UNLOCKING
CLIMATE SOLUTIONS
Identifying Key Performance Indicators for Climate Change Mitigation
Jelise Schokker
JULY 12TH, 2021
University of Twente, Creative Technology Supervisor: Dr. Andreas Kamilaris Critical Observer: Dr. Jacob Kamminga
Abstract
Human caused climate change has become an undeniable problem. Monitoring and mitigating this climate change is a priority for many countries and cities. Key performance Indicators (KPIs) related to climate change can be used to develop appropriate climate change mitigation policies. This study aims to identify useful KPIs and determine their units, values and use. 63 KPIs across eight main topics are presented in this study. These topics are pollution, resource use, climate hazards, biodiversity, transport, land use, health, and others. The use of these KPIs in 193 countries is evaluated and visualized. Together, the KPIs that are selected provide a step in the right direction towards a consistent and comparable index of global, well-defined metrics that can be used to monitor and mitigate climate change.
Contents
1 Introduction 6
1.1 Background . . . . 6
1.2 Research Questions . . . . 6
1.3 Outline . . . . 7
2 Related Work 8 2.1 Carbon Disclosure Project . . . . 8
2.2 Hristov and Chirico . . . . 8
2.3 Angelakoglou et al. . . . 8
2.4 Amrina and Yusof . . . . 9
2.5 Sustainable Development Goals . . . . 9
2.6 Climate Change Performance Index . . . . 10
2.7 Conclusion . . . . 11
3 Methodology 12 3.1 Theoretical Framework . . . . 12
3.1.1 Pollution . . . . 12
3.1.1.1 Air Pollution . . . . 12
3.1.1.2 Greenhouse Gases . . . . 13
3.1.1.3 Plastic Pollution . . . . 13
3.1.1.4 Solid Waste . . . . 13
3.1.1.5 Recycling . . . . 14
3.1.1.6 Soil Pollution . . . . 14
3.1.1.7 Water Pollution . . . . 14
3.1.2 Resource Use . . . . 15
3.1.2.1 Water . . . . 15
3.1.2.2 Energy . . . . 15
3.1.2.3 Food . . . . 15
3.1.3 Climate Hazards . . . . 16
3.1.3.1 Climate Hazards . . . . 16
3.1.4 Biodiversity . . . . 16
3.1.4.1 Biodiversity Intactness . . . . 16
3.1.4.2 Threatened Species . . . . 16
3.1.4.3 Protected Land . . . . 17
3.1.5 Transport . . . . 17
3.1.5.1 Public and Private Transport . . . . 17
3.1.5.2 Electric Vehicles . . . . 17
3.1.5.3 Aviation . . . . 17
3.1.6 Land Use . . . . 18
3.1.6.1 Deforestation . . . . 18
3.1.6.2 Agriculture . . . . 18
3.1.7 Health . . . . 18
3.1.7.1 Public Health . . . . 18
3.1.7.2 Illnesses and Mortality . . . . 18
3.1.8 Others . . . . 19
3.1.8.1 Global Temperature . . . . 19
3.1.8.2 Sea Level . . . . 19
3.1.9 Conclusion . . . . 19
3.2 Identification of KPIs . . . . 19
3.2.1 Selection of KPIs . . . . 20
3.2.2 Definition of KPIs . . . . 20
3.2.2.1 Unit and Benchmarks . . . . 20
3.3 Visualizing the KPIs . . . . 20
4 Results 22 4.1 Table of KPIs . . . . 22
4.2 Definition KPIs . . . . 28
4.2.1 Pollution . . . . 28
4.2.1.1 Air Pollution . . . . 28
4.2.1.2 Greenhouse Gases . . . . 28
4.2.1.3 Plastic Pollution . . . . 28
4.2.1.4 Solid Waste . . . . 29
4.2.1.5 Recycling . . . . 29
4.2.1.6 Soil Pollution . . . . 29
4.2.1.7 Water Pollution . . . . 29
4.2.2 Resource Use . . . . 30
4.2.2.1 Water . . . . 30
4.2.2.2 Energy . . . . 30
4.2.2.3 Food . . . . 31
4.2.3 Climate Hazards . . . . 31
4.2.3.1 Climate Hazards . . . . 31
4.2.4 Biodiversity . . . . 32
4.2.4.1 Biodiversity Intactness . . . . 32
4.2.4.2 Terrestrial Animal Diversity . . . . 32
4.2.4.3 Marine Animal Diversity . . . . 32
4.2.5 Transport . . . . 33
4.2.5.1 Public Transport . . . . 33
4.2.5.2 Private Transport . . . . 33
4.2.5.3 Electric Vehicles . . . . 34
4.2.5.4 Aviation . . . . 34
4.2.6 Land Use . . . . 34
4.2.6.1 Deforestation . . . . 34
4.2.6.2 Agriculture . . . . 34
4.2.7 Health . . . . 35
4.2.7.1 Public Health . . . . 35
4.2.7.2 Mortality . . . . 35
4.2.7.3 Illnesses . . . . 35
4.2.8 Others . . . . 36
4.2.8.1 Global Temperature . . . . 36
4.2.8.2 Sea Level . . . . 36
4.3 Visualizing KPIs . . . . 37
5 Discussion 38 5.0.1 KPIs Related to Climate Change . . . . 38
5.0.2 Units and Values . . . . 42
5.0.3 Use of the KPIs . . . . 42
5.1 Limitations . . . . 42
5.2 Future Work . . . . 43
6 Conclusion 44
7 Bibliography 45
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
In the past couple of years, climate change has become an undeniable problem. The year 2020 was tied with 2016 as the warmest year on record. The average temperature of the earth has risen over 1.2 degrees Celsius since the late nineteenth century. [1] Climate change and the environmental issues it causes affect life for many people around the world. As temperatures keep rising, an increasing amount of climate-related issues arise. It is important that cities and countries form appropriate policies to combat climate change and the problems that ensue.
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) can be used to formulate policies and to reach climate goals.
According to Lo-Iacono-Ferreira et al. [2], KPIs are measures that are used to assess essential factors related to a given objective, such as reducing the effects of climate change. The effectiveness of a country or organization in achieving these objectives can be determined by these factors. Because KPIs are always tied to a certain objective [3], they are very important in developing useful policies.
Having a comprehensive index of KPIs is important because it would provide a method for policymakers to consistently monitor their performance and take appropriate actions based on that.
This would in turn lead to a more straightforward way of policy-making, where policies can easily be developed based on current performance. The importance of globally defined KPIs lies in the ability to compare performance across countries and cities. This would give not only an absolute performance, but also relative to the achievements of other regions.
1.2 Research Questions
The main objective is giving insight into which Key Performance Indicators can be used to form policies on climate change. Relevant KPIs can be used by policymakers to set and achieve clear goals, therefore it is important to focus on the correct KPIs. Previous research has resulted in useful lists, but the goal of this thesis is to fill gaps in the literature by creating a more comprehensive index that includes all relevant KPIs. This done by listing, describing and understanding important KPIs related to climate change. As a result, the main research question may be stated as follows:
Which KPIs can be used by countries or cities to monitor and mitigate climate change?
In order to answer the main research question, the following sub-questions must be answered:
1. What are the KPIs that relate to climate change?
2. Which units and values are associated with these KPIs?
3. Which countries use these KPIs to monitor their environmental impact and set climate change mitigation goals?
1.3 Outline
First, an overview of related work is given in section 2. Section 3 discusses a review of the existing literature and the methods used to answer the research questions. Section 4 presents the results that were obtained. In section 5, a discussion of the results is given based on the formulated research questions. In the discussion, limitations and possibilities for future work are also identified. Finally, section 6 presents a conclusion of the research.
2 Related Work
In this section, an overview will be given of existing work similar to what will be done in this project. First, the Carbon Disclosure Project is discussed. Next, three efforts on sustainability are addressed: Hristov and Chirico, Angelakoglou et al. and Amrina and Yusof. Then, the Sustainable Development Goals presented by the United Nations are considered. Finally, the Climate Change Performance Index is discussed.
2.1 Carbon Disclosure Project
Each year, thousands of cities, businesses and regions submit data on their environmental impacts to the Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP), a non-profit organization with the goal of building the world’s most comprehensive data set on environmental action [4]. The framework that they have developed has resulted in unprecedented global engagement on environmental issues. In order to reduce emissions, improve resilience, and to protect themselves against a changing climate, over 810 cities provide information on their environmental impact to the CDP [5]. This data can be very useful in developing KPIs related to a city’s environmental impact and to climate change. For their data collection, the CDP uses a set list of questions and indicators that make comparing performance across cities possible.
The CDP questionnaire for disclosing cities is divided into eleven categories: governance and data management, climate hazards and vulnerability, adaptation, city-wide emissions, emissions reduction, opportunities, energy, transport, food, waste, and water security [6]. Together, these categories cover a wide range of climate change related topics and can provide useful comparisons between cities.
2.2 Hristov and Chirico
One effort to identify KPIs related to climate and sustainability is [7]. This paper aims to identify KPIs that measure a company’s performance, and proposes a way in which sustainability can be integrated in company strategies. Out of all KPIs found in the study, 24 were related to environmental targets. These KPIs were grouped according to 4 goals: reducing gas emissions, improving the use of renewables, reducing natural resources consumption, and reducing waste and improving green-ness.
2.3 Angelakoglou et al.
Another study that investigates KPIs related to sustainability is [8]. This paper primarily focuses on monitoring and evaluating Smart City Solutions though the proposed indicators. 75 KPIs are
identified across six topics and include technical, environmental, economic, social, ICT and legal KPIs.
2.4 Amrina and Yusof
A third study that investigates KPIs related to climate change is [9]. This study focuses on sus- tainability in the automotive industry. 41 KPIs are presented, 10 of which relate to environmental performance. These indicators are grouped into the following categories: emissions, resource uti- lization, and waste.
2.5 Sustainable Development Goals
The United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [10] is a roadmap for prosperity, peace and stability for humanity and for the planet. It consists of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 169 targets and 231 unique indicators that can be used to achieve sustainable development.
Three categories are presented: economic, social and environmental sustainable development. The indicators in the latter category in particular are of relevance to this research.
Goal 13, “Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts,” is one of the most relevant SDGs. Eight indicators are associated with this goal. These indicators are shown in table 1.
Additionally, there are also other goals that focus on climate change mitigation and sustainability in a more indirect manner, and several of the indicators overlap with goal 13. These are the following goals:
2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns .
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable develop- ment.
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
# Indicator [11]
13.1.1 Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population 13.1.2 Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction strategies in line with the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030
13.1.3 Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies
13.2.1 Number of countries with nationally determined contributions, long-term strategies, national adaptation plans and adaptation communications, as reported to the secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
13.2.2 Total greenhouse gas emissions per year
13.3.1 Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment
13.a.1 Amounts provided and mobilized in United States dollars per year in relation to the continued existing collective mobilization goal of the$100 billion commitment through to 2025
13.b.1 Number of least developed countries and small island developing States with nationally determined contributions, long-term strategies, national adaptation plans and adaptation communications, as reported to the secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Table 1: List of indicators used for goal 13 of the SDGs.
2.6 Climate Change Performance Index
The final effort to introduce KPIs related to climate change is the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) [12] proposed by the organization Germanwatch. Currently, the CCPI assesses and analyses the climate change mitigation performance of 57 countries and the European Union (EU), which collectively account for over 90 percent of global GHG emissions. The CCPI seeks to improve transparency in international climate politics by allowing comparisons between efforts and progress on climate protection between countries. It measures countries’ performance based on four categories:
GHG emissions, renewable energy, energy use, and climate policy. The indicators that are used in the CCPI are shown in table 2.
# CCPI indicator [12]
1 Current Level of GHG Emissions per Capita 2 Past Trend of GHG Emissions per Capita
3 Current Level of GHG Emissions per Capita compared to a well- below-2°C compatible pathway
4 GHG Emissions Reduction 2030 Target compared to a well- below-2°C compatible pathway 5 Current Share of Renewables per Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES)
6 Development of Energy Supply from Renewable Energy Sources
7 Current Share of Renewables per TPES compared to a well-below-2°C compatible pathway 8 Renewable Energy 2030 Target compared to a well-below-2°C compatible pathway 9 Current Level of Energy Use (TPES/Capita)
10 Past Trend of TPES/Capita
11 Current Level of TPES/Capita
compared to a well-below-2°C compatible pathway
12 TPES/Capita 2039 Target compared to a well-below-2°C compatible pathway 13 National Climate Policy
14 International Climate Policy
Table 2: List of indicators used in the CCPI.
2.7 Conclusion
Many KPIs have already been proposed to address elements of sustainability and sustainable devel- opment in corporations and organizations, as well as smart cities. Some of these efforts, such as Hristov and Chirico and Amrina and Yusof, do not address the performance of cities and countries in regard to climate change, but that of companies. The CCPI, SDGs, and the CDP do focus on countries or cities and cover a wide range of topics related to climate change and sustainability.
3 Methodology
This section will discuss the methods that were used to obtain the results in section 4. First, a literature review is given to establish the important aspects of climate change. Next, the methodology and the criteria for the selection of the KPIs are given. Finally, the methods that were used to visualize the KPIs and their use are described.
3.1 Theoretical Framework
In order to answer the research question, it is important to have the necessary information on climate change. The theoretical framework will discuss what information can be discovered in existing literature that can be used to aid in answering the research question. A literature review is presented on the major areas of climate change. Its aim is to give an overview of the causes and consequences of climate change. Eight important aspects are described and their different aspects are defined and evaluated.
The literature review includes 51 sources that were found using Google Scholar and Scopus.
First, a general search for relevant topics was performed, using the search terms:
[“Climate Change” OR “Climate Crisis” OR “Environment”] AND [“Causes” OR “Effects”]
Papers and reports that were found using this query were filtered based on their relevance and year of publication. As climate change is an ever evolving process, it is important to make sure the sources are up to date. Therefore, mainly recent papers and reports published after 2010 were selected. In order to find more specific information on the causes and effects of climate change, the main topics of the sources were used in a second query:
[“Topic”] AND [“Climate Change” OR “Climate Crisis” OR “Environment”] AND [“Causes”
OR “Effects”]
In this query, “Topic” was replaced with relevant topics found in the previous search results.
Based on the papers and reports that were found using the query, the literature review was performed, highlighting the most important causes and effects of climatic change.
3.1.1 Pollution 3.1.1.1 Air Pollution
The term “air pollution” refers to a combination of particulate matter and gases in the air. Particle
matter (PM), also known as particle pollution, is made up of small particles of solids or liquids in the air [13]. There are two types of particulate matter: PM10 and PM2.5. These are particles with a size between 2.5 and 10 µm, and particles measuring less than 2.5 µm, respectively. For PM10, the recommended maximum annual mean is 20 µg/m3, and for PM2.5 it is 10 µg/m3 [14].
3.1.1.2 Greenhouse Gases
One of the most widely known types of emission is greenhouse gases (GHG), which are gases that absorb and emit infrared radiation. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are the greenhouse gases present in the Earth’s atmosphere [15]. These gases are responsible for the natural greenhouse effect of the earth. This effect, unlike the enhanced greenhouse effect, is not caused by human activity [16]. The earth’s greenhouse effect has increased significantly since the industrial revolution. Therefore, human activity is also a key element in reducing major greenhouse gas emissions [17].
GHG emissions can be generated both inside and beyond city boundaries as a result of such activities taking place within the city. The Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories (GPC) categorizes emissions into three separate groups based on where they occur: scope 1, scope 2, and scope 3 emissions [18]. Emissions from sources located within the city boundary are part of scope 1. Scope 2 includes GHG emissions resulting from the use of grid- supplied power, heat, steam, and cooling inside the city limits. Scope 3 includes any additional GHG emissions that occur beyond the city border as a consequence of activities that occur inside the city.
Emissions are also categorized based on by whom they are produced. A distinction can be made between those produced by government operations and those by community activities [19].
3.1.1.3 Plastic Pollution
Plastics and microplastics that harm marine ecosystems are another form of pollution. Plastic particles have been discovered in the intestines of dead aquatic animals, demonstrating that plastic has caused catastrophic damage to living organisms [20]. The production of plastic has been growing rapidly in the past and is expected to increase further in upcoming years [21]. It is important to properly manage this plastic in order to prevent it from ending up in the oceans.
3.1.1.4 Solid Waste
In many affluent, urban areas, consumption is relatively high. Individuals discard many products on a daily basis, resulting in a considerable amount of solid waste. Because of inappropriate treatment and transportation, solid waste can cause pollution of the air, water, and soil, causing numerous environmental repercussions and health risks. Thus, solid waste management is critical since it aids
in the reduction of solid waste pollution and contributes to a pollution-free and healthy environment [22].
There are several ways of waste disposal, some of them are more harmful than others. Solid waste disposal into landfills is still a common method of disposal, despite the health hazards and pollution that are linked to this way of waste disposal [23]. Other ways of waste disposal, such as recycling, incineration, or pyrolysis, are used to manage solid waste pollution and its harmful consequences [22].
3.1.1.5 Recycling
Recycling is also a popular method of waste disposal. It entails reusing certain waste components and it therefore saves resources, reduces the manufacturing of new resources, and minimizes pollution [22]. However, recycling is not yet a sufficiently widespread practice, as a considerable amount of waste still ends up in landfills or in nature. Since 1950, only nine percent of plastic waste has been properly recycled [24].
3.1.1.6 Soil Pollution
Additional chemicals are frequently introduced into the soil as a result of how land is used [25].
This soil contamination can have major effects on biodiversity. Because of the toxicity produced by the pollutants, the number of organisms present in an ecosystem can decrease. However, there can also be changes at the community level, with tolerant or resistant species benefiting over those susceptible to the contaminants [26].
3.1.1.7 Water Pollution
As a consequence of increased industrialization and urbanization, the stress on our water sources is growing rapidly, decreasing the clean water availability. Polluted water is harmful to marine life, plants, humans, and the environment [27]. While companies and treatment plants make use of different wastewater treatment procedures, some industries continue to dispose of untreated wastewater into bodies of water. This causes pollutants such as heavy metals and organic pollutants to enter the water.
In the 1979s and 1980s, heavy metal concentrations in rivers and lakes were relatively low. How- ever, they have been higher since the 1990s up until now. The predominant sources of heavy metal contamination in water bodies around the world have shifted over time from mining and production to metal waste disposal. Metal pollution can have negative impacts on people through the food chain, drinking water, air inhalation, or skin absorption [28]. The second type of pollutants found in water, organic pollutants, come in a wide range of types and toxicity levels [27]. Dyes, pharma-
ceuticals, product waste, and petroleum organic pollutants are several of the organic pollutants that have posed a significant threat to aquatic species, plants, and people.
3.1.2 Resource Use 3.1.2.1 Water
Water is a natural resource that is a necessity for every person on earth. However, according to the World Health Organization, over 700 million people do not have access to basic drinking-water services. On top of that, half of the world’s population is expected to be living in water-stressed areas by 2025 [29]. A crucial aspect of climate change mitigation is to ensure that everyone will have access to reliable water services. Soto-Montes and Herrera-Pantoja [30] state that the implementation of a water resource management strategy can, especially in developing countries, lead to an increased resilience against the impacts of climate change. Furthermore, it is important that countries and cities are aware of current and future risks to their water security. Threats can include increased water stress or scarcity, droughts, water-borne diseases and other events that affect the available water supply [6].
3.1.2.2 Energy
People often correctly link energy and climate change because the fossil fuels, such as gas, oil, and coal, that have driven the global economy have also changed the environment and caused climate change [31]. The consumption of fossil fuels has grown substantially during the last 50 years.
Between 1980 and 2019, global fossil fuel consumption almost doubled [32]. However, sixteen percent of primary energy came from low-carbon sources in 2019. These sources include hydro, nuclear, wind and solar power, bio-fuels, and other renewables.
In order to reduce GHG emissions caused by energy use, it is important to further increase the share of renewable and low-carbon energy sources. Many countries and organizations are setting goals to decrease their use of fossil fuels. The European Union, for example, has set a target for the share of renewable energy sources. In 2030, they plan to have a renewable energy share of at least 32 percent [33]. Furthermore, they do not only focus on renewable energy, but also on energy efficiency. Using energy in a more efficient way can help reduce climate change and its consequences [34]. The aim of the EU is an energy efficiency of 32.5 percent in 2030.
3.1.2.3 Food
Reducing the amount of food that is wasted is of great importance. In many regions around the world, it is expected that these reductions can result in a considerable gain in water and food security [35]. According to a report of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO),
the world is currently not on course to achieve the hunger and malnutrition targets that had been set for 2030 [36]. Although the number of people suffering from hunger had been declining for decades, this is not the case anymore. The number has been slowly increasing since 2014. The projections for 2030 are not optimistic, and that is without taking into account the possible effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on world hunger.
Human demand as well as the availability of natural resources are dispersed unevenly across the world [37]. The ecological footprint of consumption shows the amount of production and waste per person. These levels vary across the world as a result of differences in lifestyle and consumption habits. The target level of the ecological footprint also varies, as hunger and malnutrition are still an important problem. Certain countries can benefit from increasing their carbon footprint, if this means their food security and quality of food can increase as well [36].
3.1.3 Climate Hazards 3.1.3.1 Climate Hazards
Climate hazards are an important aspect of climate change. Extreme events will most likely change in frequency and severity as the environment changes as a result of climate change [38]. One example is North America, where there are increasingly more and worse wildfires [39]. Alternatively, climate change can also cause changes in precipitation. This in turn can result in more precipitation-induced flooding [40]. It is important for cities and countries to know what climate hazards may pose a threat, either today or in the future.
3.1.4 Biodiversity
3.1.4.1 Biodiversity Intactness
Climate change is speeding up as a result of increased greenhouse gas emissions, which has an impact on both people and ecosystems [41]. Because even a minor shift in the climate can result in the extinction of some of the world’s most vulnerable species, it is important to ensure that they are monitored and protected. The Biodiversity Intactness Index (BII) shows how native terrestrial species’ average abundance compares to their abundance before human intervention [42]. It is necessary to use this index to comprehend the interactions between plants, animals, and biodiversity, and implement strategies to improve biodiversity based on that understanding.
3.1.4.2 Threatened Species
Climate change currently threatens 19 percent of the IUCN Red List’s endangered species, increasing their chances of extinction [43]. This can have harmful effects on humans too, as species have
important functions in ecosystems that provide essential benefits to people. Therefore it is crucial to not only keep track of threatened animals, but to also try to protect them.
3.1.4.3 Protected Land
Protected areas are the most common method of preserving vulnerable species and protecting biodiversity across the world [44]. It is important that in these protected areas, all threats to threatened animals are removed, in order to prevent their extinction. Adequate funding, careful design, and proper organization are all important when it comes to protected areas to preserve biodiversity.
3.1.5 Transport
3.1.5.1 Public and Private Transport
Transport is an important part of everyday life and it also has a significant impact on the envi- ronment. Over sixteen percent of all GHG emissions in 2016 can be attributed to transportation [45]. Especially in urban areas, a lot of energy is used in transportation services. One way to reduce transport emissions is the implementation of a good public transit network [46], [47]. If this network is of good quality and accessible to as many people as possible, it can reduce the use of private transport methods [47]. One example is New York, where private car ownership and emissions are much lower than in the rest of the United States, due to the extensive public transport system in the city [48].
3.1.5.2 Electric Vehicles
In 2016, almost twelve percent of global GHG emissions were caused by road transport alone [45].
This is quite a high percentage, as the total transport sector accounts for 16 percent, which means that electrification of road transport could make a significant impact on GHG emissions. Nanaki and Koroneos also supports this claim, stating that the implementation of alternative fuels can lead to low carbon cities, and positively impact the environment [49].
3.1.5.3 Aviation
Aviation is one of the fastest-growing emitters of greenhouse gases [50]. Carbon dioxide and water vapor are among the most significant emissions of airplanes [51]. However, it is difficult to measure the emissions caused by aviation of an individual country or city, because of disagreements on where the emissions should be allocated [48]. This mainly poses a problem for international flights, as it is not clear if the country of origin or the country of destination should be held responsible.
3.1.6 Land Use 3.1.6.1 Deforestation
One important aspect to consider when it comes to land use is deforestation. Forests and rain forests all around the world are threatened by increasing rates of deforestation [52]. Brazil, for example, saw 40,000 hectares of forest cut down in just fifteen years, from 1990 to 2005. However, Brazil managed to reduce deforestation rates by 84 percent in 2012, relative to historically high levels in 2004 [53]. But rates have begun to rise again in recent years, with 2020 reaching the highest rate in the past decade.
3.1.6.2 Agriculture
Food often goes a long way before it is consumed. It is produced, processed, packed, shipped, and prepared. Every step causes GHG emissions to be released into the earth’s atmosphere [54].
Agriculture emits an especially high amount of greenhouse gases. It contributes 17 percent directly through agricultural operations and 7-14 percent indirectly via land use changes [55]. However, agriculture not only contributes to climate change, but is also particularly vulnerable to it. Most of the risks associated with agriculture are caused by adverse climatic conditions and climate variability, with climate change posing an additional concern [56].
3.1.7 Health
3.1.7.1 Public Health
Public health and good health systems are crucial for a city, but they can face several risks related to climate change. These risks include diseases as a result of climate change, the disruption of health services, threats to food security, and many more [6]. The CDP asks cities to indicate whether they are aware of such threats, in order to be prepared and provide an early response.
3.1.7.2 Illnesses and Mortality
Climate change has a wide range of effects on human health. It has the potential to exacerbate current health hazards while also introducing new risks [57]. One common way in which this happens is through air pollution. Reduced lung function, increased hospital admissions for asthma, and an increase in premature mortality have all been linked to air pollution [58].
The effects of climate change can also lead to excess mortality, especially in vulnerable groups.
One cause that is linked to climate change is the occurrence of heatwaves. Heatwaves can increase the death risk of especially elderly people, according to Can et al. [59]. Moreover, since 1950, the frequency and intensity of heat waves has increased, and with it the threat to vulnerable people [60].
3.1.8 Others
3.1.8.1 Global Temperature
The mean global temperature is an important measure when it comes to climate change, as the increasing temperature can negatively affect the environment. Temperature rises may have a variety of negative consequences, including an increase in the likelihood of flooding, droughts, and heat waves, so it is an important indicator to consider [61].
3.1.8.2 Sea Level
Sea-level rise is a worldwide phenomenon with potentially massive consequences, including coastal erosion and marine habitat destruction [62]. Countries in low-lying areas and small islands, in particular, are concerned that coastal erosion and floods will decrease their land areas.
3.1.9 Conclusion
There are eight important topics that should be considered when developing KPIs to monitor and mitigate climate change. These topics are pollution, resource use, climate hazards, biodiversity, transport, land use, health, and others. The latter includes information that cannot be categorized in any of the other topics, namely the global temperature and the sea level.
3.2 Identification of KPIs
After establishing the relevant background information in section 3.1, this research was used to find and select KPIs. First, the eight clusters and the research described in section 3.1 were used to find research papers, reports and databases on climate change related indicators. Relevant KPIs in these sources were identified and subsequently selected based on the criteria in the section 3.1.1.
The papers, reports and databases were found using the following query:
[“Topic”] AND [“Key Performance Indicators” OR “Metrics” OR “Units”] AND [“Climate” OR ”Climate change” OR “Environment]
In place of “Topic”, the title of the corresponding topic was used, e.g. air pollution or greenhouse gases. The search engines that were used are Google Scholar and Scopus. Finally, Google Search was also used, mainly to find databases.
Several KPIs are also based on the CDP questionnaire of disclosing cities [6] that was discussed in section 2.1.
3.2.1 Selection of KPIs
The KPIs that were found were then filtered according to three criteria. The first criterion is that the KPI should be adopted by some country or city. This means that at least one country or city uses the indicator to measure their performance on climate change. Secondly, the KPI should be measurable.
It should have a quantitative or qualitative metric that can be used to establish benchmarks. Finally, the KPI should have a value in some country or city.
3.2.2 Definition of KPIs
After selecting the KPIs, they are defined based on a set of principles [63], to ensure the KPI captures the important aspects of the topic. The first principle is comprehensiveness. This entails that for every topic, the KPIs combined should give a clear understanding of every facet of the topic. Secondly, the KPIs should be defined in such a way that they can be compared across different cities or countries, but also over time. The third, independence, entails that the KPIs should be independent and overlap as little as possible with the other indicators. Each KPI should be a separate indicator. Finally, the KPIs must be straightforward and simple to comprehend.
3.2.2.1 Unit and Benchmarks
After defining the KPIs, a search was conducted to find the appropriate units of measurement for the KPIs. This data was found using the sources of the KPIs and Google Search. Both qualitative and quantitative units are used. For some indicators, multiple possible units of measurement exist. In these cases, either the unit that is used in the available data is chosen, or the unit that is used most frequently. Using the same sources that were used to find the KPIs, benchmarks were established.
Two categories are provided, “+” for values that represent good performance, and “-” for values that represent bad performance.
3.3 Visualizing the KPIs
In order to give an indication of which KPIs are used in which country, a categorical heatmap is created. The heatmap displays all KPIs that are used by countries and have both recent data and data for individual countries. To define recent data, the time period of 2010-present was used. KPIs that are based on more regional data or global data were not included in the heatmap, as these cannot be compared across countries.
In the heatmap, the 193 member states of the United Nations are visualized. These nations were chosen in order to present a consistent comparison in the graph.
Data was found using the sources of the KPIs and Google Search. This data was preprocessed using Tableau Prep Builder 2021.1 and Microsoft Excel. After preprocessing the data, the heatmap was created using Tableau 2020.4.
4 Results
4.1 Table of KPIs
Using the methods described in section 3, 63 KPIs were selected. These KPIs can be found in table 3, along with a topic, a unique name, a brief description, the most common unit of measurement, and the established benchmarks, ranging from a bad performance (-) to a good performance (+).
Category Topic # KPI Unit Description + -
1 Pollution 1.1 Air Pollution 1 Air Quality Index # Ranking of cities based on annual aver-
age PM2.5 concentration (µg/m³)
0-50 >100
1.2 Greenhouse Gases 2 Existence of emissions inven- tory system
yes/no Inventory which includes emissions that are within the city boundary
yes no
3 Existence of GHG emissions reduction target
yes/no Existence of a target to reduce green- house gas emissions
yes no
4 Emissions generated by gov- ernment operations
tCO2e Scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions as a result of government operations
0 -
5 Emissions generated by com- munity activities
tCO2e Scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions as a result of community activities
0 -
1.3 Plastic Pollution 6 Existence of plastic policies yes/no Existence of regulations on the use and disposal of (single-use) plastics
yes no
7 Percentage of mismanaged plastic waste
% The percentage of total waste that is not properly disposed of
0% 100%
8 Amount of plastics currently in the oceans
metric tonnes Amount of macro- and micro-plastics currently in the oceans
0 -
1.4 Solid waste 9 Annual solid waste generation tonnes/yr Total solid waste generation per year 0 - 10 Solid waste disposed to land-
fill or incineration
tonnes/yr Solid waste that is disposed of in land- fills or that is incinerated
- -
22
1.5 Recycling 11 Solid waste diverted away from landfill or incineration
% Solid waste that does not end up in land- fills or incineration because of recycling
100% 0%
12 Percentage of population with access to recycling
% Percentage of the population that have access to a recycling point
100% 0%
1.6 Soil Pollution 13 Percentage of land that is pol- luted
% Percentage of surface area that is af- fected by soil pollution
0% -
1.7 Water Pollution 14 Percentage of heavy metal concentration in river and lake water bodies
% Heavy metal concentration in global
river and lake water bodies as a cause of water pollution
0% 100%
15 Biochemical Oxygen Demand mg/L Measurement of non toxic organics in water
<1 mg/L
>8 mg/L 16 Chemical Oxygen Demand mg/L Measurement of total toxic and non
toxic organics in water
- -
2 Resource Use 2.1 Water 17 Water consumption L/person/day The average liters of water used by one person in one day
- -
18 Water stress level low-high The ability to meet a region’s demand for water
low high
19 Existence of a public Water Resource Management strat- egy
yes/no Existence of a plan for dealing with wa- ter use and resources
yes no
20 Existence of any current or fu- ture risks to the city’s water security
yes/no Existence of (climate change related) risks that will decrease the city’s water security
no yes
21 Percentage of population with access to potable water supply
% Percentage of people that have access to clean and safe drinkwater
100% 0%
2.2 Energy 22 Energy consumption kWh/household/yr The average amount of energy con-
sumed by one household per year
0 kWh -
23
23 Share of renewable energy sources
% The share of a city’s energy mix that consists of renewable sources
100% 0%
24 Existence of renewable energy or electricity target
yes/no Existence of a target to increase the use of renewable energy
yes no
25 Existence of target to increase energy efficiency
yes/no Existence of a target to use energy more efficiently and eliminating energy waste
yes no
26 Percentage of energy grid that is zero carbon
% Zero carbon includes solar, wind, hydro, biomass and geothermal as the source to produce electricity
100% 0%
2.3 Food 27 Annual food waste tonnes/yr Amount of food that is wasted each year 0
tonnes/yr -
28 Ecological footprint of con- sumption per person
gha/person The Ecological Footprint per person is a measure of the rates of consumption and the total population of a country
<1.6 >5
3 Climate Hazards 3.1 Climate Hazards 29 Global Climate Risk Index # The Global Climate Risk Index shows the level of exposure and vulnerability to extreme weather events
>100 0-50
30 Existence of inventory of rele- vant climate hazards
yes/no Existence of an inventory to keep track of relevant current or future climate haz- ards in a city
yes no
31 Most significant climate haz- ards faced by the city
n/a Identification of the most important cli- mate hazard a city faces or will face
no risks many risks or no identifi- cation 32 Existence of a climate change
risk and vulnerability assess- ment
yes/no Existence of an assessment of current or future risks and the city’s vulnerability
yes no
24
4 Biodiversity 4.1 Biodiversity Intactness 33 Biodiversity intactness index % The Biodiversity Intactness Index (BII) shows how native terrestrial species’
average abundance compares to their abundance before human intervention
100% >60%
4.2 Terrestrial Animal Diversity 34 Percentage of known terres- trial species that are threat- ened
% Percentage of terrestrial species that are threatened according to the IUCN Red List
0% 100%
35 Terrestrial protected land area as percentage of total land area
% Percentage of land surface area that is protected
- 0%
4.3 Marine Animal Diversity 36 Percentage of known marine species that are threatened
% Percentage of marine species that are threatened according to the IUCN Red List
0% 100%
37 Marine protected land area as percentage of total land area
% Percentage of marine surface area that is protected
- 0%
38 Existence of policies for com- mercial fishing
yes/no Existence of policies to curb commercial fishing rates
yes no
39 Commercial fishing rates nr The amount of fish caught for commer- cial purposes
low high
40 Bycatch rates nr The amount of marine animals that are
caught unintentionally while fishing for other animals
high low
5 Transport 5.1 Public Transport 41 Percentage of population liv- ing within 500m of a mass transit station
% The amount of people that live within 500 m of a mass transit station and have access to public transportation
100% 0%
42 Quality of public transport % The quality rating given by inhabitants to a city’s public transport system
100% 0%
25
43 GHG emissions caused by public transport
tCO2e The total amount of GHG emissions caused by public transport
0 -
5.2 Private Transport 44 Percentage of population that owns a private car
% Describes how many people own a pri-
vate car
0% 100%
45 GHG emissions caused by pri- vate transport
tCO2e The amount of GHG emissions caused by private transport
0 -
46 Existence of a zero- or low- emission in the city
yes/no The existence of an area in the city where only zero- or low-emission vehi- cles are allowed
yes no
5.3 Electric Vehicles 47 Percentage of private cars that are electric
% The percentage of total private cars that are electric
100% 0%
48 Public access EV charging points per capita
nr The number of charging points for elec- tric vehicles per capita
>1 0
5.4 Aviation 49 GHG emissions caused by avi- ation
tCO2e The amount of GHG emissions caused by air travel
0 -
50 Per capita emissions from domestic and international flights
kg The total combined emissions caused by domestic and international flights per capita
0 >500
6 Land Use 6.1 Deforestation 51 Deforestation rate Mha/yr The total forest surface area that is cut down each year
0 -
52 Percentage of global land cover that is tree cover
% The percentage of total land area that is covered by trees
>30 0
6.2 Agriculture 53 GHG emissions caused by
agriculture
tCO2e The amount of GHG emissions caused by agriculture
0 -
54 Percentage of land used for agriculture
% The percentage of total land area used for agriculture
- -
26
55 Surface area of potential agri- cultural spaces in a city
km2 The total land area that has the poten- tial to be turned into agricultural space
- -
56 Vulnerability to climate change related agricultural risks
n/a The vulnerability to climate related agri- cultural risks such as droughts
not vul- nerable
very vulner- able 7 Health 7.1 Public Health 57 Identification of risks to public
health or health systems asso- ciated with climate change
yes/no Identification of risks to the public health or health systems of a city
no risks many risks or no identifi- cation 7.2 Mortality 58 Excess mortality caused by ex-
treme heat
% Addresses the number of people that die from extreme heat
0% 100%
59 Deaths caused by air pollution deaths per 100.000 people
Mortality rate linked to household and ambient air pollution
0 >1
7.3 Illnesses 60 Number of heat related ill- nesses
nr Identifies the amount of illnesses that were caused by extreme heat
0 >1
61 Number of respiratory dis- eases caused by increased air pollution
nr Identifies the amount of respiratory dis- eases that were caused by an increase in air pollution
0 >1
8 Other 8.1 Global Temperature 62 Annual rise in global temper- ature
°C/yr The rise in global temperature per year <1.5 >2
8.2 Sea Level 63 Annual sea level rise mm/yr The rise of the sea level per year 0 3
Table 3: List of Key Performance Indicators related to climate change, as recorded through this study.
27
4.2 Definition KPIs
4.2.1 Pollution 4.2.1.1 Air Pollution
1. Air Quality Index
The Air Quality Index is a ranking of countries based on their ‘annual average PM2.5 concentration weighted by population’ [64]. PM2.5 was chosen since it is generally considered to be the most hazardous pollution to human health.
4.2.1.2 Greenhouse Gases
2. Existence of emissions inventory system 3. Existence of GHG emissions reduction target 4. Emissions generated by government operations 5. Emissions generated by community activities
The first indicator on greenhouse gases is the existence of an emissions inventory system [6]. This is essential because without such an inventory, cities likely do not have data available for the other indicators in this category. The next indicator is the existence of a reduction target of GHG emissions [6]. Then there are two indicators focusing on emission generation. Emissions are separated into those generated by government operations and those caused by community activities [19].
4.2.1.3 Plastic Pollution 6. Existence of plastic policies
7. Percentage of mismanaged plastic waste 8. Amount of plastics currently in the oceans
An indicator that is especially important when it comes to plastic pollution is whether cities or countries have any policies in place on plastic use and disposal. Another relevant KPIs is the amount of mismanaged plastic waste. This KPI is especially relevant in coastal cities or cities directly connected to the ocean in some other way, for example by rivers. Mismanaged plastics can directly lead to pollution of bodies of water. Furthermore, the amount of macro and microplastics currently in the oceans is also an important KPI to consider, as this can have damaging effects on marine ecosystems.
