Some Aspects of the Population and Urban Geography of an Island Republic: The Case Study of Singapore Since 1957.

328^03

SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL AND AFRICAN STUDIES (UNIVERSITY QF LONDON)

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

SOME ASPECTS OF THE POPULATION AND URBAN GEOGRAPHY QF AN ISLAND REPUBLIC* THE CASE STUDY OF SINGAPORE SINCE 1957

3y M*K. Yeo

^ondo^.

T h e s is S ubm itted f o r M .P h ll. Degree

August 1974

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ABSTRACT

The main aim o f t h i s stu d y i s to examine th e u rb a n and r e l a t e d p o p u la tio n p rob lem s o f S in g a p o re ; to a n a ly s e th e dem ographic s t r u c t u r e , s o c ia l and economic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e p o p u la tio n and to d e s c r ib e th e system o f h o u sin g and u rb a n renew al schem es. An a tte m p t i s a l s o made to d e s c r ib e th e v a r io u s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een th e p u b lic h o u sin g

developm ent, th e u rb a n renew al and th e p o p u la tio n problem s in S in g a p o re .

The main f o u r f in d i n g s o f stu d y a r e a s fo llo w s . F i r s t , u n d e r im m ig ratio n c o n tr o l and th e S in g ap o re N a tio n a l Fam ily P la n n in g and B irth C o n tro l P o lic y i t i s hoped p o s s ib le t h a t th e p o p u la tio n w i l l be s e t t l e d down i n t o a more s t a b l e p o p u la tio n and th e tw o -c h ild fa m ily w i l l be a c c e p te d a s th e s o c ia l norm. S eco n dly , i n com paring th e p r e s e n t h o u sin g c o n d itio n s and developm ent w ith th o s e o f th e p a s t i t i s c l e a r t h a t b e fo re I960 most o f th e h o u sin g f o r low -incom e g ro u p s c o n s is te d o f crowded te n em en ts i n

Chinatow n; th e m id d le income g ro u p s were t y p i f i e d by th e S in g ap o re

Improvement T r u s t f l a t s i n Tiong Bahru and A lexandra Hoad; and b o th th e s e g ro u p s were l i v i n g i n s i n g l e - s t o r e y to t r i o l e - s t o r e y b u ild in g s . A fte r I960, most o f th e p u b lic h o u sin g h a s been m u l ti- s to r e y f l a t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r th e low er-incom e g ro u p s o f th e p o p u la tio n . T h ir d ly , S in g a p o re ’ s c u r r e n t dynamic u rb an renew al programme i s b e in g prom oted a g a i n s t t h i s b ackground, and th e c i t y s k y lin e i s b e in g d r a m a tic a lly tra n s fo rm e d . F i n a l l y , i t i s hoped t h a t th e s u c c e s s o f S in g a p o re ’ s m u l t i - r a c i a l

e x p e rie n c e w i l l have a c o n tr ib u ti o n to make to a l l m u l t i - r a c i a l s o c i e t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y in S o u th e a st A sia .

s u g g e s tio n s g iv e n to me by my d e p a rtm e n ta l s u p e r v is o r P r o f . 3.W. Hodder.

I am a ls o d e e p ly g r a t e f u l to my f r i e n d s in S in g a p o re and London f o r encouragem ent and a s s i s t a n c e . I e s p e c i a l l y w ish to th an k

Mr. Frank G 'P e i l l y , D r. A h eila L u rb rig g , Mr. Poo Cheong Pee Kim and M iss G.K. Lee.

F i n a l l y , I sh o u ld l i k e to th a n k M iss Chay Lang Chau, who v e ry p a t i e n t l y ty p ed th e d i s s e r t a t i o n .

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST QF FIGURES LIST CSF MAPS LIST OF TABLES LIST QF PLATES CHAPTER

1* I n tr o d u c tio n

P . The P o p u la tio n Growth and D i s t r i b u t i o n o f S in g ap o re 3 . The C hanging Demographic S t r u c t u r e in S in g ap o re 4 . Some Economic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e P o p u la tio n and

Fam ily P la n n in g i n S in g ap o re

5 . Growth o f P u b lic H ousing and Swamp R eclam ation Scheme i n S in g ap o re

6. The P a tte r n o f Urban Development and S a t e l l i t e Towns 7m G en eral Review o f th e Ju ro n g New Town P la n

8. Urban Renewal Programme i n S in g ap o re SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GLOSSARY OF MALAY TERMS

3 .2 P o p u la tio n by E th n ic G roup, Age and Sex 1966 57

3 .3 P o p u la tio n by E th n ic G roup, Age and Sex 1970 58

4 .1 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e E conom ically A c tiv e P o p u la tio n w ith in

Each In d u s tr y by Main E th n ic G roups, 1966 71

4 .2 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e E conom ically A c tiv e P o p u la tio n i n Each

Main E th n ic Group by I n d u s tr y , 1966 73

5 .1 <oom-type P la n s i n H ousing and Development Hoard 88

LIST OF' MAPS

Page

1 .1 P h y s ic a l Landscape o f S in g ap o re 11

1 .2 Geology o f S in g ap o re 16

1 .3 .1 S o u th e a st A sian Monsoons D uring J a n u a ry 19

1 .3 . 2 S o u th e a st A sian Monsoons D uring A p r il 19

1 .4 .1 S o u th e a st A sian Monsoons D uring J u ly 20

1 .4 .2 S o u th e a st A sian Monsoons D uring O cto b er 20

1 .5 .1 3000 - f o o t S tre a m lin e s f o r l&X) G .M .T ., 9 Dec. 1954 22 1 .5 .2 Mean Sea L evel ’r e s s u r e f o r 19P0 G.M.T. , 9 Dec. 1954 22 1 .6 .1 3000 - f o o t S tr e a m lin e s f o r 0001 G .M .T ., 27 J a n . 1957 23 1 . 6 . 2 Mean Sea L evel P r e s s u r e forOOOl G.M.T. , 27 J a n . 1957 23 2 .1 F o u r G roups (p o p u la tio n ) by P la n n in g A rea, 1957-1966 40 2 .2 P e r c e n t D i s t r i b u t i o n o f P o p u la tio n by R a c ia l G ro u p in g s, 1957 46

5 .1 P u b lic H ousing A reas in S in g ap o re 82

5 .2 K allan g B asin R eclam ation Scheme 91

5 .3 E a s t C o ast R eclam ation Scheme 94

6 .1 F iv e Urban Development P a t t e r n s i n S in g ap o re 97

6 .2 ueenstow n Neighbourhood P la n 99

6 .3 Toa Payoh Neighbourhood P la n 102

7 .1 The Ju ro n g I n d u s t r i a l E s ta te P lan 107

7 .2 Ju ro n g Town 110

8 .1 Urban Renewal i n th e C e n tr a l Area 115

T e r r i t o r i e s i n 1969 9

1 .2 Tem perature and R a i n f a l l o f S in g a p o re , 1961-1971 25

2 .1 Urban P o p u la tio n Growth, 1824-1970 27

2 .2 Crude B ir th R ates and Crude D eath H a te, 1901-1970 29

2 .3 P r in c ip a l C auses o f D eath, 1948, 1958 and 1963 ₃₁

2 ,4 P e rc e n ta g e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f P o p u la tio n by E th n ic G ro an s, 1967 &

1970 32

2 .5 D a tu ra l I n c re a s e o f P o p u la tio n by E th n ic G roups, 1967, 1968 &

1969 34

2 .6 I n f a n t M o r ta lity P a te and N a tu ra l I n c r e a s e , 1958-1968 35 2 .7 P o p u la tio n D e n sity and P e rc e n ta g e by D i s t r i c t 8r P a c e, 1957 38 2 .8 D e n sity o f P o p u la tio n Changes by P la n n in g A rea, 1957 & 1966 41

3 .1 Bex R a tio o f T hree P h a s e s , 1849-1971* 49

3 .2 Bex R a tio s by T hree Main R aces, 1957-1970 50

3 .3 P o p u la tio n by Age Group, 1957-1970 53

3 .4 Annual C h in e se , In d ia n s In a n ig ra ts and E m ig ra n ts, 1957-1962 61 4 .1 P e rc e n ta g e D i s t r i b u t i o n Aged 10 and Over by A c ti v it y S t a t u s ,

1966 65

4 .2 E s tim a te s o f PJeonomically A c tiv e P o p u la tio n f o r Ages o f F i f t e e n

and O ver, 1957-1972 66

4 .3 I n d u s t r i a l C om position o f th e Labour F o rc e , 1957 & 1966 68 4 . 4 P e rc e n ta g e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f E conom ically A c tiv e P e rs o n s Aged

10 and Over by Race f o r Each I n d u s tr y , 1966 70

4 .5 P e rc e n ta g e D is t r i b u t i o n o f E conom ically A c tiv e P e rs o n s Aged

10 and Over by In d u s tr y f o r Main E th n ic G roups, 1966 72 4 .6 C om parative P e rc e n ta g e D i s tr ib u tio n o f O c cu p a tio n a l S t r u c t u r e

o f S in g ap o re la b o u r F o rce i n 1957 & 1966 ₇₅

Page 4 . 7 P e rc e n ta g e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f E conom ically A c tiv e P e rs o n s Aged

10 and o v e r E conom ically A c tiv e by Race f o r Each P r in c ip a l

O c cu p a tio n , 1966 77

5*1 U n its Under Management by Housing and Development Hoard

( a t end p e r i o d ) , 1961-1971 87

5 .2 P o p u la tio n House in Housing Development Board F l a t s ,

1960-1970 89

6 .1 C o n s tr u c tio n Programme o f Queenstown, 1952-1969 100

7 .1 F o u r Zones in Ju ro n g I n d u s t r i a l E s ta te 108

LIST OF PLATES

• ■% Page

1 .1 A e ria l View o f S in g a p o re ’ s C ity C e n tre 7

1 .2 P u lau S e n to sa View from Mount F a b e r 14

1 .3 P u lau 3ukom O il H e fin e ry 14

2 .1 66 p e r c e n t o f S in g a p o re ’ s P o p u la tio n i s u n d er 29 Y ears o f Age 34 2 .2 77 p e r c e n t o f C h in ese P o p u la tio n i s C o n c e n tra te d i n th e In n e r

Core o f th e C ity 36

5 .1 Photograph Showing th e Old and New F l a t s 84

5 .2 A Packed C ar Park in th e C e n tr a l B u sin ess D i s t r i c t 84

5 .3 P a r t o f th e K allan g R iv e r E s tu a ry 92

5*4 The R eclam ation o f K allan g B a s in , w iU be u sed f o r New I n d u s t r i e s

and P u b lic H ousing E s ta te 92

5 .5 Work i n P r o g re s s a t th e E a st C o ast R eclam ation L i t e 95

5 .6 The Lecond Phase o f th e E a s t C o ast R eclam atio n 95

6 .1 View o f Block o f F l a t s i n c>ueenstown 104

6 .2 M u lti- s to r e y F l a t s a t Toa Payoh, a S a t e l l i t e Town i n N eighbour­

hood I I 104

7 .1 A e ria l View o f th e D eep-w ater Wharf Area i n Ju ro n g I n d u s t r i a l

E s ta te 112

7 .2 Panoram ic View o f th e P u b lic Housing E s ta te i n Ju ro n g New Town 112 8 .1 P a r t o f th e P r e c in c t Louth One i n th e Urban Renewal P r o je c t 118 8 .2 R edeveloped H ousing E s ta te in P r e c in c t N orth One 113 8 .3 A f a c t i o n o f th e P e o p le ’ s P ark Complex i n th e Urban Renewal

P r o je c t 120

8 .4 P a r t o f th e Golden M ile Along N ic o ll Highway Under th e Urban

Renewal Programme 120

Plate1.1: Aerial ViewofSingapore'sCity Centre

7

In 1963, when S in g ap o re was s e p a ra te d p o l i t i c a l l y from M a la y s ia , i t became a v e ry sm all n a t i o n , b o th i n i t s a r e a and i n i t s re s o u rc e s * Yet i t i s c l e a r t h a t sm all s i z e need n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean a low l e v e l o f developm ent. T aking s e le c te d c o u n t r i e s o f th e w orld w ith p o p u la tio n o f l e s s th a n 10 m i lli o n and a r e a s o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 sq.km o r l e s s (T ab le 1 . 1 ) , i t i s p l a i n t h a t such c o u n t r i e s may d ev elo p m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s , s e r v ic e i n d u s t r i e s , and more e s p e c i a l l y e n tr e p o t t r a d e o f l a r g e p r o p o r tio n s .

The R ep u b lic o f S in g apo re i s th e s m a lle s t and new est c o u n try i n S o u th e a st A s ia , w ith a t o t a l la n d a r e a o f o n ly 586 sq.km (2 2 6 .5 o q .m ile s ).

S in g ap o re c o n s i s t s o f th e is la n d o f S in g ap o re 5 4 2 .5 sq.km (2 0 9 .5 s q .m ile s ) and some 54* s m a lle r i s l a n d s (3^.8 sq.km o r 15 s q .r a ile s ) and re c la im e d la n d

(5 .1 sq.km o r 1 .2 sq . t i l e s ) . S in g ap o re i s /ft. m ile s from n o r th to so u th and

%b m ile s from e a s t to w e st; i t s s iz e i s th u s ab o u t th e same a s t h a t o f th e I s l e o f Wight i n England. S in g ap o re i s i n an i d e a l s i t u a t i o n to become a main p i v o t a l p o r t . I t l i e s betw een 1°09*N and 1°29'N l a t i t u d e and 103°38*K and 104O0 6 'E l o n g it u d e , i t i s t h e r e f o r e s i t e d a t th e s o u th e rn t i p o f th e West M alaysian P e n in s u la and i s s e p a ra te d from th e m ainland by a narrow s t r a i t a b o u t th r e e q u a r t e r s o f a m ile in w id th ; a t th e same tim e th e R epublic l i e s in th e m id st o f th e g r e a t e s t a rc h ip e la g o i n th e w o rld , con­

s i s t i n g o f th e R ep ub lic o f In d o n e s ia , th e F e d e r a tio n o f M alay sia and th e P h i l i p p i n e s . S in g a p o re , S t r a t e g i c a l l y s i t u a t e d r i g h t i n th e c e n tr e o f th e re g io n o f S o u th e a st A sia , h a s lo n g been a com m ercial c e n tr e i n t h i s a r e a . M oreover, b ecau se i t s ta n d s on th e r o u te from Jap an to th e M iddle E a s t, S in g ap o re lia s become th e c r o s s - r o a d s o f m ajo r o c e a n s r o u t e s betw een th e

In d ia n and th e P a c i f i c O ceans. A dvantages o f l o c a t i o n have th u s u n d o u b ted ly e x e r te d a g r e a t in f lu e n c e on i t s r o l e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e .

■Tiis stu d y i s c e n tr e d on th e p o p u la tio n , p u b lic h o u sin g and u rb an developm ent o f S in g ap o re s in c e 1957. At in d e p en d e n c e, S in g a p o r e 's new government began a f r o n t a l a t t a c k on s e v e r a l p ro b lem s: r a p id p o p u la tio n

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second s e c tio n a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e grow th and d e n s ity o f p o p u la tio n i s g iv e n . In t i e t h i r d s e c tio n th e r e i s an a n a l y s i s o f some dem ographic p ro b le m s, and th e f o u r th s e c tio n i s an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e p u b lic h o u sin g d ev elo p m en t. The f i n a l s e c tio n e x p la i n s th e p ro b lem s o f u rb an developm ent.

( i ) R e l ie f and Geology

S in g ap o re i s a sm all t r o p i c a l i s l a n d and a lth o u g h i t h a s p h y s ic a l f e a t u r e s on a sm all s c a l e , i t s r e l i e f and r i v e r s v a ry g r e a t l y i n c h a r a c t e r . The whole c o u n try i s o f v e ry low e le v a tio n and g e n e r a lly u n d u la tin g w ith a low ra n g e o f h i l l o , th e h ig h e s t o f which i s 581 f e e t above s e a l e v e l in B ukit Timah to t h e n o rth -w e s t o f th e c i t y . O th e rw ise, th e i s l a n d h a s no s t r i k i n g g e o g ra p h ic a l f e a t u r e s . H i l l s , v a l l e y s , r i d g e s and p l a i n s a r e th e common s u r f a c e form s on th e i s l a n d . Out o f a t o t a l a r e a o f 209.5 s q . m ile s (m ain S in g ap o re i s l a n d ) , a lm o st 64 p e r c e n t o f i t s a r e a

i 3 below 50 f e e t , b u t o n ly 10 p e r c e n t o f th e i s l a n d i s 5 0 .2 0 f e e t o f a v erag e e l e v a ti o n and i t s median e le v a tio n i s 59*21 f e e t (W ong,bl969)*

The c o a s t - l i n e i s in d e n te d by b ro ad e s t u a r i e s te n d in g to become mangrove swamps and s e p a r a tin g numerous c a p e s o r ta n jo n g . Jo h o re S t r a i t s h a s a w idth o f ab o u t a m ile , b ro a d e n in g to w ard s th e e a s t .

The i s la n d may be d iv id e d i n t o th r e e m ajo r d i s t i n c t r e g io n s :

( a ) The C e n tra l H i l l R egion w ith heavy d e p o s i t s o f g r a n i t e i n B u k it tim ah (581 f e e t , 1 .2 8 s q .m i l e s ) , B ukit P anjang (434 f e e t , 1 .9 6 s q .m i l e s ) , B uk it Mandal (422 f e e t , 0 .8 7 s q .m i l e s ) , and B u k it Oombak. The c e n t r a l p la te a u a r e a o f a b o u t 13 s q . m ile s h a s been marked o f f a s a catchm en t a r e a and a n a tu n 1 r e s e r v e . On th e main c e n t r a l m ass th e r e l i e f i s lo w , round and smooth, i n g e n e r a l n o t r i s i n g above 200 f e e t . The s u r f a c e t i l t s tow ard th e e a s t , th e h ig h e s t p o in t b e in g n e a r th e s o u th w e st. B u k it Tiraah " th e h i l l o f t i n " i s j u s t u n d er 600 f e e t . S h o rt w inding r i v e r s ru n from n e a r th e c e n tr e o f th e i s l a n d i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s to th e c o a s t , form ing

MAP1,1 : PHYSICAL LANDSCAPEOFSINGAPORE

R e s e rv o ir by th e K a llan g T unnel, The l a t t e r , which i s r e a l l y p a r t tu n n e l and p a r t open c h a n n e l, i s a d iv e r s io n t h a t h a s re a ch e d f,to p w a t e r - l e v e l ” in to th e r e s e r v o i r w ith a lo w er w a te r l e v e l . Thus l o s s o f w a te r th ro u g h o v e rflo w can be p re v e n te d e x c e p t when b o th r e s e r v o i r s a r e f i l l e d to c a p a c ity . The s m a lle s t o f th e r e s e r v o i r s i s th e S e l e t a r R e s e rv o ir and from i t u n tr e a te d w a te r i s pumped th ro u g h a main p ip e i n t o P ie r c e R e s e rv o ir and th e n c e drawn o f f to th e tre a tm e n t works (G eno-O ehlers and Rudolph

W ik k ram atilek e, 1968) .

( b ) The r e l i e f o f th e w e ste rn and s o u th e rn p a r t o f th e i s l a n d i s dom inated by r i d g e s te n d in g n o r th w e s t- s o u th e a s t. T h is W estern H i l l and V ale Region c o m p rise s Mount F a b e r Ridge {JA3 f e e t ) , P a s ir P an jan g (270 f e e t ) , Serim bun R idge (277 f e e t ) , Lim Chu Kang Ridge (286 f e e t ) , K ran,ji V a lle y and Ulu Pandan V a lle y . Hie two p l a i n s a r e found a t Ju ro n g and HLukang T uas. The extrem e so u th w est o f th e g r a n i t e a r e a i s succeeded f i r s t by a v a lle y a lo n g th e c o n ta c t zone and th e n by th e Mt. F a b e r R idge, which r u n s p a r a l l e l to th e c o a s t and i s g e n e r a lly h ig h .

( c ) The East C oastal R egion, c o n s is t in g o f f e r t i l e alluvium (sand and g ra v e l) and sed im en ts, s t r e t c h e s from Xatong to th e Bedok and Changi a r e a s.

The E astern H ill and V a lley Region com prises Tampines H il l (138 f e e t ) , Yio Chu Kang-Serangoon H i l l , C hangi-3edok H i l l unggol V a lle y , Serangoon V a lle y and Bedok V a lle y and th e p l a i n s occupy h a l f o f th e i s l a n d on th e

E a stern C o a st; th e l a r g e s t p l a i n s a r e found a t th e combined e s t u a r i e s o f .ang and G eylang R iv e rs . E lsew h ere, sm all p l a i n s a r e lo c a t e d a t Bedok and Changi (Map 1 . 1 ) .

The co m p lex ity o f th e d ra in a g e system o f th e i s l a n d i s due to heavy r a i n f a l l w orking on th e d e e p ly w eath ered r o c k s o f a v a r ie d t e r r a i n .

Most o f th e r a in f a l l s in sh o r t, very heavy downpours, so th a t s h e e ts o f water move over th e ground, reddened o f yellow ed by th e f i n e m a teria l picked up. Some v a lle y s have ch a n n els cu t on both s i d e s , a t th e break

o f s lo p e , which c o m p le te ly remove w a te r from th e m id d le to th e s id e o f th e v a l l e y . Many o f th e r i v e r a r e s h o r t and would be b e t t e r d e s ig n a te d a s

stre a m s . Some o f th e stre a m s a r e i n t e r m i t t e n t . Some o f th e l a r g e s t r i v e r s a r e Sungei Serangoon, Bungei P unggol, Sungei S o l e t a r , Sungei K ra n ji which flow i n t o th e J o h o re S t r a i t ; Sungei J u ro n g , S in g apo re R iv e r and K allan g R iv e r flo w i n t o th e S in g ap o re S t r a i t . The s m a lle r r i v e r s a r e Sungei C hangi, Sungei T am pines, Sungei Sembawang and Sungei Bedok. Sungei S e l e t a r i s th e la o n g e e t r i v e r system (a b o u t n in e m ile s lo n g ) and h e a d w a te rs from t h i s and two o t h e r stre a m s have been impounded from i t s so u rce th ro u g h S e l e t a r R e s e rv o ir to th e Jo h o re S t r a i t s .

A c h a r a c t e r is t ic fe a tu r e o f th e la r g e r stream s on th e is la n d i s th e wide e s tu a r y which i s la r g e ly c o lo n iz e d by mangrove swamp. They in c lu d e e x te n s iv e s t r e t c h e s a t Ju ro n g , K a llan g and Changi to f r i n g i n g e s t u a r i n e swamps and i s o l a t e d p o c k e ts i n s a a l l v a l l e y s and a lo n g c o a s t a l i n d e n t a t i o n s . S in g ap o re i s l a n d i t s e l f i s rin g e d by mangrove swamps and p a r t s o f th e

is la n d a r e s t i l l c o v ered w ith a a r rtiy ju n g le , much d f w hich i s p rim a ry ju n g le and swamps o f th e lo w -ly in g a r e a s such a s K r a n ji, S e l e t a r , Tuas and Tampines a r e a s . To th e s o u th o f S in g ap o re th e mangrove swamps a r e s t i l l b e in g

c le a r e d f o r la n d r e c la m a tio n , e s p e c i a l l y f o r th e developm ent o f Keppel H arbour and th e ex p an sio n o f th e s e ttle m e n t to w ard s K a lla n g B a s in . About 13 p e r c e n t o f th e swamps i n Ju ro n g w ere re c la im e d f o r prawn c u l t u r e .

The v a r i o u s swamp re c la m a tio n schemes have b ro u g h t a b o u t a d e c r e a s e i n th e is la n d * s swamp a r e a s . In 1958 n e a r ly 20 s q . m ile s w ere u n d e r swamps;

t h i s d e c re a se d to 17.28 eq. m ile s i n 1963 and 13*93 s q . m ile s i n 1966 (Wong, 1 9 6 % ) .

About two dozen o f th e sm all is la n d s v /ith in S in gapore’ s t e r r i t o r i a l w a te rs a r e s iz e a b le and in h a b ite d . To th e n o r th e a st o f th e is la n d o f S in g ap o re l i e se v e r a l groups o f is la n d s a t th e Johore S t r a i t s . They a r e r>u la u Serangoon, Pulau Obin (3*92 sq . m il e s ) , and th e l a r g e s t i s u la u Tekong in th e e a s t w ith a land area o f c lo s e to seven sq . m ile s . To th e

so u th w est o f Singapore l i e se v e r a l email groups o f is la n d s , such a s Pulau Samulun, Pulau Damar Laut and Pulau Ayer Chawan. To th e s o u th o f S in g apo re is l a n d i s a l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n o f sm all i s l a n d s i n th e S in g a p o re S t r a i t s .

The m ajor o n e s a r e Pulau S en to sa (1 .1 1 sq . m i l e s ) , P u lau B rani and Pulau Bukom (0 .2 9 sq . m i l e s ) , th e form er f o r t r e s s g u a rd in g th e s e a a p p ro a c h e s to S in g ap o re (Map 1 . 1 ) .

P l a t e 1*2: P u lau S e n to sa View from Mount F ab er

P la te 1 .3 s P u la u Bukom O il R e fin e ry

15

The s t r u c t u r e o f th e i s l a n d s i s composed o f f o u r g ro u p s o f ro c k s, each o c c u r rin g i n w e ll- d e f in e d a r e a s . These m ajo r g ro u p s a r e a s fo llo w s : Ig n eo u s r o c k s have in tr u d e d i n t o th e s e d im e n ta ry to p s t r a t a . From th e g e n e ra l d ip o f th e g r a n ite - s e d im e n ta r y boundary i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t th e g r a n i t e se d im e n ta ry ro c k s were a lr e a d y t i l t e d i n a g e n e r a l w e s te r ly and s o u th w e s te rly d i r e c t i o n . The main v a r i e t i e s a r e n o r i t e , g r a n i t e , d i o r i t e and g r a n i t e - n o r i t e o f g r a n i t e - d i o r i t e h y b r id s . The g r a n i t e o u tc r o p s do n o t show p ro m in e n tly a t th e s u r f a c e ; and a lth o u g h i n o t h e r p a r t s o f

M ala y sia, g r a n i t e and d e riv e d a l l u v i a l s a r e n o te d f o r t i n , v e ry l i t t l e t i n i n e i t h e r v e in o r p l a c e r form i s found on S in g a p o re i s l a n d . G ra n ite u n d e r l i e s more th a n h a l f o f th e i s l a n d ; S in g a p o re i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

f o r t u n a t e i n t h i s r e s p e c t a s th e r e a r e ab u n d an t d e p o s i t s o f good q u a l i t y g r a n i t e i n th e c e n t r a l p a r t o f th e i s l a n d . B u kit Timah i s now e x te n s iv e ly q u a r r ie d f o r s t r u c t u r a l s to n e and o n ly i n th e q u a r r i e s can g r a n i t e be seen ; a s e lse w h e re , th e c o v e r o f w earhered ro ck may be a s t h i c k a s 40 f e e t

(Dobby, 1 9 4 0 ). a p a r t from t h i s b a t h o l i t h , a n o th e r i n t r u s i o n i s a t t .o Changi d i s t r i c t . I t i s a sm all o u tc ro p o f g r a n i t e a t th e ex trem e e a s te r n t i p o f th e i s l a n d which more th a n 10 o r g a n is a t i o n a r e q u a r r y in g a t more th a n 20 s i t e s i n S in g ap o re a s w e ll a s on th e o f f - s h o r e i s l a n d o f P u lau U bin.

The se d im e n ta ry ro c k s show o b v io u s s ig n s o f c o n ta c t metamorphism n e a r th e g r a n i t e . Along th e g r a n ite - s e d im e n ta r y boundary th e s t r a t a sire- s h a t­

te r e d i n t o b lo c k s and a few a r e t i l t e d i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . The s t r a t a d ip tow ard th e s o u th and so u th w est and a r e fo ld e d i n a com plex f a s h io n and f a u l t e d ; th e y form a la n d s c a p e dom inated by r i d g e s ru n n in g i n NW-kE and NNE-SSW d i r e c t i o n s (Wong,<1190?). S ed im en tary ro c k s a r e found i n tn e w e ste rn an d s o u th e rn p a r t s o f th e i s la n d and a sm all group i s l o c a t e d a t th e Fonggol P e n in s u la . These s e d im e n ta rie s c o n s i s t m ain ly o f s h a le , san d sto n e and c o n g lo m e ra te . To th e extrem e so u th w est o f li t.F a b e r i s an e ro s io n s c a rp b ro k en by tr a n s v e r s e v a l l e y i n c i s i o n s . T h is s c a rp can be re c o g n iz e d beyond Keppel H arbour i n th e I s la n d S e n to sa (Dobby, 1 9 4 0 ).

The w e ste rn p a r t o f S in g ap o re h a s v e ry good d e p o s i t s o f re d c l a y s u i t a b l e f o r th e m a n u fa ctu re o f f i r s t - c l a r g b r i c k s .

CO

MAP1.2 : GEOLOGY OFSINGAPORE

17

The t h i r d m ajo r s t r u c t u r a l u n i t , a h u n d re d -fe e t p la tf o r m o f a l l u v i a l d e b r i s , l i e s e a s t o f th e g r a n i t e s h ie ld * I t i s a p o o rly s o r te d mass of s e m i-c o n s o lid a te d san d , g ra v e l and p e b b le b e d s w ith some c lay * The a llu v iu m v;as d e p o s ite d by one o f th e p r e v io u s d ra in a g e sy ste m s o f th e Malayan m a in la n d , when i t was p a r t o f th e Sunda p la tfo rm * I t h a s been i n t e n s e l y d i s s e c te d by s tre a m s i n t o a s e r i e s o f h i l l s and s p u r s ( Von ;,£1969)*

C ontem porary a l l u v i a l s ex ten d o v e r a l a r e p a r t o f th e i s l a n d , th e b ro a d , m an g rove-bordered e s t u a r i e s r e p e a tin g th e g e n e r a l sh a llo w n e s s o f th e r e l i e f . The d a rk muds o f th e r i v e r d e p o s i t s have a h ig h humus c o n te n t and to w a rd s th e r i v e r m ouths, sand s e n t e r i n t o t h e i r c o m p o sitio n and

l i g h t e n th e te x tu re * The e a s te r n p a r t o f S in g a p o re h a s e x te n s iv e d e p o s it s o f sand and t h i s a r e a i s a b le to m eet th e demands o f th e b u ild in g in d u s tr y f o r a lm o st t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f th e y ear* hm ; n th e iIlji 'fj.ie supply o f sand t o th e S in g a p o re b u ild in g in d u s t r y h a s to be supplem ented by sand from th e s o u th e rn s t a t e s o f M alaysia*

The r e c e n t d e p o s i t s , which a r e composed m ain ly o f s a n d , c l a y , g r a v e l, mud and p e b b le b e d s and c o r a l , were l a i d down by th e s tre a m s o f th e i s l a n d . The e s t u a r i e s a r e c o lo n iz e d by mangrove swamps which e x te n d in la n d a lo n g th e v a l l e y . The s o i l o f th e swamps have a h ig h o rg a n ic m a tte r c o n te n t i n th e f i r s t th r e e to f i v e fe e t* F u r th e r down th e r e i s more c lay * Towards th e landw ard m argin th e s o i l s a r e mixed w ith f r e s h l y ero d ed m a te ria ls * S im ila r ly , i n th e e a s t th e swamps i n th e v a l l e y s o f Sungei Serangoon and Sungei K allan g a r e formed and a lm o st c o m p le te ly o b sc u re th e boundary betw een th e c e n t r a l b a t h o l i t h and o l d e r a llu v iu m a r e a s (Map 1 .2 * ) .

( i i ) C lim a tic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The R ep ub lic o f S in g ap o re i s s i t u a t e d 85 m ile s n o r th o f th e e q u a to r . The c lim a te i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by lo w lan d e q u a t o r i a l c o n d itio n s i n most r e s p e c t s and th e r e i s no marked s e a s o n a l change th ro u g h o u t th e y e a r . The i s la n d r e p u b lic * s c lim a te i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by u n ifo rm te m p e ra tu re , h ig h h u m id ity and c o p io u s r a i n f a l l . A lthough th e d a y s a r e h o t a n d , on a cc o u n t o f th e h ig h h u m id ity , somewhat o p p r e s s iv e , th e n i g h t s a r e u s u a ll y c o o l. A lthough ty p h o o n s a r e f r e q u e n tly bora a s sliallo w d e p r e s s io n s i n

i n t h i s p a r t o f th e world* Based on th e monsoons, S in g a p o re e x p e r ie n c e s f o u r main se a s o n s:

( a ) The N o rth e a s t Monsoon s t a r t s i n December and c o n tin u e s u n t i l March (Map1.3* l* )» T h is seaso n b r in g s l a r g e am ounts o f r a i n f a l l , e s p e c i a l l y in December and J a n u a ry . Hie a i r m asses which a r e c a r r i e d to S in g a p o re by th e n o r t h e a s t mon30on come o r i g i n a l l y from S ib e r i a o r th e N orth P a c i f i c . T here th e y were c o ld and s t a b l e , b u t on t h e i r lo n g jo u rn e y to th e

e q u a to r ia l r e g io n s th e y become th o ro u g h ly wanned and h u m id ifie d e s p e c i a l l y o v e r th e warm South C hina Sea*

( ^ ) The In te r-M o n ^ o n P e rio d n o rm ally comes d u rin g A p ril (Map 1 * 3 * 2 ).

The a ir - m a s s boundary betw een th e slo w ly r e t r e a t i n g and w eakening n o r th e a s t monsoon and th e ad v an cin g so u th w est monsoon i s o f te n n e a r S in g a p o re d u rin g t h i s y e a r . The wind d i r e c t i o n s a r e v e ry ch an g e a b le and wind v e l o c i t i e s a r e low ; th e w e a th e r i n t h i s p e rio d i s m ain ly c o n t r o l l e d by th e g e n e r a l con verg en ce o f a ir - m a s s e s in th e area*

( c ) The Southw est Monsoon i s a l o f t from may to September (Map 1 * 4 .1 )*

Hie Southw est monsoon c o n s i s t s o f two b ra n c h e s : th e f i r s t comes from th e South P a c i f i c and A u s t r a li a ; th e second b ra n c h o f th e Southw est I on soon i s formed by th e e q u a t o r i a l w e s t e r l i e s from th e In d ia n Ocean. In

S in g ap o re th e main so u rc e o f r a i n f a l l d u rin g t h i s p e r io d i s th e co nvergence zpne betw een th e two b ra n c h e s o f th e Southw est Monsoon* T h is a i r m ass boundary i s v e ry ch an g eab le i n p o s i t i o n and i s r a r e l y o v e r S in g ap o re f o r long*

(d.) a Second Inter-M onsoon P erio d o c c u rs d u rin g O cto b er and November (Map 1 . 4 . 2 ) . Sometimes th e movement o f th e a i r mass boundary may s to p o r even be te m p o ra rily r e v e r s e d , b u t by th e m id d le o f November o r th e

b e g in n in g o f December th e n o r th e a s t monsoon i s u s u a l l y w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d o v e r S in g a p o re . Some d is tu r b a n c e s o f th e Sum atra ty p e o c c u r i n S in g a p o re ;

G A P O R E

M A P 1 J 2 .

500 K M 250 M I L E S

* S o u th e a s t A sia n Monsoons

J A N U A R Y

( 50 0 k m 250 M I L E S

1 0 5"

—I--- A P R I L

. 5Q0

250 M I L E S

^SIN^APORE

0 ________ i—i1 5 0 0 K M 2 50 M I L E S

— r

— — ( ---

O C T O B E R

M A P 1.4- 1 .

S o u th e a s t A sia n Monsoons

m a p 1 4 . 2 .

The main re a s o n i s t h a t th e slo w ly t r a v e l l i n g a i r m asses from th e south have rem ained lo n g enough o v e r Sumatra to d e v elo p th e c o n d itio n s which le a d to t h i s ty p e o f d is tu r b a n c e b e fo re th e y re a c h S in g a p o re (N ie u w o lt, 1968)*

Hie p r e s s u r e to d iv id e two p e r io d s a r e a s fo llo w s :

( a ) December 1954 (Map 1.5 * 1 & 1 .5 * 2 ) . The s u rfa c e s y n o p tic s i t u a t i o n th ro u g h o u t th e month showed t h a t p r e s s u r e was h ig h (1025-1035 m i l l i b a r s ) o v e r S o u th ern C hina and Jap an and t h a t th e r e was a s e r i e s o f d e p r e s s io n s

(1006-1007 m i l l i b a r s ) o v e r th e South C hina Sea c e n tr e d a b o u t 250 m ile s e a s t n o r t h - e a s t o f C hangi. Throughout th e re m a in d e r o f th e month th e r e was e i t h e r a sh e a r l i l t s o r convergence zone (o b ta in e d from th e 1,000 and 3 t 000 f o o t s tre a m lin e a n a l y s i s ) w ith in 50 m ile s o f S in g a p o re and m inor f l u c t u a t i o n s in th e s e f e a t u r e s gave n e a r ly th e norm al r a i n f a l l f o r th e re m a in d er o f th e month* The mean p r e s s u r e f o r December 1954 a t Changi was 0 .5 -1 * 0 m i l l i b a r s below th e n in e y e a r mean f o r Changi a t a l l h o u r s , b u t t h i s i s w ith in th e s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n o f 1 .6 m i l l i b a r s .

( b ) Ja n u a ry 1957 (Map 1 .6 * 1 & 1 . 6 . 2 ) . D uring th e p e r io d 19-28 Ja n u a ry 1957 th e r e was no d ie a r l i n e o r convergence zone (o b ta in e d from th e

1 ,0 0 0 and 3 ,0 0 0 f o o t s tre a m lin e a n a l y s i s ) w ith in 90 m ile s o f S in g ap o re i s l a n d on any o f th e d a y s. The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r Malaya and th e South C hina Sea was f l a t w ith a tendency to w a rd s s l i g h t r id g i n g from th e n o r th . The mean p r e s s u r e f o r Jan u ary 1957 a t Changi was w ith in 0 .1 m i l l i b a r s o f th e n in e y e a r Changi mean a t a l l h o u rs . In J a n u a ry 1957, w ith f u l l wind in fo rm a tio n a v a i l a b l e , i t was a p p a re n t t h a t th e 10-15 k n o t n o r t h - e a s t e r l y flow a t 1,000 and 3»000 f e e t was sw eeping s t r a i g h t a c r o s s S in g ap o re i s l a n d and t h a t lo w -le v e l co n v erg en ce was ta k in g p la c e a b o u t 100-150 m ile s so u th o f S in g ap o re i s l a n d (B ryank, 1 9 5 8 ).

The c lim a te o f S in g ap o re i s an e q u a t o r i a l one b e ca u se th e m onthly a v e ra g e o f r a i n f a l l and te m p e ra tu re do n o t show d ra m a tic s e a s o n a l

v a r i a t i o n s . The c h i e f f e a t u r e o f th e c lim a te o f S in g a p o re i s i t s uniform te m p e ra tu re (T ab le 1 . 2 ) . The c lim a te i s a humid t r o p i c a l one w ith

te m p e ra tu re s ra n g in g from 70°F to 90°F in th e sh ad e . The te m p e ra tu re v a r i e s l i t t l e , betw een an a v erag e maximum o f 87°F d u rin g th e day and an a v e ra g e minimum o f 75°F a t n i g h t . Dry te m p e ra tu re i s h ig h b u t n e v e r

'SINGAPORE

3000 F oo t S t r e a m lin e s For 120 0 G.M.T., 9 D E C .1 9 5 4

1012—^

>1006

M A P 1 .S * .2 ‘. M e a n S e a Level P r e s s u r e For 1200 G.M.T., 9 D E C . 1 9 5 4

C o pv From:

T h e M e t e o r o t o g i c a l M a g a z i n e , V o l . 8 7 1 95 8 P .3 0 7

mm m » mmm m an N o r th e r n a n d S o u th e r n L i m i t o f the E q u a t o r ia l W e s t e r l i e s S S S S 2 S h e a r L in e

2 3

►SINGAPORE

10 0 8

M A P 3000 F o o t S t r e a m l n e s F o r 0001 G. M.T., 2 7 JAN., 1957

M A P 1 - ^ - 2 . ' . M e a n S e a L e v e l P r e s s u r e For 0001 G .M . T . , 27 J A N . , 19 57

exceeded i n th e e a r ly h o u rs o f th e m orning s h o r t l y b e fo re s u n r i s e . On d ry a f te r n o o n s , th e r e l a t i v e h u m id ity i s u s u a l l y around 70 p e r c e n t .

Owing to i t s p ro x im ity to th e sea th e n i g h t s i n roost p la c e s a r e i n v a r i a b l y b re e z y and somewliat c o o l.

The r a i n f a l l o f S in g ap o re h a s a f a i r l y un ifo rm c lim a te w ith sm all s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s . C opious r a i n f a l l s th ro u g h o u t th e y e a r on th e i s l a n d and i s l e t s . The a v e ra g e an n u al r a i n f a l l i s 95*2 in c h e s a t S in g a p o re :

J F H A M J J A S O N D Year

9 .9 6 .9 7 .6 7 .4 6 .9 6 .8 6.7 7 .6 7 .0 8 .2 1 0 .0 10 .2 95-2

F e b ru a ry and d u ly a r e u s u a lly th e l e a s t r a in y m onths, w ith s l i g h t l y more th a n 6 .5 in c h e s each ; November and December a r e u s u a lly th e r a i n i e s t , o f t e n h a v in g more th a n 1 0 .0 in c h e s p e r month. IChere i s no w e ll- d e f in e d wet o r d ry seaso n a s r a i n f a l l s a l l th e y e a r ro u n d , b u t d u rin ; th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e y e a r , when th e n o r th e s t monsoon (from November to J a n u a ry ) i s moving tow ard th e i s l a n d from th e S t r a i t s o f M alacca, th e r e i s th e m ost r e l i a b l e r a i n f a l l (W a tts, 1 9 5 5 ).

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CHAPTER 2

THE POPULATION GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION OF SINGAPORE

( i ) The P o p u la tio n Growth o f S in g ap o re

The 150 y e a r s h i s t o r y o f S in g ap o re i s a s h o r t p e rio d f o r p o p u la tio n grow th b u t i t i s p o s s i b le to d iv id e i t i n t o f o u r p e r io d s .

( a ) The F i r s t P e rio d (1 8 1 9 -19 2 1 ). When S i r S ta n fo rd R a f f l e s f i r s t a r r i v e d on th e i s l a n d i n 1819 th e p o p u la tio n was l e s s th a n 200. By 1821 th e r e v/ere 5 f 8?4 p e o p le l i v i n g i n S in g a p o re ; B ra d d e ll e s tim a te d t h a t th e C h in ese numbered 1 ,1 5 0 and th e M alays 4-,724 i n 1821 ( B r a d d e ll, l86l ) . The f i r s t p o p u la tio n c e n s u s was ta k e n in 18.24, when th e p o p u la tio n was 1 0 ,6 8 3 (T ab le 2 . 1 ) . D uring th e p e rio d th e p o p u la tio n v i n l y o f a m ig r a to r y n a tu r e a s S in g ap o re c o n tin u e d e s s e n t i a l l y to be a t r a d i n g c e n t r e . The grow th o f th e p o p u la tio n was l a r g e l y due to th e c o n s ta n t flo w o f

im m ig ra n ts, p r i n c i p a l l y from C hina and I n d ia and n e ig h b o u rin g c o u n t r i e s . When c o n ta g io u s d i s e a s e s and c u r a tiv e m edical m easu res w ere n o t u n d e r th e e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l , th e c ru d e d e a th r a t e sto o d a t a v e ry h ig h l e v e l and th e cru d e b i r t h r a t e was r e l a t i v e l y low (Haw, 1 9 7 0 ). The p o p u la tio n d u rin g t h i s p e rio d c o n s is te d m ainly o f a l a r g e s u s ta in e d i n f l u x o f im m ig ran ts (T ab le 2 . 2 ) .

( b ) The Second P e rio d (1 9 2 1 -1 9 4 1 ). The p o p u la tio n i n 1921 r e p r e s e n te d an in c r e a s e o f 3 7 .5 p e r c e n t o v e r t h a t in 1911; th e p o p u la tio n i n 1931 a n in c r e a s e o f 3 3 .3 p e r c e n t o v e r t h a t i n 1921; and th e p o p u la tio n i n 1947 an i n c r e a s e o f 68 p e r c e n t o v e r t h a t i n 1931* Between th e 1937 and 1947 th e p o p u la tio n in c re a s e d a t an a v e ra g e a n n u a l r a t e o f 4 . 3 p e r c e n t

(You, 1 9 5 4 ). B efo re 1930 th e grow th o f th e p o p u la tio n o f th e a r e a had been m a in ta in e d by im m ig ra tio n , b i r t h s b e in g b a r e ly s u f f i c i e n t to b a la n c e d e a th s f o r most o f th e y e a r s . By th e 1930*6, much l a r g e r num bers o f C hinese women had e n te r e d th e c o u n try and n a t u r a l in c r e a s e had become th e main f a c t o r o f p o p u la tio n grow th. The in c r e a s e i n p o p u la tio n a ro s e l a r g e l y from a s u r p lu s i n m ig r a tio n , e s p e c i a l l y o f fe m a le s , and t h i s h e lp e d to a d j u s t th e im b alan ce o f th e sex r a t i o and e s t a b l i s h e d th e

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p o t e n t i a l f o r th e p o stw ar h ig h e r r a t e s o f n a t u r a l g ro w th. The economic d e p re s s io n o f th e 1 9 3 0 's marked th e b e g in n in g o f a new p h a se i n th e growth o f S in g a p o re ’ s p o p u la tio n .

T h is p e rio d was c h a r a c te r iz e d by an e x c e s s o f b i r t h s o v e r d e a th s , b u t im m ig ratio n was s t i l l th e dom inant f a c t o r o f p o p u la tio n grow th and p r e ­ dom inated o v e r n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e . The f i g u r e s h i g h l i g h t a s te a d y r i s e i n th e b i r t h r a t e s w ith o u t any m ajor i n t e r r u p t i o n from a b o u t 29*5 to 45*9 p e r tho u san d p o p u la tio n d u rin g th e span o f a b o u t tw enty y e a r s from 1921 to 1940. T h is p e rio d from 1921-19*K) had cru d e d e a th r a t e s betw een th e l e v e l s o f 29*1 and 2 1 .5 p e r thousand p o p u la tio n . The main f e a t u r e s were a s te a d y d e c lin e i n th e c ru d e d e a th r a t e a s th e t r o p i c a l d i s e a s e s l i k e M a la ria were b ro u g h t u n d e r e f f e c t i v e c o n tr o l and a s te a d y r i s e i n th e c ru d e b i r t h r a t e cau sed p r im a r i ly by th e n o rm a liz in g o f th e sex r a t i o (T ab le 2 . 2 ) .

( c ) The T h ird P e rio d ( 1 9 ^ - 1 9 5 7 ) . 4? B efore th e Second World War, S in g ap o re was s im ila r to V est M alay sia i n t h a t a p a r t o f th e p o p u la tio n i n c r e a s e was a t t r i b u t a b l e to im m ig ratio n from C hina and I n d ia . A f te r th e Second World War, how ever, th e a v e ra g e an n u al r a t e o f p o p u la tio n grow th was 3 .3 p e r c e n t to 4 . 5 p e r c e n t d u rin g 1947-1957 * 3*7 p e r c e n t was due to n a t u r a l in c r e a s e and 0 .8 p e r c e n t to m ig ra to ry s u r p lu s . Im m ig ratio n c o n t r o l s have reduced th e l a t t e r f ig u r e b u t th e n a t u r a l in c r e a s e r a t e re m a in s h ig h (T ab le 2 . 1 ) . T here a r e two reaso n s* F i r s t , d u rin g th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n o f 1942-1945 th e r e was no im m ig ra tio n from C hina and th e I n d ia n ^ c o n tin e n t, and a f t e r th e war im m ig ra tio n from a l l o v e r s e a s c o u n t r i e s was u n d er s t r i c t c o n t r o l . S eco n d ly , th ro u g h o u t th e p o stw ar y e a r s t h e r e was a r a p id d e c lin e in th e c ru d e d e a th r a t e and a l s o th e m ain ten an ce o f th e cru d e b i r t h r a t e a t a h ig h l e v e l w hich r e s u l t e d i n th e h ig h r a t e o f n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e . As f o r th e low b i r t h r a t e (re c o rd e d a t a b o u t 3 6 .5 p e r th o u san d d u rin g th e Jap a n e se o c c u p a tio n p e r io d 1941-1945) th e e x p la n a tio n l i e s i n th e postponem ent o f m a rrig e s o r b i r t h due to th e e x tre m e ly u n fa v o u ra b le c o n d itio n s th e n p r e v a i l i n g (Saw, 1 9 7 0 ). D uring t h i s p e rio d k i l l e r d i s e a s e s were c o m p le te ly o u t o f c o n t r o l . Crude d e a th r a t e s were 35*6 n e r th o u san d p o p u la tio n , d e a th from D y se n te ry and M a la ria b e in g o f p a r t i c u l a r im p o rtan ce (T able 2 . 2 ) .

2 9

T able 2 .2

Crude B ir th R ates and Crude D eath R a te s , 1901-1970

P e rio d Crude b i r t h r a t e s (n e r 1,000 p e rs o n s)

Crude d e a th r a t e s (p e r 1,000 p e rs o n s )

1901-05 21.2 _{4 7 .1}

1906-10 _{2 2 .3} 4 3 .2

1911-15 2 3 .9 3 7 .6

1916-20 _{2 6 .5} 3 5 .2

1921-25 2 9 .5 2 9 .1

1926-30 _34*5 29.0

1931-35 4 0 .5 2 3 .1

1936-40 _{4 5 .9 2 1 .5}

194-1-45 3 6 .5 3 5 .6

1946-50 4 4 .8 13.0

1951-55 4 7 -8 9 .6

1955-60 4 1 .0 6 .9

1961 3 5 .5 5 .9

1962 3 4 .0 5 .9

1963 3 3 .5 5 .7

1964 32.0 5 .7

1965 2 9 .9 5 .5

1966 28.6 _{5 .5}

196? 2 5 .9 5 .4

1968 2 3 .7 5 .5

1969 22.2 _{5 .1}

1970 22.1 , 5 .2

ta

S o u rce s: D epartm ent o f S t i t i c s , to n th ly D ig e s t o f S t a t i s t i c s , S in g a p o re , December, 1969

Saw Swee-Hock (1 9 7 0 ), S in g ap o re i n T r a n s i t i o n , p . 71 ? 88 M in is try o f C u ltu r e , Y earbook, 1972

There are a fear strik in g exceptions: deaths from cancer increased from 347 in 1948 to 8555 in 195* , and the rate expressed in tern s of oer

1 0 0 ,0 0 0

population has doubled over the period increasing from

to

5 6

.

; another increase may be observed in the rate for d isease o f the heart which rose from 433 to 677 and the rate from 45.07 to 44.72 in 1948-1958; the third increase was in motor v eh icle accid en ts, which registered a small r is e from

to l

f and the rate from

to

in 1948-1958 (Table 2 .3 ) .

(&) The Fourth, Period (a fter 1957). The corresponding fig u r e s, based on the la s t population census for 1957, give a population of 1,445*929 persons, more than

out o f the isla n d ’s to ta l population of 1,445,929 liv in g in Singapore c it y . In 1959 the to ta l population warn estimated at

,

thus putting the rate o f population increase at one o f the highest in the world. Dhring the period 1964-1969, the population increased i tioroniied by

persons from

,

a t the end of June 1964 to 2,016,800 a t the end of June 1969. The average annual, rate o f increase during th is five-year period was about

pear cent (Asia Development Bank, 1970). The population o f Singapore i s now around

m illio n and represents a density of

per square mile in

196 5

. Since 1966, however, due to a steep f a l l in the birth rate as w ell a s a d e f ic it in net migration, the rate o f increase has declined.

The la t e s t estim ate puts the population in 19

at 1,912,514 nd the annual rate o f increase at

per cen t. The population at June 1967 was estimated at 1,955,600 and the annual rate o f increase a t

por cent. The to ta l population a s at December, 1968 was 1,987,600 and Singapore’s population a s at December, 1969 was estimated at 2,016,800.

This represented a further increase o f 29,700 persons or a 1 .5 per cent annual rate o f growth (Table 2 .1 ). The very high b irth rate o f the immediate post-war years had created a very high proportion o f young people

per cent under the age of 29). As at mid-1970 the to ta l population was estimated to be 2,074,590. Of t h is 74.4 per cent were Chinese, 14.5 per cent were I alays, 7*9 per cent were Indians and Pakistanis, while 3*2 per cent consisted of persons of other races

(Table 2 .4 ).

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