ (ΑΛΙ ϋιοιι,ι Κ{ΐρΙαη !inni!\ of attti(hnutit αηο\ιί the lifc \pan k Main /9S5) \\a\ dnclopcd Wc hi(fh

l»(\tn! \(\(Ht! s ///<// ( s ilia! icpoti on llic

ΛΑΙ s Klicibiln\ and tlnt nnunani \dlidtt} 1NTRODUCTION and dc\uihc Üit dt\fitbutton\ of \AI c/m

sf/ίί αίιοη\ in <!un<(il and nomlinicdl Wh U do wc know iboul ihc li msmission Mtinpk s In a nninhct of windle s totnyion öl lUiLhniLiil ILIOSS j,cnci Uions ? In Ihis

d(iK( ha\ Ixen foiind h(i\\cdi pannt\ ΑΛ! pipci wc wi ip up SOHIL öl w h u wc know r ld\\i/K<ttion\ and fix </ti(ilif\ of litt infanl ihoul inlt,rj,Lnt,i Uioiul Innsmission öl U }>ακηΐ dttiKhintn! ΐ(.ία!ιοη\Ιιΐ() Maa I ichmuil on ihc hisis öl tnipnicii siudiLS i/m/Λ u s of s/iii//ts· on fht nlcilion h(t\\cm Wt will diseuss somt, nnporlint prohlcms /«/ic/i/s aSIcKhincnl itptiMnsaiion^ and in LUIILIII (hcoiy nid rcst-iich on adull md Ihm n\i)on\i\im\\ tnabh ί/s so ivploit ml inl UHchniLiil nid wc w i l l II^UL t h i t llu }uoa s s of intLH,(nci(tt(f)nal nai^mn^ion moic Htcnlion should hc p nd lo Ihc conlcxl of (ittd( IIIIK nl A lan,t pati of thi nidliannnt in which Hl ichmcnl is Irinsmittcd liom onc o/ ////s / / i / f j w w s s / c i / i )cn\cun\ ho\\i\o un j,cnci Hion lo thc IILXI

kno\\ n R(-\L(in h in Iwadi kibhut nn d\ IiHt,i^L.nLr ition il Innsmission oi tll ich u i / / ί/s lonyiindinal \ludit\ on alt(uhm<.nl mcnt is undcrstood lo mein thc inllucncc öl fiom infam \ lo adnliliood point to ifu pnicnl il ill ichmcnl on ihc Ulachmcnl

1 I h i s p ipcr w is picscntcd il Ihc V l l l h l uropun ConlcrciiLt, öl Development il Psycholo^y KI iknw (Pol ind) August 24-2H ](·)ί)'ϊ is in invilcd kcy no(c Iccluic Hie p ipcr is hiscd on V in Il/cndooin & B i k c i i n m s Krmcnhurj, (in prcss)

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:

iclalionship with ihcu child This dchmlion is not wilhoul piohlcms lor examplc how is irtinsmission oi aUachmcnt acioss gcncia tioiis üilfciuil liom ihc inl]ucncc öl paicnlal hclicls syslcnis on ihc c h i i d? The dcdnition should hc considcrcd a usclul slipulalion

In thc pasl wc havc uscd mcta-analysis äs a q u a n t i t a t i v e lcchmt|uc In integrale ic scarch (induigs This papcr is hascd on ihcsc mcta analyscs and w i l l thcrcloic hc a sum-maiy «l summaiics or a mcga analysis Wc cstimate lhal ihis papu ts hascd on studics tovumg some 5000 suh]ccls in total — paicnls c h i i d i c n palicnls adolcsccnls Numcious icseaichcis all ovcr thc world havc bccn mvolvcd in thcsc sludics Attachment icscaich has mdcced cvolvcd mU) Big SLILIILC which mighl havc soinc disadvaniagcs thc Icasl öl which may hc Ihc qucstion öl how lo kccp (tack öl icccnl dcvclopmenls

W i t h OUT co workcis al ihc Ccntci foi Chiid and I a m i l y Studics öl Leiden Umvei sity WL canied out scvcral cmpincaf sludics on vaiious aspccls öl tiaiisniission öl allach mutl and WL will pay spcual attcnlion lo lliLsc sludiLs In t Ins icspeLl Uns aiticle prcscnls a snmcwhat hiascd icview and analysis öl ihc lilLialurc

Thicc mlciiLlalcd issucs will Ix disLLisscd l Wc w i l l dLsuihL biielly what i n l a n l and

a d u l l altachniLnl aic, and how Ihcy aic mtasuied Thc dislnhulions öl allach nients in L l i m c a l and non clinical gioups w i l l he picscnlcd Wc will arguc that paicnls (akc (he Lad m shaping thc allachmcnl i c l a l i o n s h i p wilh ihcir chil dien

2 Secondly wc w i l l dcscnhc ihc corrc spondcnce hctwecn i n l a n l altachmcnt and adult attachment and addiess ihc

issuc ol m l c i g c n c i a l i o n a l l i a n s m i s s i o n öl a U a c h m c n t WL w i l l discus coiHcxlual constrainls on liansmission ol allach mcnl acioss gcnciations and wc w i l l Loncludc lhal wc do nol know yct much ahout ihc mcchanisms of tiansmission 1 Last hut nol Icasl, wc w i l l IOLUS on

continuitics and d i s c o n t i n u i l i c s in t he Iransmission ol aUachmcnl d i a w i n g on longitudmal sludics lo show Lhal alia chmcnl can hc stähle across ihc first 20 ycais ol l i l c and al ihc samc timc ie malns sensitive to contexlual mllucnccs Towards a Contcstual Model

Wo w i l l statt wilh a simple modcl oi i n t c i gcncrational liansmission Clinical and icliospcctivc data seem lo suggcsl lhal ahuscd c h i i d i c n aic at soinc nsk ol heconiing ahusive parcnts and (hat in geneial liouhlcd parenls look hack on a uouhlcsomc childhood (I geland Jact>hvit/ & Siouk

1988) Phc cstimatcs ol intcigcncialKtn.il Iransnnssion ol ahusc vaiy widcly IIOWCVLI ( K a u l m a n & /iglcr 1987 Mahnosky Rum mcll & Hansen, 199"ϊ) The hasic modcl Ιοί dcscrihing thc Iransmission oi ahusc 01 al lachmcnl in gcncral is snnply (hat Ihc e u l y childhood cxpcucnces ol paicnls shapc Ihcn paienting hehavior, which in ils turn shapcs ihe i n l a n l s allachmcnl

•tu l'timtnh ιι Ctn

emphusi/cd lhat positive cxpcricuces in a piirlncr rclationslnp can bring ahoul ihc icconstruclion öl an oiiginally insccuic al-lachnienl working niotlcl; a parlncr or Ihcrapisl can providc a 'sccuic basc' lor cxploring and dcaling with carly aliachmcnt cxpcricnccs. Thcrci'orc. lo acquirc insighl inio continuity and chungc of iitlachmcnl, it is crucial lo pay aticntion ίο ihc working modcl (or mcnlal rcprcscntaliun) of pasl altachmcnt cxpcricnccs.

For dccadcs, adequate mcasurcs to asscss adull attacliincnl rcprcscnlalions wcrc lack-ing. In fundamental äs well äs in clinical rescarch, seif-rcporl mcasurcs likc tlic Parcn-tal Bonding Instrument (PBI, Parker. Tupling & Brown, 1979) and thc Molhcr-Falhcr-Pccr Scalc (Epsicin, 1983) dominatcd Ihc licld, hui Ihcy showcd at Icasl t wo shoilcomings: FiisU thcsc scU'-rcporl mcasurcs of'childhonü cxpcrcnccs are hascd on an ovcrly opiimislic vicw on rcspondenls' aulohiogtaphical mcnioiy. Sccond, they do nol takc inlo ac-counl phcnotncna such äs reprcssion or idcalt/alion of past cxpcricnccs.

Thc intioduclion of ihc Adull Altachmcnt Inlci vicw or Λ AI hy Mary Main and her cowoikcrs (George, Kaplan & Main. 1985) can hc considcrcd a simple hui rcvolutionaiy shifl in attcnlion (Vom ihc Objcctivc' dcscrip-tion öl' childhood expcricnccs to tlic currcnt icprcscntalion of Ihcsc cxpcricnccs. This is also a shifl away t'rom thc conlcnl of aulobiographical mcinorics to thc form in which this aulohiography is prcscnlcd. Thc AAI is hascd on (wo assumptions: ( I ) aulobiographical mcmory is the ongoing icconslruction of onc's own past, in ihc lighl of ncw cxpcricnccs. (2) rcpression and idcali/ation of Ihc pasl cxisi and can bc

Iraccd by sludying ihc form and contcnt of tlic autobiographical narralivc scparatcly.

Taking thcsc considcralions inlo account, thc first inodcl can hc cxtcndcd to incorporatc currcnt parcntal mental rcprcscntations äs thc filier ihrough which thc past cxcrts ils inllucncc on ihc prcscnt. According to al-lachmcnt thcory, Ihcrc is not ncccssarify a dirccl l i n k hclwccn parcnts* carly attach-mcnt cxpcricnccs and their parcnting bc-havior. Past aUaehmcnl cxpcricnccs arc al-ways filtcrcd through ihc currcnt mental rcp-rcscntalion of atlachmcnt in infiuencing parcnting bchavior and thc conslruclion of ncw atlachmcnt relalioiiships,

In addition, howcvcr, parenling bchavior is influcnccd by ihc social conlcxt. A suppor-livc social nclwork might inodcratc ihc cffccis of oihcrwisc unfavorablc circumslanccs. Wc w i l l show lhat spccific child-rcaing conditions such äs in communal kibbul/im may affccl infants' allachmcnl cxpcricnccs ncgativcly. Furlhcrniorc.. somc childrcn may makc il loo difücull forsomc parcnls lo rcspondscnsilivcly lo Ihcir allachmcnl signals, bccausc ihc infanls'

. ΐ ί * ν *

P^'t

scvcic physie i! h mdic ips or hi^hly ir t ihlc tcmpci iincnl i m p u r commumc Uion

Wc c in idd ihcsc l iclors Ιο ι eonlcxlu il modcl in which Ihc l i n k bclwecn c t i l y p iren l il cxpcnuiücs ind l itcr child ic umj, is dctcrmmcd hy scvenl contcxlu il l ictois

The sou il conlcxt m ly dclcrminc child rcinnj, irr in£,emcnls which mtcrlcrc wilh ihc tr msimssion öl p ncnt il v i l u c s ind bchcl syslcm Child chii iclcnslics m ly f icilililc or h imper p iruit il c l l o i t s to sh ipe ihcu childrcn s unchmcnls Atuchmenl thcoiy should l ikc ihcsc contcxlu il cIcmLiils nilo iccount ind not loeus solely on Ihe mnei h i e öl p i t e n l s ind c h i l d i c n T!IL· AduH At l i c h m c n l IniLivicw is p i i l i c u l i i y Lonccincd with Uns mnu h l c (M im & Goldwyn 198*5

1994) I uilhciinorc icross ihc !I!L s p i n im porl int ut ichinuil icl ihonshtps m ly hc lound nol only in c i r l y childhood h u t ilso in idoIcsLuice ind t u l y idullliood Ιοί ex

implt is slionj., hicndships Wc h IVL no icison lo hthcvt, (h u ihcst slionj, honds do nol i f f t c l p i i c n l s m u i l i l icpicsLiil Hion öl

Ul ichmcnl

Ihc Adult Att ichment Interview The ΛΛΙ is ι sumsliuUucd mtctviow ih it l isls ihout in ho u r ind isks Ιοί dcscuplions o\ p isl iL.1 ilionships with p iicnts sptcific mcmoncs L irly Lxpuicnccs in slitsslui s i l u i I uns such is scp u Hunts ind illncsscs ind dcscnplions öl curicnl rcl ilionships willi p u c n l s ind othci iil ichmcnl li^uics l χ pcncnccs wim loss öl ill ichment li^uics ind othci ü i L i m i t i c cvcnts n c ilso covcicd hui in this irticlc wc will nol addicss lliis issuc Intcivicws uc codcd inlo onc öl thrcc cl issihc Uions i n d i c i t i n ^ thicc typcs öl U

l ichmcnl icprcscnl Uions dismissini- uito nomous ind prcoccupicd Ul ichmcnt Wc w i l l huclly dcscnhc Ihcsc c ilc^oncs Di\nn\\ini, suhjccls cmphisi/c ihcir indcpcndcncc whcn ihey icknowlcd^c nc^Uvc aspccls öl Ihcn childhood thcy msisl on ihcu nol hcnij.. mflucnccd ncgntivcly hy ihosc expcncnccs Morc oftcn howcvei thcy o f l c i a vciy posi live c v i J u i l i o n of ihcir itl ichmcnl cxpcncn ccs without hcmg iblc lo illuslrilc il wilh conciclc cvcnts dcmonstr itin^, sccurc inlcric tion Thcy oftcn ippcil lo ι hck öl mcmoiy öl childhood expcncnccs Thcy irc s u d to minimi/c or de ictivile Ihcir iltichmcnt con ccms Autonomoit\ 01 sccurc subjccls tcnd lo v iluc ilt ichmcnl icl ilionships ind lo considci Ihcm impoit ml foi thcn own pcison ihly Thcy aic iblc to dcsciibc nll ichmcnt icl Ucd ex pcncnccs cohercntly whcthcr ihcse ex pcncnees weie nc^, Uivc 01 positive Thcy picscnl ι cohercnt ind b i l inee p ctinc wilhout conti idiedons 01 othei viol Uions öl the uilcs Ιοί ideqn Uc discouisc Pict (dipicd idulls iie s l i l l veiy innen mvolved wilh llieii pisl Ut ichmcnl expcncnccs ind nc ihcicfoie nol iblc lo dcsciibc Ihcm cohcrcnlly P i s s i v i l y ind v i^ucncss m ly c h u i c l c i i / e Ihen bioj. r iphy or thcy m ly expicss in^ei when they disctiss ihc picscnl rcl Uionship wilh tlieir p i i e n l s They uc sud to m iximi/c 01 hypci

icüv Uc t heu itt ichmcnt conccms Dismissin^, ind preoecupicd subjccls n c holh considercd to bc insccurc

Sonic uilonomous dismissm^, 01 picoc eiipied sub|cets mdic itc thou^h then m coheicnl diseussion öl U i u m i t i e cxpciicnces Ihnl thcy h ive nol yel eomplctcd l he pioccss öl mourninj, These subjctls rcccivc the id dition il cl issiile ition Unrc\ol\ itl which is su pcnmposcd on Ihcir m im cl issifie ilion (M im

V

DcMoss & Hesse 1991/1994) Agam WL will not clahotalc on this classihcation huc

Πιο ΛΛΙ cicalcs l wo tasks lor ihc suh)cUs (Hesse pcisonal communication Aput I99*>) Thcy havc U) tocus on soinctnncs p a i n l u l aUathmeiU cxpcncnccs öl ihc past and al thc samc Urne i c m a i n awaic öl ihc picscnl discoursc conlcxl Thc parlicipanls in thc interview t i y to icLonsliutl Ihcn hie history and ai thc samc Urne thcy nccd to lakc into atcount ihc requircmcnls öl ihc discouisc such äs thc tcquircmcnl to hc t i u t h l u l and not to gcl ahsoihcd in minor dctails Thc ΛΑ1 ucatcs somc slicss — not unhke thc famous Sliangc Siluation lor m-lants — and thc way in which ihe adulls dcal with Uns slrcss is indicalivc of Ihcn altaLhinent rcprcscntahons Dismissing suh |CL!S icnd to IOLUS too much on ihc discoursc conlexl at ihc cosl öl a cohcicnt account öl thcn past cxpcncnccs prcoccupicd sub|CUs Icnd to conccnliatc loo imich on past al tachnicnt cxpcncnccs and lo lose sight öl Ihc discoursc conicxl Thcy ranihle on ahoul n i c l c v a n l dctails

Wc will (nsl addiess somc psyüiomcliic issucs öl Uns intci vicw Ί hen wc will picscnl Ihc distuhulion öl adult atlachmcnls in AAI studics conduclcd so lar Altci lhal wc w i l l dcscnhc rcscarch on ihc transmission öl at tachmcnt acioss gcneialions

F i r s l ihc psychomctncs As Ihc AAI rescmbles a n a t u t a l dialoguc ahoul pcisonal issucs, H is possihlc thal Ihc convcisaüon is milucnccd hy Ihc inlcivicwci s pcisonahly 01 iiHcrvicwing style Thus lai (wo studics öl a polcntial mtcivicwcr cliccl have hecn conducled (Bakcnnans Krancnhuig & Van II/cndoorn 199^ Sagi cl al 1994) In Thc Nelhcrlands, 83 molhcis wcic mlcivicwcd

twicc hy iwo out öl hvc Interviewers in counicihalanccd ordei Wc lound thal thc inlcwicwcis did not ptovokc syslcmaucally diilcrcnl AAI classiücalion distnhutions l u i t h c i m o i c cach pau öl Interviewers show ahout ihc samc slahihty öl AAI classihca tions ovcr Urne Wc rcphcatcd this outcomc in a study on 59 Israeli sludcnls Piovided lhal Interviewers aic adcquatcly iraincd AAI classifications aic not influcnced hy a polen tial Interviewer eilcu

Thc intcrcodei rcliahihty is estahlishcd and reporlcd in ahnosl every AAI sludy On ihc basis öl 18 studics, wc iound an avciagc mtcrcodcr rchability öl aboul 80% loi Ihe ihrcc classihcalions a rcasonahlc bul not pcrfccl rcliabihly It has lo bc kept m mmd (hat 20 cascs in cvery 100 may hc classihcd wiongly This may crcatc a ccilmg cftccl loi all our Unding II may also mdicatc that thc AAI is a rcscaich Instrument and not a diagnoslic lool

nse*.···*:.

nionths II musl hc icah/cd lhal ihe itsl itlcsl icliabihly can not be l (K)'/ due lo impcifect inlcicodcr ichahihly

The ΛΛΙ iclies on subjccls' speceh pio duclion Thc classiiicalion emphasi/cs hcavi ly cohcrcncc öl discoursc Therclorc ihc

ΛΛ! classifiealions may HL dclcrmined hy subjccls verbal lUicncy and logical icasonmg ahililiLs This issuc is explorcd m ihrcc sludics whn.li did nol lind sigmlicaiH äs sociations bulwüLii IQ and adull ailachmcnt (Bakcimans Kiancnbuig & Van IJ/cndoorn

199^ Sagi cl al , 1994 Sicele & Sloclc, 1994) Vub.il llucncy is nol impoilanl lor thc interview oulconic cithci W.ncis and his u)-woikcis inlci vicwed paicnls aboul ihcn pasl cxpuicnocs wilh ihcir jobs Thc l oh inlci viow was sttucluicd m a sinnlar way äs ihc ΛΛΙ Discoutsc ahoul woik icla-Icd expciieiiLcs was nol al all iclalcd lo disc ouisc ahoul dtlachmuit (Watcis cl al 1991) Tctnpuaincntal diHcicnc.cs hclwccn adulls do nol allccl ihcir bchavtoi in ihc ΛΛΙ Wc did nol lind a lüation hclwccn Plomin s I AS scalc Ιοί I inolionahly Aclivily and Sotiahihly fBuss & Plonun 19S4) and Ihc attachmcnl classilicaliotis (De Haas Bakci inans Kiancnburg & Van IJ/cndoorn 1994) Lack öl mcmoty of childhood cvcnls inighl hc inlcipiclcd äs chaiaclciistic oi an insccuic allachmcnl woiking modcl II ι s supposcd lhal dismissmg suhjccls aic nol opcn lo negative aspccls öl ihcn carly al laehmcnt iclalionships and lall back on a lack öl mcmory lo avoid icllccling on οι discussing ihosc aspccls Howcvci an aller nalivc inlcrprclalion wouid hc lhal dismiss-ing subjccls aie jusl nol ablc lo rcmcmbci

äs many childhood cxpencnccs in äs much dclail äs ihc olhcr suh|ccEs Thcy mighl

suKci hom a cognitivcly 01 neuiologically impaiiLiI ineinoiy T wo sludics addicsscd Ibis issuc PliL Kl molhus in o in Dutch sludy evalualcd ihcn own Ion» icmi mcmoiy abililics on a seil icpoil mcmoiy qucsiion nairc Thcy also complclcd a mcmoiy lest wilh qucslions aboul common issucs in childhood nol rclalcd to lamily atlachmcnl cxpciicnccs c g whal was ihc color öl youi drsl hikc Thc mcmory lesl incasuicd lalcncy of icsponsc in milli scconds Thc dismissmg molhcis did nol pcrceivc ihcu aulohiogiaphi cal mcmoiy ahihlics äs less devclopcd than Ihc olhci sub|ccls luilhcmoic ihcy pci formcd cvcn somcwhal hellet on ihc mcmoiy lesl This may bc considcrcd äs a nicc il lusliahon öl ihc posibihly öl rcpicssion (Bakeimans Kiancnhuig & Van H/endooin

1991) In Ihc Isiach sludy subfccls wcie askcd in a Remote Mcmoiy Tcsi to choosc aniong loui tillcs öl childicn s TV piogiams oul of which thrcc wcic lakc and onc aclually shown duiing ihc sludcnls childhood bul not aflcrwaids Mnlhcinioie *i common p.ui associale lesl Ιοί iclatively shorl leim memory (llncc monlhs) was m cludcd Γ inally in Gallon s mclhod öl Scmaniic Cumg subjcels weic askcd lo Ihmk öl mcmories fiom ihcir ehildhood associalcd with caeh öl 12 cuc woids and lo inclicale thc agc whcn ihc evcnt look placc No sigmiicanl dilleicnccs among ihc atlachmcnl eatcgoncs wcie lound (Sagi cl al 1994) Wc may eoncludc lhal dismissmg sub|cels lack of mcmoiy for allachmcnl cxpencnccs eannol bc atüibulcd to gcncial memoty dcficils

Il is Ihcieloie worlh havmg α eloser look al somc moie suhslanlivc issues, ihe lirsl öl wlnch is how adull allachmcnl classilicalions nie dislrihuled in diHerein populations. Adult Attachment Disti ihulions Moro lhan 2(MK) AAIs havc hccn classilicd and rcportcd in sludies aeross thc world. The ovcrall AAI dislnhulion οΓ normal, nonclinicnl molhcrs shows lhal ahout 60% of thc molhers aiuclassified äs securc-autonomous, and ahout 20% aie classilicd in cach öl' ihc insccurc calcgories (Van 1.1/endoot n & Bakci mans-Kranenhurg, in press).

Molhei's nationality or sociocconomic slatus docs nol slrongly inlluencc the dis-lnhulion. Adolesccnls show ahout Ihe samc J i s t r i h u t i o n οΓ allachmenl classilicalions äs .idult samplcs The dislnhution of l'alhers is icmarkahly simiiar lo the Standard dislrihu-tion öl niolheis. Although il could he sug-gcsled lhal inen lend to he inore dismissing lhan wonien (GilÜgan, 19S2), this idea is not eonlinned hy Ihe data. This rcsull concurs wilh ihe ahsenee o t' scx dUTerences in inl'ant altachmcnl.

How du hushands' and wivcs' allachmcnt repTcscnlalions malch'.' In live sludies, holh p a i l n e r s οΓ in tota l 226 eouples werc inlcr-viewed. Autononious wivcs appeared lo he mosl ölten marricd lo aulonomous hushands, although one-lhird öl ihe uulonomous wives were marncd lo a dismissing or a prcoc-cupied hushand. Thc same was Iruc of aulonomous hushands: Ahout one-lhird of ihem wcrc marricd lo insccurc wives (Van l.!/,cndoorn & Bakcrmans-Krancnhurg, in piess). Thus, there seems to hc a tcndeney lo slahili/alion of sccurity or insecurily hy

the choicc of a parlner. Bul thcre are also many cxccptions lo ihe rule that hushands and wives shaic Ihc same working modcl of altachnicnl. Thcreforc a chancc for hrcak-ing Ihc inlcrgenerational cyelc öl insceurily exisls, äs Kutter and his collcagucs dcmon-slratcd in thcir study 011 parcnts who werc raiscd in instilulional carc (Ruttcr, Quinton & Hill, 1190).

Thc ΛΑΙ has hccomc inercasingly popular in clinical psychology, dcvclopmenlul psychopalhology and child psychialry. The AAI has hccn adminislercd in a varicty öl clinical groups, lor cxample depressed palienls, horderlincs, antisocial disordcrcd adulls, parenls of conducl and slcep disoi-dcrcd childrcn clc. Thc comhincd clinical groups· show a slrong over-rcprcscnlation of insecuie suhjccls. As cxpcctcd, ihe dismiss-ing äs well äs ihc prcoccupicd catcgory arc ovcr-rcprc.senled. Whclhcr thc elinieal prohlcms arc primarily localcd in ihc adulls or in Ihc childrcn docs nol make a dilTcrenec in Ihe ovcrall distiihulions οΓ ihc adulls. In hol h cascs only 12-14% of ihc suhjccis appcar to hc sccurc.

Intergenerational Transmission of Attachment

A l l e r discussing ihc psychomelric charae-icrislics of thc ΑΛΙ and ihc AAI distrihutions in vanous clinical and nonclinical groups wc arc now in ihc position lo addrcss Ihe eorc issuc; inlcrgcncralional Iransmission oi" atlachmcnl.

w is donc inlo whethcr Ihe inswu colild hc found in p ircnls Ul ithmcnt rcprcscnt ilions The ΑΛΙ ei issiiic Uions rcllcct ihc ml mls ill ichinerit cl issifte Uions ih ι( Μ uy Ainswoiih disuwcicd in studyinj, ihcir Sti i%c Situ Hion hch ινιοι (Ainswoiih Blchir Witcis & Will 1978)

The Stunde Situ Uion procedurc ind ils cl issiiic itions uc widely known B ilancin^ hctwccn cxplor ition ind all ichincnl hc h ivioi childrcn who irc ivoid inlly U l ic h cd to ihcn puciils minirni/c »r de ic tiv Uc Ul ichrneMt hch ivior Ainhiv iluitly il l ichcd thildrui m ιχιππ/c or hypcr iclivitc

ilt ichincnl heh iviot il Ihc expcnse »l ex plorition (M im 1990) Sccurüy Ul ichcd ch Idicn sinke Ihc h il incc helween illich mcnt hchivior iskn% i<ir comloii nnncdi Uely tllci ihc rcuinon ind ιϋυπη% lo ex ploi Uion

Likc Ihc Sir m^c Silu ilion cl issiiic Uions Ihc ΛΛΙ cl issihc ilions uc h isctl 011 Ihc comnnmie ιΐκ η ihoul einolions in ill ich mcnt rcl ilionslups Aulonoinous suh|ccls irc ch n eleti/cd hy in opcn icllcclu n on Ihcn Ul ichincnl cxpci cnccs dismissm,., suh|ccts nun nii/c ihc mlliicncc dl ciily Ulichintnl expci icnccs ind prcoccupitd snhjcels uc still ciiincshcd m thcn ehildhood expciicnccs < i in Ihc prcscnl icl ilionship wnh thcir p ucnls

Τι insin ssion ( l itl ichinenl icioss ^.ciiei Uions suj,j,csls in in il()j,y öl idull ind ml m l sli ilc^ies showinj, is il weic two sides öl Ihc s nnc eom Ihc in inilesl Hion öl (he sti Uu_,y in the pirenl (U Ihe levcl öl veihil hch ινιοι) on Ihc one h ind ind Ihn < 1 ihc ml ml f H Ihe levcl öl ilt ichnicnt hch ινιοι) ( n Ihc othci h ind Fhc conespon denec helween pucntil ilt ichincnl ind m

f ml Ul ichincnl h is hccn ex immcd m U Ic ist IS sludics In m< sl siudics llic ΑΛΙ w is idmmislcied lo molhus lom sludies howcvei ilso ciiiccincd i Uhcis (Mim Λ: Coldwyn m press R idojcvic 1992 Slcclc cl il 1991 & V m U/cndooin e( il 1991) On Ihcsc 18 studies (in lol il 8^4 pucnt child dy ids) wc pcrlonncd thrcc inet i m ilyses ί irsl cffecl si/cs Ιοί the corrcspon dcncc helween uitonomous p ircnls ind sccurc inlints weic comhmcd The comhincd cllccl si/c w is compnrihlc to i corichtion cocldcicnl öl r = 0 4 7 Sludies wilh molheis showcd t stron er coiiespondcncc ih m studies with l Uhus The seeond inet i

m ilysis iinied u Ihc coircspondcncc hc iwcen paicnl s disimssmj, Ul ichincnl ind mf int s ivoid ml itliehinent A coinp u ihlc eliccl si/c w is lound 1 = 0 4 ^ Aj, un ihc eoircspondciice w is stronj,ei ioi niolheis (i = 0^0) ihm Ioi f ithcrs fi = 0 12) Ihc thnd inet ι m liysis showcd the rel ilion hc iwecn the picoceupicd ΛΑΙ ei issifie Uion öl Ihc pirenl ind ihc mf ml s imhivilcnl H lichmenl II yicldcd ι comhincd eliccl si/c ( f ι = 0 42 Ioi l Uhus is well is Ioi mothci s In tu ins of puecnli;,c öl correspondenec

ihoul 7*i / of Ihe p ucnls show smnl u u l ichmcnls lo thcn mf mls (Ioi dct uls scc V m II/endoorn 199*5)

Wh il is Ihc mech misin of tr msmissioi ;

Ix m ihe way öl an opcn and halanted u H i i m u m t a l i o n about t h t n t h i l d i c n s Icel ings i n slicsshil s i l u a i i o n s l hose p a t e n t s nnghl also Ictl t h i c a t c n c d h> negative and a m b i v a l e n l emolions of t heu L h i l d i L i i äs [hty i c t n i n d thcni öl (hon own pasl Autonomous paitnts howcvct, tan he ex petlcd lo hc opcn lo tommunitalion ahoul thcn cliildtcn s anxicly and distiess

In K) slndics, w i t h a Iota! öl 189 paicnt c h i l d dyads ΛΛΙ tlassihtation s ha\ e bccn iclattd lo measines Ιοί sensitive icsponsive ness The tombined elleu si/c lot ihe tcn sludics was equal lo i = 0 14 The uithei niodcst c f l e t l si/c Ιοί thc iclalion betwecn ΛΛ1 tlassilicalions and sensitive icsponsive-ncss mditales llic existente öl a tiansniis sion gap Altei all otily a Inniled pail öl die toiicspondcncc helwccn paienls and c h i l d i e n s ' attathmenl can he astnbcd t o sensitive icsponsivcness T h e latgesl pail öl ihe t i a n s m i s s i O M öl atlathment s l i l l icniains imcxplainuJ

This uncxplained p a t t has hccn c|naiilihed in an t a i l i e i papei ( V a n Π/ciulooii) 1995) based on whal we know abonl thc i t l a l i o n bLlween scnsiliMty and allaihmcnl Alinosl SO'/ öl Ihe itansniissuin inechanisin icmains u n k n o w n (thc 'tiansmission gap ) Λ polen l i a l explaiiation tan hc lound in genelic laclots Ii niay also he thc i.asc (hat thc u n i L i i l mcasincs öl lesponsivencss do not captuie all iclcvanl aspctls öl paicnt-dnld i n t c i a t d o n 101 inslaiiLC, h l t l e allenlion is usually paid lo ihe inlerchange hclween p a i c n t s1 and c h i l d i e n s iaual cxptcssions t)l Linolions Mayhe wc have lo seaich m olhei dnecttoiis äs wül I 01 example, how do Lontexlual laclois i n t c i p l a y w i l h p a i c n t i n g lo shape (he nexl guiteialionX a t l a c h m c n l s '

Attachment in Context

Is nitergenci ational U ansniission öl atladunenl lesdiLtcd to spenlie duld leanng condthons' This question is laiscd in thc I n s t place hc causc thc concspondeiiLC öl ahoul 0 *>() nn-phcs that theic aie also aulononious parcnis wilh inseuuc chiklrcn Furthctmoic ihe Jiildicn öl sonie insecutc parcnis aic nevci-ihelcss set-iiicly ailachcd to ihem In lact in ahoul 2V/ öl ihe lamilics, ihcic is no LOI-icspondciiLC bctwccn paicnlal and i n l a n t at laüimcnl sccuiiiy (Van II/cndooin 199*1) These cxLCplions lo the gcneial lulc seeni impoilanl lor gcncialing Knowledge ahoul tiansmission öl allathmcnt on thc tasc lc\cl

ScLondly thc sotial conlcxt öl ihe paicnt üuld icialionship should bc takcn inlo at tounl Mosl slndics w i l h (hc ΑΛΙ havc been tondutted in wcslein Lonntncs wilh sinidai f a n u l y tonslellations Thcicloie thc issue ot Ihe ctologital tontcxt nughl lade into the hatkgiound In a vciy distrcpani etologital tontexl, howcvei Ihe gcneial t u l e öl i n l e i g c n e i a t i o n a l t i a n s m i s s i o n may lind i t s cxLC|ilions

who h ivc lo s u p e i v i s e in my nl inls incl e h i l d i c n thiouj,h mlucoins S e n s i t i v e icspon sivcncss lo ml inls sijji ils öl inxicly ind distrcss U n i t h l is ihcreloie ilmosl nnpos siblc In Uns rcspcel — ind in Ihis respccl o n l y — Ihc situ ilion is somcwh U com p ir ihlc lo wh it Rene Sptl/ ind John Bowlhy musl h IVL obscrved in Ihc fillics in in siiiuion il e u c

In i quasi c x p c i i m c n l i l dcsi^n 20 m o thei ml ml dyads irom cominun il kibhut/im

ind 25 molhcr i n f int dy ids Irom olhcr kih bul/im (whcrt Ihc children slc.pl u homc) complelcd thc ΛΛΙ ind Ine Sn in^t Situ ilion Fhe p irenls ind chiklicn weie comp u iblc on polcnli illy inlcrvcninj, v in iblcs Ihc sleepinj, in internen! hein^ (he only d i l Icrence (S iei et il in picss) We lound

Ih il thc d i s l i i b u l i o n s ( l molhcis ilt ichment reprcsen t ( ns wcic quite sini l u Ilowcve

i Spinde nl d i l l e i e n e e bclwceii UIL chiklien s ill ichmcnt cl issilic it ons ip pc u cd fliL d i s l n b i i l i n öl tbe chiklicn whc slcpl il homc w is comp u ihlc lo ihc dis Hibulion öl ilt ichincnt cl tssidc ilions in noi in i! wcslcin l t n n l i c s ( H O / sccuic) B u t only 45 / öl ihc childrcn Irom k i b h u t / n n with c o n n n u n il slccpin^ in in^cmcnts wcic sccincly ut ichctl

In ihc k i b b u l / n n whcic thc chiklicn slcjit il homc (hc IH i m il u ncspi ndcncc bctwccn molhcis ind ml inls Ut ichincnt w is lound {76/n) In k i b b u l / i m w i t h connnun il slccpin^ in mj,cmcnl thc concspondcncc bctwccn molhcis ind ml inls cl issiiic Hions w is only 40/ thal is tt ch mcc levcl This icm u k iblc rcsull points il thc bound n i e s öl intcrj,cnci ι Hon il ti insuussion Λ ck sei look U Ihc misin itchcs m ikc-s clcn th il in p u t i c u i l r lutonomous molhcr s with insccuic ml in t s

uc rcsponsiblc Ιοί ihc l< w pciccnt i t ( l i^rccmcnl Ihc mllucncc c l i sccuic m ilci n il ill chmcnt rcpicsciit ilion is ovcnukd by Ihc mscnsilivc conicxt

Wc must coiicludc in il mtci^cnci ition il ti insmission öl Ul ichincnt is noi conlcxl Ircc ind i h n c u l t u i il childrc inn^, pi icliccs m ly block ihc Irinsmission öl sccunly Λ Movc to tht I evel of Contcxt Are wc rc illy sludyin^ mtcr^cncr ition il tr insmission öl iltichmcnl whcn wc usc ihc Α Λ Ι? Οι is n Ihc mylh öl conlinmly Ih il

wc bchcvc lo cxisl * Slnctly spcikmj. m Ici^cnci ition il ti msmisMon would mpl> th il c irly childhood Hl ichmcnls wcic rcllcclcd m c u i i c n l AAI cl issilic ilions Othciwisc ill ichmcnl icpicscnt itions w( u k l noi d i l l c i liom { t hei p u c n l il bei κ l s y s i t u i s As wc h ivc i h c i d y i n d i c i t e d c i i l y U l i e h mcnl cxjici icnccs m ly noI ncccss u ily hc m i i K icd in thc A A I bcc ι usc wc do noi l i u s i ihc seil icpoits on c h i l d h ( d ilt i c h m c n t ex pciicnccs These seil repoils m iy 01 m ly not bc li uc Ncvci ihck ss it ippe n s ih il A A I chssiiic ilions mdccd iclleel Ihc p isi ilbeit noi ilw lys m ι l i n c u dneel ind obvious w iy

I our icm u k iblc ind impressive l< n j , i l u d i n i l sludies on Ul ichmcnl liom ml utt> lo idullhood h i v e bccn pubhshed i c c c n t l v In l i c l it is Ihc ΑΛΙ ih U m idc ihcsc sludies possiblc These sludies h ivc shed somc hj,hl on Ihc issuc öl (dis )conlinuily öl Hl ichmcnl icioss Ihc I r l c s p i n in p u t i c u l i i on tlie con Icxtu il consti imls öl Hl ichmcnt devclopmcnl

I K I V V C U I a t l a e h m c n l in i n l a n t ) and allath-i n c n l m y o u n g adullhood öl thc sanallath-ic suh I t t t s Stahle seune subjecls gtew up i n Icast s l i t s s l u l uiuimslaiiLes wheicas slahlc m setinc sub]eUs giev\ up in stähle s l i c s s f u l ciiLiimslant.es Bcckwilh s (1995) study shows lhal i n i a n t s who wcie consislcnlly te|Lt,lcd and licatcd mconsislcntly dm mg ihc l u s l ycai öl l i l c bcuimc dismissing äs 18 s c a i s olds Bin s i m i l a t antci-Ctlcnts t-ould not ho lound Ιοί ihe pieoccupicd and sccuic suh|oc(s Paicnlal divoice hcktic ihe agc of S }is sccmcd lo iiKicasc ihc likchhood öl bei n g mscLUicly pieottupicd / i m m e r m a n n (1994) dcsuibcs a loilow up öl ihe Bielelcld sind) öl K l a u s and Kann Giossmann {(iiossmann Ciiossniann Iluhei & W a i l n e i

1 9 X 1 ) He did nol lind an> lineai i c l a l i o n al a l l bUwcen e a i l y antl lalci .illathmenl In a LompliuUed legiession et]ualion he w a s h o \ u \ u ahle io p i e d i e l a laige p.nl oi al l lünnt nl MI adolcsLciKe on Ihe hasis öl L a i I I L I altat hinenl expuientes antl h i e L \ L i i l s Walus antl Ins to \ \ o i k t i s ( W a l t i s t i al 19*)^) mleiviewul ^0 ytning adulls l n u n stabil, iniddie class i a i n i l i L s who äs ont \e.n olds vveic seen in Ihe Stiange Silua lion I h c y l o u n d a leniaikable petcenl.igt. öl stähle s t t u i t 01 i n s e c u i e sub|ecls 7(Y// l i i s t a h i h l y t o u k l laigdy be e x p l a m e d on Ihe b i s i s öl i n l c i v e n i n g a l t . i t h n i e n l ielalt.d h i e t \ t n l s such ,is ma|Oi illiiLSses 01 sepaiahons

mtl losscs öl all.ithincnl l i g u i e s D i l l e i t n l i n t e i p i c l a i i o n s öl ihese s t i i k u i g i L s u l t s ate possible

Waleis et ,il (199*i) umsidci Ihe oiittoine öl lht.ii longiludinal sludy äs impoitanl snp poil Ιοί thc piotolype hypothesis This h>poihesis siates (hat Ihe pi iniaiy i n l a n l niotliLi allaL-hnicnl i c l a l i o n s h i p sei \ es äs

a piolcitype Ιοί lalei lovc tclalionships and lhal nienial icpicscnlationsol ical aüachmenl expeiientes tonstiiiLlcd early in l i l e account Ιοί Ihe c o n t i n u i l y An a l t e r n a t i v e hypothesis is howevei ihc idea thal Lonlinuily öl at tat, h t nc n l is dcpcndcnl on ihc slabilily öl Ihc conlcxl in which thc child is raiscd II thc child-rcanng cnviionnicni provides cnough sensitive caic lo stiniulatc Ihc dcvclopmcnl öl a sccurc atlachmcnl in thc ( n s l yeai öl i i i c H may Loniiiiuc to bc oplnnal in latci slagcs äs well, and ihcicloie stallold secuie allathmcnt Ihroughout ihe Inst (wo dccitdcs öl l i l c

II is d i l l i c u l l lo iinaginc a uitiuil lest öl Ihe piololjpc i etwt\ thc slahlc Lontexl hvpolhcsis The conlinuity öl attiiLhmcnl in stähle en\ iionements cannol bc consitlcicd äs d e h n i l t v L pioof foi ihe ptololypc liypothesis not f o i ihe suhle envnoiimcnt hypothesis Thc f i n a l piool nia\ \u\c lo he expccled honi l a l s i l > i n g eviduite fPoppci 1979) The caily piotoiypc hypolhesis niay only he ths-t o n l n i n e ths-t l if Ihe i]ths-tialil>hs-t; öl allachincnl changcs in t h a n g i n g t h i l d icaintg tncunistanccs ΤΙκ stähle t n \ i i o n m e n i h>pt)lhesis may onl> IIL distonhimed i l Ihc t|iiahl> öl atlachmenl icinains iht sanic e\en in an unstabte cn v n o n m e n l (see Van H/cndooin m picss)

12 •i J linkt HIMH<. A«

'Μ"(Γ ·

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1

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m a i i l a l tcnsion subslancc abusc and (man cial unccrlainty Morc impoilanlly Hamilton (199^) alsu found lhal a changc liom in sccuie lo sccurc allachmcnl was assoualcd with a stähle family l i l c wilhoul many strcss lul lilc cvcnls The implicalion is thal carly negative attachmcnl cxpcncnccs such äs lack öl scnsilive icsponsivcncss may he coinpcn saled Ιοί hy latci nioic optimal child rcaiing uicunislances (hat is changcs öl thc cn vironincnl may ovci i idc ihe mllucncc öl c a r l y insccuic intcrnal workmg modcls In Ihc studics öl Z i m m e i m a n n (1994) and Watcrs et al (1995) sinular dala havc hccn prcscnted In lacl Ihc Zimmcrmann study cnlails ihc most stnngcnl l a l s i f i c a U o n öl Ihc carly prolotypc hypolhcsis bccausc in t h i s nonclimcal and lalhci stähle sample a dnccl associalion hetwcen caily m i a u t mothei at lachinenl and allachmcnl secunly in adolcs-ccncc was ahscnl ll shows lhal ihc carly allachmcnl expcncnccs may only indncclly Icavc thcn m a i k on latci atlachmcnl rcprc senlalion — ihiough a m u I l i U i d e of mlci vcniiig laclois such äs l i l e cvcnls

Allhough Waleis cl al (1995) lound icmarkahlc conlnunly öl allachment q u a l i l y , lhcn sludy docs nol providc s u l f i c i c n l cvidcnce lot Ihe caily prololypc liypothcsis In this stähle iniddlc class sample ihc con l i n u i l y öl altachmcnt itscll is logically corn palihlo wilh holh thc prolotype and ihc stähle uivironmcnt hypothcsis Incompalihle w i t h thc piololype hypolhcsis howevci, is thcn f i n d m g lhat changcs in child i c a i m g cn cumslanccs in pailicnlar ihc occurrcncc of negative l i l c cvcnts such äs paicntal divorce, paiental psychialuc illncss or scnous i l l nesscs in ihc parcnls or ihe child led lo d i s c o n t i n u i l y öl altachmcnt

The cnvironmcnt ailccls ihc dcvclopmcnt öl allachment cven aller Ihc allcgcd cnlical f n s l ycai öl liic, thciclorc only a wcak \er sion öl Ihc piolotypc hypolhcsis scems dclen sihle This wcak vcrsion of ihc protolypc hypothcsis slatcs lhal thc qualily öl thc lirst allachment iclationship is lohusl agamsl rninoi changcs in thc child-rcanng circumslanccs hui lhat ihc mtcinal workmg modcl öl at tachmcnl may changc äs a conscquence öl major lilc-cvcnls (Van IJ/cndoorn in picss) In gcncral ihe mcasuiemcnl öl atlach mcnl across thc l i l c span has hccn cmpha si/cd at thc cost of thc mcasuicmeni of ihc child icarmg cnvironmcnl Willi Ihc movc lo thc Icvcl öl rcprcscnlalions allachmeiH theory has hccomc morc locusscd on ihc innci world öl childicn and adults and Icss on Ihc social conlcxt Λ movc lo ihc con Icxlual Icvel seems icquncd lo addiess ein cial issncs of contmuily and changc I 01 cxample ihc asscssmcnl of changcs in child icarmg cncumstanccs has ölten hccn icsliiclcd to majoi negative l i f c cvcnls Smallci Huclualions in ihc scnsilivily öl ihe c n v i i o n m c n l to Ihc atlachment Signals of a dcvcloping i n d i v i d u a l havc not hccn m cluded m tlie l o n g i t u d m a l studics puhlishccl so far To lest ihc piololype and ihc slahlc cnvironmcnl hypolhcses howcvei, wc nccd adequatc mcasuics ioi holh dimensions In paiticular Ihc wcak vcrsion öl thc piolotypc hypothesis can only bc i c f u l c d if i c l a l i v c l y minor changcs in ihc cnvironmcnt lead to changcs in allachmcnt sccunty In lact a ihcory of scnsilive child rcaiing hcyond Ihc insl fcw ycais öl h f c is slill lackmg (sce Van IJ/cndoorn in prcss (or lurlhcr dclails)

»H <>f Λ ΐ ΐ ι κ t i n i i n t 1«\\ιιιιΙ\ ti iontuniiil Α/ψκχιιΙι 0.28 attachmcnt mothcr 0.50 0.31 attachmcnt fathcr i7

l igLirc 2 Nelwork of aüachmcnts in ihc f.imily phasi/cc! Ihc lolc oi llic mlanl-molhcr at-lachmcnl rclalionship, and ihc child's icl.Uionships wilh olhci caicgivcis havc hccn ncglcclcd Ncveilhclcss, in cctlam soual coiitcxls children giow up in nclwoiks öl allathmcnl rclaLionships involving molhci lalhci, and olhci caicgivcis In a compaia-l i \ c study öcompaia-l Ducompaia-lch and Krach atcompaia-lachmcncompaia-l nclwoiks wc showcd lhal ihc combinalion öl aUathmcnts was inoic piediUivc öl laicr dcvclopmcnt than an exklusive IOLUS on Ihc m n t h c i - m l a n l rclalinnship Thts was cspc-u a l l y ticspc-uc in thc tontcxl cspc-uf Ihc Isiach kih-h u t / i m in wkih-hic,kih-h ikih-hc widci nclwoik öl taicgivcis [ladiüonally plays a morc piomincnl lolc in ihc hvcs öl ihc childicn (Van IJ/cndoorn Sagi & Lamhcimon, 1992)

As wc havc sccn Ihc atlachmcnl icprc-scnlalions öl hushands and wivcs aic rclalcd Scturc inen mairy sccurc woincn moic ollen lhan mighl hc cxpcclcd on ihc hasis öl t-hancc alonc Wc havc also sccn (hat malci-iiiil allachnicnl is slrongly assonalcd Willi i n l a n i dUacluncnl, and thc sainc is (nie Ιοί ihc f a t h e i s Laslly infant-mothci attaLhmcnl sctins iclalcd lo inlanl-lathci allathincnl ( l o x Kimmcily & Schafci, 1991)

Ncvcrihclcss, thc cluld does not grow up in a homogencous attachmcnt nclwork Thc conclalions hclwccn thc diflcrcnt componcnts öl Ihc lamily altachmcnt nctwork arc lar fiom pcilcct Childicn may hc confrontcd wilh an insccLiic mother and a sccurc fathcr — or thc olhci way aiound — and onc o( the ciutial issucs of fuluic rcscaich will hc whcthci and how children intcgialc ihc divcrgmg mflucnccs in thcir own attachmcnt rcprcscntation

CONCLUSION

socio-£Hh''

Vc'.^iiA^

<} Ar·

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4"

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cinotion il dLvUopmcnl Λ niovc lo iht m i s s i o n ^, ip ih u wc, lound lo cxisl hclwn.ii conlcxlu il icvcl in ly partly solvc. iht [i ins p iruu il ind i n i ml iü ichmuil

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