N E D E R L A N D S HISTORISCH-ARCHAEOLOGISCH INSTITUUT TE ISTANBUL Publications de l'Institut historique-archéologique néerlandais de Stamboul
sous la direction de
E. van DONZEL. Machteld J. MELLINK, C. NIJLAND, J J ROODENBF.RG et K.R. VEENHOF
LXII1
HAMMAM ET - TURKMAN I
Report
on the University of Amsterdam's 1981-84 Excavations
in Syria
m o d e r n s e u l e m e n t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e 1 H a m m a m dbn S h e h a b ) 2 J i d l e 3 S h r e y ' a n 4 S a r i l a n 5 A s w a d e H a i r à n 7 D a m i s h l i y y a 8 H a m m a m e t - T u r k m a n 9 M e f e s n to Semen 11 M e r ) Abu Shar ib 12 Bra 13 Zaidin BALIKH V A L L E Y , N O R T H S Y R I A
HAMMAM ET - TURKMAN I
Report
on the University of Amsterdam's 1981-84 Excavations
in Syria
I
edited by
MAURITS N. VAN LOON
NEDERLANDS HISTORISCH-ARCHEOLOGISCH INSTITUUT TE ISTANBUL
Copyright 19X8 hy
Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten Witte Singel 24
Postbus 9515
2300 RA LEIDEN, N E D E R L A N D
All rights reserved, including the right to translate or to reproduce this hook or parts thereof in any form
CIP-GEGEVF.NS K O N I N K L I J K E BIBLIOTHEEK, DEN HAAG Hammam
Hammam et-Turkman / cd by Maurits N van Loon. Istanbul: Nederlands Histonsch-Archaeologisch Instituut Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten (distr.)
I: Report of the University of Amsterdam's I 9 X I - I 9 8 4 excavations in Syria. (Uitgaven van het Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul; 63)
ISBN 90-6258-063-7
SISO az.w-syn 940.2 UDC 902.2(569.1)"1981/1984" NUGI 644 Trefw : opgravingen; Syrië.
VOLUME I
Table of Contents vii List of Plates ix List of Tables xvii List of Abbreviations xxiii Foreword xxv
Maurits N. van Loon and Dicdcrik J.W. Meijer
Chapter I : Soils and Environment of Tell Hammam ct-Turkman 1 Jan A.K. Boerin;i
Chapter 2: Excavation and Pottery Procedures 13
Dicdcrik J.W. Meijer, Peter M.M.G. Akkermans, Hans H. Curvcrs and Ana I. Lâzaro
Chapter 3: The Soundings at Tell Damishliyya 19
Peter M.M.G. Akkermans
Chapter 4: Tell Hammam: Architecture and Stratigraphy 69
Dicdcrik J.W. Meijer
Chapter 5: Details of Architecture and Construction 129
Claes Joris van Haaftcn
Chapter 6: The Burials 143
Laurens Thisscn
Chapter 7: The Period IV Pottery 181 Peter M.M.G. Akkcrmans
Chapter 8: The Period V Pottery 287
Peter M.M.G. Akkcrmans
VOLUME 2
Chapter 9: The Period VI Pottery 351 Hans H. Curvers
Chapter 10: The Period VII Pottery 397 Hans H. Curvers
Chapter 11 : The Period VIII Pottery 457
Ferdinand Smit
Chapter 12: The Period X Pottery 499 Ana I. Lazaro
VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 14: The Glass and Faience Finds 605 Theo de Feyter
Chapter 15: The Metal Finds 609 Theo de Feyter
Chapter 16: The Stone Finds 627
Roger Leenders
Chapter 17: The Bone Finds 643 Roger Leenders
Chapter 18: The Beads 653
Diederik J.W. Meijer
Chapter 19: The Seals and Seal Impressions 661
Maurits N. van Loon
Chapter 20: The Inscriptions 669
Wilfred H. van Soldi, K. Jongeling, F.A.J. Hoogendijk and P. van Minnen
Chapter 21: The Coins 679
Theo de Feyter
Chapter 22: The Balikh Valley and its People 683
Norman Lewis
Chapter 23: Conclusions 697 Maurits N. van Loon and Diederik J.W. Meijer
Appendix 1 : Radiocarbon Dates 703
W.G. Mook, with comments by Maurits N. van Loon
Appendix 2: Some Notes on the Plant Husbandry of Tell Hammam
et-Turkman 705 W.van Zeist, W. Waterbolk-van Rooijen and S. Bottema
Appendix 3: Obsidian Analyses 717 Jan A.K. Boerma
Plate 1. Map of Balikh valley with (inset) its location in Syria iv Plate 2. Northern Balikh valley: a. soilscapes and parent materials; b.
sche-matic cross-section 1 1 Plate 3. Tell Damishliyya: a. contour map; b. view from east 39 Plate 4. Plan of stratum 2 in squares K 16-17 at Tell Damishliyya 40 Plate 5. Section along east balks of squares K 16-17 at Tell Damishliyya. . 41 Plate 6. Period II pottery from Tell Damishliyya (scale 1:3) 43 Plate 7. Period II pottery from Tell Damishliyya (scale 1:3) (nos. 15,16
scale 1:2) 45 Plate 8. Period I-II chipped stone from Tell Damishliyya (scale 1:2). . . . 47 Plate 9. Periods I-II chipped stone from Tell Damishliyya (scale 1 : 2 ) . . . . 49 Plate 10. Periods I-II chipped and ground stone from Tell Damishliyya
(scale 1:2) 51 Plate 11. Periods I-II bone, stone and baked clay from Tell Damishliyya
(scale 1:2) 53 Plate 12. Period IX burials at Tell Damishliyya: a. accompanying objects
(scale 1:1); b. burial 1 view 55 Plate 13. Period III fine ware from Tell Damishliyya (nos. 96-99 scale 1:3;
nos. 100-101 scale 1:2) 57 Plate 14. Period HI fine ware from Tell Damishliyya (scale 1:2) 59 Plate 15. Period III fine ware from Tell Damishliyya (scale 1:2) 61 Plate 16. Period III coarse ware and Samarra(?) ware from Tell Damishliyya
(scale 1:2) 63 Plate 17. Period III fine ware designs from Tell Damishliyya (scale 1:2). . . 65 Plate 18. Period III fine ware designs from Tell Damishliyya (scale 1:2). . . 67 Plate 19. Contour map of Tell Hammam et-Turkman with areas excavated
1981-1984 95 Plate 20. a-f: Schematic plans of eastern trench strata; g: Stratum IV:6 from
above 96 Plate 21. South section of AL-AK 16 97 Plate 22. a-e: Schematic plans of eastern trench strata; f: west section
o f A K 1 6 98 Plate 23. a-b: Eastern trench strata V: 2a-b 99 Plate 24. a: South section of AJ-AI 16; b: attempted reconstruction of
V:2 building 100 Plate 25. a: V:2 building, facing west; b: east room of V:2 building. . . . 101 Plate 26. a-c: Schematic plans of eastern trench strata; d: AH 16 south
X LIST OF PLATES
Plate 27. Plan of V:7 temple 103 Plate 28. a: Side rooms of temple, facing north; b: main hall of temple. . . 104 Plate 29. a: Floor of temple, facing north; b: attempted reconstruction of
temple 105 Plate 30. a-b: Plans of V I : 2 architecture in AG 17; c: south section of AG 16. 106 Plate 31. a: South section of AF 16; b: north trench. VI:6 architecture. . . 107 Plate 32. East section of O 16-18 108 Plate 33. North trench, a: Stratum VII north:2; b: Stratum VII north:3. . 109 Plate 34. a-b: I 23 trench; c: north trench. Stratum VII north:3 110 Plate 35. I-J 23 "bathroom." I l l Plate 36. a: I/J 23 basin; b: basin, facing north 112 Plate 37. a: Latest EB habitation in J 23; b: MB room and tomb in N 24. . 113 Plate 38. MB architecture in J 23 114 Plate 39. a-b: MB architecture in J 23 115 Plate 40. A late MB complex 116 Plate 41. a-b: MB architecture in the 24 squares 117 Plate 42. Late MB houses 118 Plate 43. LB palace, earlier subphase 119 Plate 44. LB palace, a: room 3 facing southwest. Cracked sill of doorway B in
background; b: place of beam in wall of main hall 120 Plate 45. LB palace, a: plank impressions in doorway A; b: ramp and cobbled
court 121 Plate 46. LB palace, later subphase 122 Plate 47. LB palace, a: room 8 facing south ( V I I I : Ib); b: overflow basin of
VIII: le 123 Plate 48. a: Attempted reconstruction of LB palace; b: LB palace during
excavation (photo courtesy Mr. Arne Waiser, Saarbrücken) 124 Plate 49. LB reoccupation 125 Plate 50. Period X defensive(?) wall 126 Plate 51. a: Stratum X west:l walls in M 23; b: Stratum X east:lc in
AI-AJ 16 127 Plate 52. LB palace, a-b: various types of bonding; c: section through court
façade of western wing; d : elevation and section of doorway B. . . . 139 Plate 53. LB palace, a: plan and section of doorway A; b: section of
doorway C; c: plan and section of doorway from room 3 to court; d: section of east wall of room 1 140 Plate 54. LB palace, a: elevation and plan of doorway from room 5 to court;
Plate 57. Hammam VII grave groups 165 Plate 58. Hammam VII grave groups 167 Plate 59. Hammam VII grave groups 169 Plate 60. Hammam VII grave groups 171 Plate 61. Hammam V I I , VIII grave groups 173 Plate 62. Hammam IV, VI burials, a: AK 16 B 3; b: AG 17 B l 174 Plate 63. Hammam VII burials, a: K 23 B 1; b: K 24 B 3 175 Plate 64. Hammam VII burials, a: L 24 B 2 (L 24 B 6 appearing in
background); b: L 24 B 6 176 Plate 65. Hammam VII burials, a: N 24 B 1-7 complex; b: N 24 B 1. . . . 177 Plate 66. Hammam VII burial N 24 B 8. a: tomb closed; b: tomb opened. . 178 Plate 67. Hammam V I I , VIII burials, a: N 24 B 3, 5, 6; b: K 22 B 1. . . . 179 Plate 68. Hammam I VA painted bowls (scale 1:2) 229 Plate 69. Hammam IVA painted bowls and goblets (scale 1:2) 231 Plate 70. Hammam IVA painted bowls and small pots (scale 1:2) 233 Plate 71. Hammam IVA painted small pots and bowls (scale 1:2) 235 Plate 72. Hammam IVA unpainted bowls (scale 1:3) 237 Plate 73. Hammam IVA unpainted bowls, pots and jars (scale 1:3). . . . 239 Plate 74. Hammam IVA unpainted jars (scale 1:3) 241 Plate 75. Hammam IVA. 96-99, 101: jars and pot (scale 1:3); 100, 102-106:
painted jar and sherds (scale 1:2) 243 Plate 76. Hammam IVA painted designs (scale 1:2) 245 Plate 77. Hammam IVB painted bowls (scale 1:2) 247 Plate 78. Hammam IVB painted bowls (scale 1:2); unpainted bowls (scale
1:3) 249 Plate 79. Hammam IVB unpainted bowls and jars (scale 1:3); painted jars
(scale 1:2) 251 Plate 80. 157-162: Hammam IVB painted designs (scale 1:2); unpainted jar
and pot (scale 1:3); 163: Hammam IVC painted bowl (scale 1:2). . . 253 Plate 81. Hammam IVC painted bowls (scale 1:2) 255 Plate 82. Hammam IVC painted bowls and goblet (scale 1:2) 257 Plate 83. Hammam IVC painted bowls (scale 1:2); unpainted bowls (scale
1:3) 259 Plate 84. Hammam IVC unpainted bowl and jars (scale 1:3); painted jars and
pot (scale 1:2) 261 Plate 85. Hammam IVC painted jars (scale 1:2); unpainted pots and jars
(scale 1:3) 263 Plate 86. Hammam IVC unpainted pots, jars and bowls (scale 1:3). . . . 265 Plate 87. Hammam IVC undecorated pots and bases (scale 1:3); decorated lid,
XII LIST OF PLATES
Plate 89. Hammam IVD painted bowls (scale 1:2) 271 Plate 90. Hammam IVD painted pot, jar and sherds (scale 1:2) 273 Plate 91. Hammam IVD painted sherds (scale 1:2); unpainted bowls and
small pot (scale 1:3) 275 Plate 92. Hammam IVD unpainted bowls (scale 1:3) 277 Plate 93. Hammam IVD unpainted bowls and pots (scale 1:3) 279 Plate 94. Hammam IVD unpainted jars (scale 1:3) 281 Plate 95. Hammam IVD unpainted jars and pots (scale 1:3) 283 Plate 96. Hammam IVD unpainted jars and bases (scale 1:3) 285 Plate 97. Hammam VA painted bowls and jars (scale 1:2) 323 Plate 98. Hammam VA decorated sherds (scale 1:2) 325 Plate 99. Hammam VA unpainted bowls (scale 1:3) 327 Plate 100. Hammam VA unpainted bowls (scale 1:3) 329 Plate 101. Hammam VA unpainted bowls, pots and jars (scale 1:3). . . . 331 Plate 102. Hammam VA unpainted jars (scale 1:3) 333 Plate 103. Hammam VA unpainted jars; VB unpainted bowls (scale 1:3). . 335 Plate 104. Hammam VB unpainted bowls (scale 1:3) 337 Plate 105. Hammam VB unpainted bowls (scale 1:3) 339 Plate 106. Hammam VB unpainted bowls (scale 1:3) 341 Plate 107. Hammam VB unpainted bowls and pots (scale 1:3) 343 Plate 108. Hammam VB unpainted pots and jars (scale 1:3) 345 Plate 109. Hammam VB painted sherds (113-114, 116 scale 1:2; 117 scale
Plate 128. Hammam VII goblets and pots (scale 1:3) 427 Plate 129. Hammam VII pots (scale 1:3) 429 Plate 130. Hammam VII pots (1:3) 431 Plate 131. Hammam VII pots (scale 1:3) 433 Plate 132. Hammam VII pots (scale 1:3) 435 Plate 133. Hammam VII pots (scale 1:3; 1 1 1 - 1 1 3 scale 1:6) 437 Plate 134. Hammam VII pots (scale 1:3) 439 Plate 135. Hammam VII pots (scale 1:3) 441 Plate 136. Hammam VII pots (scale 1:3) 443 Plate 137. Hammam VII pots (scale 1:3; 148-151 scale 1:6) 445 Plate 138. Hammam VII pot and jars (scale 1:3; 154. 159 scale 1:6). . . . 447 Plate 139. Hammam VII jars (scale 1:3) 449 Plate 140. Hammam VII jars (scale 1:3; 184 scale 1:6) 451 Plate 141. Hammam VII jars (scale 1:3) 453 Plate 142. Hammam VII other shapes and painted sherds (scale 1:3). . . . 455 Plate 143. Hammam VIIIA bowls (scale 1:3) 465 Plate 144. Hammam VIIIA bowls (scale 1:3) 467 Plate 145. Hammam VIIIA bowls (scale 1:3) 469 Plate 146. Hammam VIIIA bowls (scale 1:3) 471 Plate 147. Hammam V I I I A bowls and goblets (scale 1:3) 473 Plate 148. Hammam V I I I A pots (scale 1:3; 42 scale 1:6) 475 Plate 149. Hammam VIIIA pots (scale 1:3; 52 scale 1:6) 477 Plate 150. Hammam V I I I A pots and jars (scale 1:3) 479 Plate 151. Hammam VIIIA jars (scale 1:3) 481 Plate 152. Hammam VIIIA jars and other shapes (scale 1:3; 74 scale 1:6). . 483 Plate 153. Hammam VIIIA other shapes (scale 1:3; 81 scale 1:6); decorated
sherds 485 Plate 154. Hammam V I I I B bowls (scale 1:3) 491 Plate 155. Hammam V I I I B bowls and pots (scale 1:3) 493 Plate 156. Hammam V I I I B pots (scale 1:3; 23 scale 1:12) 495 Plate 157. Hammam VIIIB jars and other shapes (scale 1:3; 28-29 scale 1:6). 497 Plate 158. Hammam X bowls (scale 1:3) 529 Plate 159. Hammam X bowls (scale 1:3) 531 Plate 160. Hammam X bowls (scale 1:3) 533 Plate 161. Hammam X bowls and lids (scale 1:3) 535 Plate 162. Hammam X pots (scale 1:3) 537 Plate 163. Hammam X jars (scale
Plate 164. Hammam X jars (scale Plate 165. Hammam X jars (scale Plate 166. Hammam X jars (scale Plate 167. Hammam X jars (scale
XIV LIST OF PLATES
Plate 168. Hammam X jars and stands (scale 1:3) 549 Plate 169. Hammam X bases (scale 1:3) 551 Plate 170. Hammam X decorated sherds and cooking ware (scale 1:3). . . 553 Plate 171. Hammam X Eastern Terra Sigillata (scale 1:3) 555 Plate 172. Hammam X Eastern Terra Sigillata (scale 1:3) 557 Plate 173. Hammam X Eastern Terra Sigillata and green glazed ware (scale
1:3) 559 Plate 174. Clay spindle whorls (scale 1 : 1 ) and miscellaneous clay objects (scale
1:2) 577 Plate 175. Clay animal figurines (scale 1:2; 21 scale 1 : 1 ) 579 Plate 176. Clay human figurines (scale 1:2) 581 Plate 177. Clay human figurines (scale 1:2; 58 scale 1:1) 583 Plate 178. Clay house models (scale 1:2) 585 Plate 179. Clay house models (scale 1:2) 587 Plate 180. Clay chariot models (scale 1:2) 589 Plate 181. Clay wheels (scale 1:2) 591 Plate 182. Clay oil lamps (scale 1:1) 593 Plate 183. Clay oil lamps (scale 1 : 1 ) 595 Plate 184. Clay male(?) figurine from offering deposit (scale 1 : 1 ) 597 Plate 185. Clay seated female figurine from offering deposit (scale 1:1). . . 599 Plate 186. Clay human figurine parts from offering deposit (scale 1:1). . . 601 Plate 187. Clay vessels from offering deposit (scale 1:1) 603 Plate 188. Glass bottles (scale 1 : 1 ) and faience bowl (scale 1:2) 607 Plate 189. Copper or bronze bodkins, needle, awl and pin (scale 1 : 1 ) . . . . 617 Plate 190. Copper or bronze blade, beer sieves (scale 1:1), sickles and saw
(scale 1:2) 619 Plate 191. Copper or bronze weapons, chisel and wheel (scale 1 : 1 ; 16 scale
1:2) 621 Plate 192. Iron arrowheads, lead weights, silver earring (scale 1 : 1 ) 625 Plate 193. Stone pestles, mortar, door socket, spindle whorls and other objects
(scale 1:2; 5-7 scale 1:1) 637 Plate 194. Stone mortars, pestle and grinding slab (scale as indicated). . . 639 Plate 195. Flint arrowheads and other stone objects (scale as indicated). . . 641 Plate 196. Bone awls, bodkin and needles (scale 1:2) 649 Plate 197. Bone "net spacer," ring, toggles and other objects (drawings 1:2;
photographs as indicated) 651 Plate 198. Faience, limestone and other beads (scales as indicated). . . . 657 Plate 199. Shell, faience and various stone beads (scale as indicated). . . . 659 Plate 200. Stamp seals (1,5,8,11), stamp impression (10), cylinder seal (7) and
Plate 201. Clay sealing with three cylinder rollings: two views and drawings of front and back 668 Plate 202. Clay tablets (scale 2:1; le scale 1:1) 673 Plate 203. Sherds with Aramaic inscriptions (scale 1:2; 2e-f 1:1) 675 Plate 204. Sherds with Greek inscriptions (scale 1:2; 3d 1 : 1 ) 677 Plate 205. Copper or bronze coins (scale 1 : 1 ) 681 Plate 206. Satellite image of the Balikh valley, taken on September 26, 1980. 694 Plate 207. Map of the Balikh valley showing population distribution about
1945 695 Plate 208. a. Wheat ear, spikelet, fork and glume base; b. Two and six-rowed
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Climate for Raqqa: mean monthly averages 3 Table 2. Characteristics of plateau and valley soilscapes
Table 3. Distribution of pottery at Tell Damishliyya
Table 4. Distribution of obsidian at Tell Damishliyya 26 Table 5. Period IX burials at Tell Damishliyya 35 Table 6. Periods IV-VII burials at Tell Hammam et-Turkman 144-145 Table 7. Period VII burials at Tell Hammam et-Turkman 146-147 Table 8. Period VII burials at Tell Hammam et-Turkman 148-149 Table 9. Period VII burials at Tell Hammam et-Turkman 150-151 Table 10. Periods V I I - V I I I burials at Tell Hammam et-Turkman. . . . 152-153 Table 11. Chronology of Hammam VII burials with pottery 154 Table 12. Chronology of other Hammam VII burials 154 Table 13, Stratigraphy of Hammam VII burials 155 Table 14. Hammam VII age groups and burial types 158 Table 15. Hammam VII age groups and subfloor burials 158 Table 16. Hammam VII age groups and accompanying objects 158 Table 17. Distribution of vessel shape by stratum (Hammam IV). . . . 183 Table 18. Distribution of vessel shape by phase (Hammam IV) 183 Table 19. Distribution of vessel shape by stratum (Hammam IV-V). . . 184 Table 20. Distribution of temper by stratum (Hammam IV) 187 Table 21. Distribution of temper by phase (Hammam IV) 188 Table 22. Distribution of firing by stratum ( H a m m a m IV) 190 Table 23. Distribution of firing by phase (Hammam IV) 190 Table 24. Distribution of surface treatment by stratum (Hammam IV). . 193 Table 25. Distribution of surface treatment by phase (Hammam IV). . . 194 Table 26. Distribution of exterior by stratum (Hammam IV) 194 Table 27. Distribution of colour by stratum (Hammam IV) 196 Table 28. Distribution of colour by phase (Hammam IV) 197 Table 29. Distribution of greenish and greenish brittle pottery by phase
(Hammam IV) 197 Table 30. Distribution of painted and unpainted rim sherds by stratum
(Hammam IV) 198 Table 31. Distribution of painted and unpainted rim sherds by phase
Table 35. Seriation of rim and base shapes (Hammam IV) 206 Table 36. Relative chronology. Hammam IV 227 Table 37. Distribution of vessel shape by stratum (Hammam V). . . . 288 Table 38. Distribution of vessel shape by phase (Hammam V) 289 Table 39. Distribution of temper by stratum (Hammam V) 290 Table 40. Distribution of temper by phase (Hammam V) 291 Table 41. Distribution of firing by stratum (Hammam V) 293 Table 42. Distribution of firing by phase (Hammam V) 294 Table 43. Distribution of surface treatment by stratum (Hammam V). . 295 Table 44. Distribution of surface treatment by phase (Hammam V). . . 296 Table 45. Distribution of exterior by stratum (Hammam V) 297 Table 46. Distribution of exterior by phase (Hammam V) 298 Table 47. Distribution of colour by stratum (Hammam V) 299 Table 48. Distribution of colour by phase (Hammam V) 300 Table 49. Distribution of painted and unpainted rim sherds by stratum
(Hammam V) 301 Table 50. Distribution of painted and unpainted rim sherds by phase
(Hammam V) 301 Table 51. Relative frequencies of major Hammam V pottery types. . . 302 Table 52. Seriation of rim and base shapes (Hammam V) 303 Table 53. Relative chronology, Hammam V 321 Table 54. Extrusive Hammam V and stratified Hammam VI sherds. . . 352 Table 55. Hammam VI east pottery: temper (in %) 353 Table 56. Hammam VI east pottery: manufacture (in %) 354 Table 57. Hammam VI east pottery: exterior and surface treatment (in %). 354 Table 58. Hammam VI east pottery: colour (in %) 355 Table 59. Hammam VI east pottery: "sandwich colours" (in %). . . . 355 Table 60. Seriation matrix of Hammam VI east bowls 356 Table 61. Seriation matrix of Hammam VI east goblets 357 Table 62. Seriation matrix of Hammam VI east pots 357 Table 63. Seriation matrix of Hammam VI east jars 358 Table 64. Hammam VI west pottery: temper (in %) 375 Table 65. Hammam VI west pottery: manufacture (in %) 376 Table 66. Hammam VI west pottery: exterior and surface treatment (in %). 376 Table 67. Hammam VI west pottery: colour (in %) 377 Table 68. Hammam VI west pottery: "sandwich colours" (in %). . . . 377 Table 69. Seriation matrix of Hammam VI west bowls 378 Table 70. Seriation matrix of Hammam VI west goblets 378 Table 71. Seriation matrix of Hammam VI west pots 379 Table 72. Seriation matrix of Hammam VI west jars 379 Table 73. Extrusive Hammam VI ceramics in Hammam VII strata. 23
LIST OF TABLES XIX
Table 74. Hammam VII pottery: temper (in %). 23 trench 399 Table 75. Hammam VII pottery: temper (in %). O trench 400 Table 76. Hammam VII pottery: manufacture (in %). 23 trench. . . . 400 Table 77. Hammam VII pottery: manufacture (in %). O trench. . . . 400 Table 78. Hammam VII pottery: exterior and surface treatment (in %). 23
trench 401 Table 79. Hammam VII pottery: exterior and surface treatment (in %). O
14. Cooking ware of Hammam X west: firing 505 15. Cooking ware of Hammam X west: colour 506 16. Eastern Terra Sigillata of Hammam X west: temper. . . . 506 17. Eastern Terra Sigillata of Hammam X west: manufacture . . 506 18. Eastern Terra Sigillata of Hammam X: west: surface treatment. 507 19. Eastern Terra Sigillata of Hammam X west: firing 507 Table Table Table Table Table Table
Table 120. Eastern Terra Sigillata of Hammam X west: colour 507 Table 121. Green glazed ware of Hammam X west: temper 508 Table 122. Green glazed ware of Hammam X west: manufacture. . . . 508 Table 123. Green glazed ware of Hammam X west: colour 508 Table 124. Green glazed ware of Hammam X west: firing 509 Table 125. Common ware of Hammam X east: temper 510 Table 126. Common ware of Hammam X east: manufacture 510 Table 127. Common ware of Hammam X east: surface treatment. . . . 511 Table 128. Common ware of Hammam X east: firing 5 1 1 Table 129. Common ware of Hammam X east: colour 5 1 1 Table 130. Cooking ware of Hammam X east: temper 512 Table 131. Cooking ware of Hammam X east: manufacture 513 Table 132. Cooking ware of Hammam X east: surface treatment. . . . 513 Table 133. Cooking ware of Hammam X east: firing 513 Table 134. Cooking ware of Hammam X east: colour 513 Table 135. Eastern Terra Sigillata of Hammam X east: temper 514 Table 136. Eastern Terra Sigillata of Hammam X east: manufacture. . . 514 Table 137. Eastern Terra Sigillata of Hammam X east: surface treatment. 514 Table 138. Eastern Terra Sigillata of Hammam X east: firing 514 Table 139. Eastern Terra Sigillata of Hammam X east: colour 515 Table 140. Occurrences of Hammam X bowls and lids 517 Table 141. Occurrences of Hammam X pots 518 Table 142. Occurrences of Hammam X jars and dolia 518-520 Table 143. Occurrences of Hammam X bases 520 Table 144. Occurrences of Hammam X handles and decorated sherds. . 521 Table 145. Occurrences of Hammam X cooking ware 521 Table 146. Occurrences of Hammam X Eastern Terra Sigillata 521 Table 147. Occurrences of Hammam X green glazed ware 522 Table 148. Per centum distribution of the different Hammam X wares. . 522 Table 149. Per centum distribution of Hammam X common ware shapes. 522 Table 150. Occurrences of decoration on Hammam X common ware. . . 523 Table 151. First building in 30 settlements around Slouk 692 Table 152. Radiocarbon dates from Tell Hammam et-Turkman. . . . 704 Table 153. Numbers of seeds and fruits in samples from Hammam
LIST OF TABLES
Table 154. Mean percentages of crop-plant seeds and of cereal remains
other than grains per period 709 Table 155. Number of non-barley seeds and fruits per 1000 barley grains in
samples from barley deposits 712 Table 156. (Estimated) 100 grain weights of barley in grammes 714 Table 157. Major elements (percentages) as determined by XRF or AAS
for 3 obsidians from Tell Hammam et-Turkman 718 Table 158. Trace elements (ppm) as determined by N A A or AAS for 3
THE PERIOD V POTTERY PETER M.M.G. AKKERMANS
INTRODUCTION
At Tell Hammam et-Turkman, period V ceramics were found during the 1981-82 excavations in squares AG 16-17, AH 16, AI 16 and AJ 16 of the stepped trench. Hammam V pottery was retrieved almost entirely from domestic deposits. Only the stratum 7 ceramics were found in what may be termed a "public area". Seven excavated building levels are assigned to Hammam V (strata 1-7). Strata 2a, 2b and 7 need a short comment. Stratum 2a represents a well-preserved burnt building consisting of a main room flanked by a series of three narrow rooms. A tri-partite plan is suggested for this building (see chapter 4). Large quantities of pottery and flint and obsidian were found beside an interesting collection of small finds such as grinding slabs, spindle whorls, sling missiles, clay building models and a fragmen-tarily preserved stone stamp seal, representing an animal-headed genie. Stratum 2b indicates the rebuilding of the stratum 2a burnt house. The complex seems to have been reerected in almost exactly the same way and orientation as in the preceding phase. The various walls were founded on the stratum 2a remains. A close chronological relationship between strata 2a and 2b is suggested.
Stratum 7 represents the last Hammam V level and is marked by monumental niched architecture, comparable to the Uruk temples of e.g. Tell Qannas, the Jebel Aruda or Uruk IV A. Comparisons may also be found in the architecture of the Late Chalcolithic strata XIII-VIII of Tepe Gawra. In contrast with the exclusively domestic contexts of the earlier strata, this stratum 7 represents a "public area." The complex consisted of a main room, on the east side of which two side-rooms were added. In one of these side-rooms large storage vessels were found in situ. The whole building was destroyed in a violent fire and thereupon at least this part of Tell Hammam et-Turkman was deserted for some time. Ceramics found in stratum V.7 clearly differ both in technological and typological aspects from those of the succeeding period VI. A hiatus is indicated, the duration of which is not exactly known. Radiocarbon dates from stratum 7 range between 3340 ± 35 B.C. and 3235
± 35 B.C. (see appendix 1).
288 AKKF.RMANS
consists of strata 1, 2a, 2b and 3, whereas the later phase V B includes strata 5, 6 and 7. Stratum 4, being largely unexcavated, has produced virtually no classifiable pottery.
All sherds recovered during excavation were processed along lines explained in chapter 2 and in the preceding chapter on Hammam IV ceramics. Of utmost importance is the recognition of close connections between the Ubaid-related Hammam IV ceramics and the succeeding Late Chalcolithic or "chaff-faced" Hammam V pottery. Hammam V pottery was developed locally along gradual lines out of Hammam IV ceramics. No breaks or intrusions are present. Most ceramic traits in Hammam V are foreshadowed by Hammam IV developments in pottery production. A date around 3600-3200 B.C. for period V at Tell Hammam et-Turkman is suggested.
Shape refers to the broad division of rim sherds into restricted and unrestricted
categories (Shepard 1963). It defines the complete shape of a vessel. Three broad categories are distinguished: bowls, pots and jars. A definition of these shapes of pottery and a general discussion of function and distribution is found in chapters 2 and 7. The relative frequency of each shape category is tabulated in tables 37-38. (total number of sherds used in analysis: n = 1753).
Table 37. Distribution of vessel shape by stratum (Hammam V).
Count Ro» » Coluw Ï Total » 38 2.6 105772.» 81.0 60.3 76.0 9.6 56 3.8 6«.« 13 u.9 56.5 0.7 3.» 62.0 l u i m 83.3 0.5 2.3 0.1 99 «5.0 7.9 5.6 3l I«. I l » . o 33 15.0 27.3 1.9 9.1 23.0 39.1 0.5 27 1 2 . 3 3».2 1.5 220 12.5 2.6 9.3 0.2 102 B7. U.) 10.0 1.3 7.2 12.6 0.6 U.7 ».3 0.1 3 2.0 3.8 0.2 152 8.7 TOT Al. » 3 2 . 5 1258 71.8 221 12.6 875.0 23 1 . 3 79 ».5 17', l 100.0
Table 38. Distribution of vessel shape by phase (Hammam V). % phase V A V B BOWL 81.7 kZ.lt POT 10.0 29.6 JAR 8 . 3 7.9
consists of bowls, whereas in Hammam V B this percentage has been reduced to 62.4%. Perhaps functional differences (e.g. monumental architecture in stratum 7 versus domestic architecture in other strata) and the nature of the varying deposits have influenced shape distribution.
The distribution of pots is almost inversely proportional to that of bowls (see table 19). A change in relative bowl frequencies is invariably accompanied by a reverse development in pot frequencies.
Jars appear in low but rather consistent quantities throughout the Hammam V sequence. They are rare in the last Hammam V B strata 6 and 7. In stratum 7 jars were found only in one of the side-rooms of the monumental niched building.
Features added to the overall shape are very rare. Spouts or handles do not occur. In Hammam V B a few knobbed hole-mouth vessels were found (no. 103). These knobs are limited in distribution to this particular type of pottery.
Manufacture refers to the method of constructing a vessel. A distinction is made
between hand-made and wheel-made pottery. The vast majority of Hammam V pottery is hand-made. Only a minute fraction of the Hammam V pottery (0.4%) indicated clear wheel-made manufacture (fast turning wheel). It should be noted that some kind of slow turntable or tournette may have been widely used. More or less parallel finger striations visible on many sherds suggest the use of a turning board or mat. Already in the preceding Hammam IV period this technique probably was employed. Most Hammam V vessels were constructed by simple pinching, drawing or coiling (see chapter 7 for a definition of these techniques). Most of the small hemispherical bowls were probably shaped in the hand by pinching (finger impres-sions are often visible), whereas the larger vessels were constructed either by drawing or coiling and subsequently smoothing the vessel. In Hammam V B a group of very wide bowls clearly indicate the technique of coiling (nos. 87-89).
290 A K K E R M A N S
clay into or over a mould (Rye 1981 :81). The potter may use previously fabricated bowls as moulds. By rapidly pressing clay into these moulds and by short firing large quantities of bowls may be produced at low labor cost. A similar technique is suggested for the production of bevelled-rim bowls (Surenhagen 1978:91).
Table 39. Distribution of temper by stratum (Hammam V).
Table 40. Distribution of temper by phase (Hammam V). phase V A V B PLANT 13.t 36.8 SAND 0.3 t.9 LIME 2.1 25.0 CALCITE 1.7 9.5 PLANT/LIME 79.fi 18.6 PLANT/SAND 1.2 3.^ PLANT/UNKNOWN 2.1 1.5 NOT VISIBLE 0.2 1.0
Temper refers to the non-plastic inclusions in the clay of a vessel, added by the
potter in order to minimise shrinkage and to facilitate uniform drying by an increase of the porosity of the paste (Shepard 1963:25).
Hammam V is marked by a large variability in tempering materials (tables 39-40). Vegetable temper in particular is extremely abundant: about 96.6% of the Hammam V A pottery and 60.3% of the Hammam V B pottery gives evidence of added vegetable inclusions. Vegetable tempering material appears both alone and in combination with mineral elements (particularly lime).
A K K E R M A N S
rather large quantities of lime and gypsum in the soil samples taken (cf. chapter 1). The lime noted in the sherds classified as "plant and lime"-tempered possibly is not due to tempering activities by the potter, but to natural circumstances (lime already present in the clay used for vessel manufacture). However, the amount of lime found in the small plain-rim hemispherical bowls (type 1041) is in many cases considerably larger than in other types of pottery found in Hammam V A-V B. Probably these vessels are really lime-tempered by the potter. Another possibility is that in the case of these small hemispherical bowls more calcareous clay was used. Both possibilities point to the special attention paid by the potter to this kind of pottery.
The vast majority of Hammam V A pottery is, at least partially, plant-tempered: about 96.6%. Already in the preceding Hammam IV period a trend towards the increasing use of plant-tempered ceramics is noticeable. In Hammam IV C about 52.6% of the pottery showed vegetable inclusions, whereas in Hammam IV D this percentage had increased to about 83.5%. At the beginning of the Hammam V period the distribution of plant-tempered pottery reached its climax. In the following Hammam V B phase a decline to about 60.3% is observed. In these later Hammam V strata mineral-tempered pottery is rather common.
The use of plant material as a means of temper has several advantages in comparison to mineral inclusions. The most important benefits of plant temper are the short firing time and rather low firing temperature required (plant fibres act as fuel in the vessel wall), the resulting reduction in fuel needed for firing, the strong resistance to thermal shock (due to large pore size) and the little special attention which has to be given to the pottery during firing (Franken 1974; Kalsbeek apud Franken 1969; Arnold 1985). The numerous sherds with dark cores, pointing to a short firing time, indicate that the Hammam V A potters were aware of these advantages and made full use of them. The use of vegetable tempering materials also has some disadvantages, e.g. a coarse appearance, a porous vessel wall and the necessity of thick vessel walls. But in view of the extreme abundance of plant inclusions, the advantages apparently compensated by far the various drawbacks. In our opinion, Hammam V A ceramics reflect a period of utmost attention given to cheap and large-scale ceramic production. This trend towards large-scale pottery production is confirmed by the appearance of large quantities of coarsely made Coba bowls.
The use of calcite as a means of temper is a characteristic Hammam V B trait. In the preceding Hammam V A phase, calcite is virtually absent and also in the Hammam IV period calcite appears rarely. The use of calcite as temper gives a vessel a strong resistance against thermal shock and thus reduces the risk of cracking during firing and subsequent cooling (Rye 1981:27,33). Particularly in the case of cooking-pots the application of calcite is advantageous. In Hammam V B the distribution of calcite is limited to black or grey burnished hole-mouth pots.
In comparison with Hammam V A, lime sharply increases in use in Hammam V B. In phase V B about 25% of the pottery indicates the use of solely lime temper, whereas in the previous phase only 2.7% of the pottery gave evidence of lime temper. The use of lime temper allows the production of finely made, thin-walled and smoothed vessels. Throughout the Hammam V period lime was invariably used in the production of small hemispherical bowls.
Firing refers to the heating of pottery to a temperature high enough to cause
permanent change of the clay minerals. Alteration of the physical state of the clay minerals by sufficient heating renders pottery hard and durable. The minimum temperatures of heating vary between 500 and 800° C, depending on the type of clay (Rye 1981:96ff.; Shepard 1963:14ff.).
The various states of firing are described in a very general mannner: low, medium and high. A definition and a general discussion of these states of firing is found in chapter 7. The relative distribution in time of the three states of firing is presented in tables 41-42.
Table 41. Distribution of firing by stratum (Hammam V).
294 A K K E R M A N S
Table 42. Distribution of firing by phase (Hammam V).
phase
V A V B
HIGH 0.5 0
MEDIUM 1.1 17.2
LOW 98.« 82.8
The vast majority of the Hammam V ceramics were fired in an oxidizing atmosphere. Most sherds, however, show a grey or black core, indicating incomplete oxidation due to a relatively short firing time (Rye 1981:114ff.). This is particularly true in the case of plant-tempered ceramics, but also most mineral-tempered pottery indicated incomplete oxidation.
In Hammam V B a group of grey and black burnished pottery appeared which gave evidence of intentional blackening by carbon deposition in a reducing atmos-phere. Carbon deposition is caused by preventing access of air either during the last stage of firing or at the beginning of the process of cooling. By excluding air the carbon is prevented from being reoxidized (ihid.:\\5). This technique of producing black pottery by firing under reducing conditions is rare at Tell Hammam et-Turkman and virtually restricted to phase V B. The Hammam V B group of grey-black burnished ware comprises only wide bowls and large hole-mouth pots (nos. 81, 83-85, 88, 89, 101-103).
"Low-fired" pottery, i.e. pottery showing a dark core, is most numerous in Hammam V. Particularly in Hammam VA pottery with grey or black cores is extremely abundant (about 98.4% of the pottery sample). The dark cores indicate that the pottery was fired only during a short time, which yielded a sufficiently hard vessel surface and at the same time sharply reduced the time of firing and cost of fuel. Already in the later part of the Hammam IV sequence (Hammam IV C-IV D) a steady rise of ceramics with a dark core was observed. In Hammam V A this trend reaches its peak. In the next phase V B a slight decrease is visible. The abundant appearance of pottery with dark cores indicates important change in firing condi-tions, which is accompanied by alterations in virtually all pottery attributes investi-gated (see above, Temper, and below, Colour. These changes clearly reflect a trend towards large-scale ceramic production at low labor costs.
without a distinct core, are present in very low numbers in Hammam V A. The present data suggest that about 5.1% of the Hammam V A ceramic sample consists of medium-fired pottery, but this percentage may be slightly distorted by the rather low sample size of stratum 1. The succeeding strata 2a and 2b are both marked by large quantities of pottery indicating extremely low percentages of medium-fired pottery. This number is increased in the last Hammam V A stratum and in Hammam V B medium-fired ceramics are rather common (about 17.2% of the Hammam V B ceramic sample shows medium firing). In Hammam V A only small hemispherical bowls are medium-fired, whereas in Hammam V B a much larger variety of bowls and small pots indicate medium firing. No jars, however, are medium-fired.
"High firing" is virtually absent. Only in stratum 2a a few high-fired sherds were found. These sherds probably indicate vessels which were placed close to the fire in the kiln and were thus exposed to very high temperatures. To judge by the very small numbers of high-fired ceramics, this state of firing probably occurred accidentally.
Surface treatment refers to the final touches applied to the outside of a vessel by
the potter before firing (Hole et al. 1969:110). Originally a distinction was made between "surface treatment" and "exterior".
Exterior refers to the presence or absence of a wash or slip. The states of exterior
may appear in combination with one of the states of surface treatment and therefore separate recording was preferred in order to allow detailed investigation.
Table 43. Distribution of surface treatment by stratum (Hammam V)
296 AKKERMANS
Table 44. Distribution of surface treatment by phase (Hammam V).
% phase
V A V B
SCRAPED 96.9 51.U
SMOOTHED I.« 27.5
BURNISHED 1.7 21.6
The several states of surface treatment (smoothing, scraping, burnishing) and exterior (wash, slip) may need explanation. A definition of the various terms used is given in chapter 7. The various states of surface treatment and their frequency are shown in tables 43-44, whereas the distribution of exterior is presented in tables 45-46. The vast majority of Hammam V pottery had been scraped. Particulary in Hammam V A scraping is extremely abundant. About 96.9% of the Hammam V A pottery showed traces of scraping. In the next phase, Hammam V B, scraping sharply decreases to 51% of the pottery, but still remains the most common technique of finishing a vessel before firing. In Hammam V B both smoothing and burnishing become numerous. In the previous phase both techniques were unimportant.
Scraping is indicated by sharp striations on the vessel surface. Superfluous clay is removed by holding a scraping implement perpendicular or almost at a right angle to the surface. Usually this is done when the clay is leather-hard (Rye 1981:86). By scraping, coarse inclusions in the clay (e.g., plant fibres) are removed from their original position and produce deep lines or striations. Generally, the scraped vessel takes on a rough and irregular appearance.
Scraped vessels are extremely abundant in Hammam V A, marked by plant-tempered pottery. The increase of lime-plant-tempered ceramics in Hammam V B is accompanied by a sharp decline of scraped vessels and an increase of smoothed pottery. A close correlation thus exists between surface treatment and temper.
Burnishing is rare in Hammam V A, but constitutes a characteristic Hammam V B ceramic trait. In Hammam V A a group of red-orange slipped and burnished pottery appeared. Particularly in stratum 2a a relatively large amount was found. Red-slipped burnished ware consists of small plain-rim angle-necked jars and rather large bowls and pots with protruding flat rims (nos. 31, 32, 35). In the late Hammam V strata burnishing is limited to large bowls and hole-mouth pots (nos. 81, 83-85, 88, 89, 101-103). These vessels are mostly fired in a reducing atmosphere and conse-quently have a grey or black colour. The hole-mouth pots are all calcite-tempered (indicating cooking ware), whereas the bowls are either lime or plant-tempered. Burnishing is done by rubbing the leather-hard surface of a vessel with an implement (e.g., a piece of cloth). Burnishing will close the surface pores of the clay and creates a water-tight coating. Generally, burnishing is a very time-consuming technique and limited to hand-made vessels (Franken 1974:50).
Table 45. Distribution of exterior by stratum (Hammam V).
Count Ron % Column % Tot.l »
NONE 39 IJ96 21« III 91 23 75 I8»9 2.1 7 0 . 1 1 1 . 6 6.0 1.9 1.1 » . I 90.0 86.7 90.« 92.2 78.7 98.9 88.5 87.2 1.9 6 3 . 1 10.« 5 . « « . « 1 . 1 3 . 6 HASH 6 110 1« 2« 0 1 3 158 3.8 6 9 . 6 8.9 15.2 O Ü.6 1.9 7.7 1 3 . 3 7.7 6.0 17.0 0 3.8 3.5 0.3 5.« 0.7 1.2 0 Û.O 0.1 SLIP 0 27 « 6 0 2 8 «7 0 57.« 8.5 12.8 0 » . 3 '7.0 2 . 3 0 1.9 1.7 «.3 0 7.7 9.3 0 1.3 0.2 0.3 0 O.I 0.» OTHER 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 100.0 0 0 0 . 0 0 • 0 0 0 1 . 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 TOTAL »5 l«33 232 I«I 92 26 86 Î055 2.2 69.7 1 1 . 3 6.9 ».5 1.3 «.2 100.0
298 A K K E R M A N S
Table 46. Distribution of exterior by phase (Hammam V).
% phase
V A V B
WASH 8 . 3 2.0
SLIP
and reduces the permeability of the pottery, particularly when combined with burnishing (Shepard 1963:191). In Hammam V B particularly the grey or black burnished cooking pots gave evidence of a slip.
A wash is defined as a very thin, watery slip (Hole et al. 1969:110) and is closely related to self-slip. The wet-smoothing of a vessel may produce a wash (usually light-coloured). A wash is relatively common in Hammam V A, but occurs sporadically in the next phase V B.
Colour refers to the surface colour of a sherd or vessel. The range of colour of the
Hammam V pottery is limited to nine categories: cream, buff, orange, red, black, grey, green, white and brown. In the field a standard collection of sherds was used, which was assumed to comprise the main variation in colour. The range of colour of this standard collection was broadly defined by derivation from the Munsell Soil Color Charts (see chapter 2). By comparing a sherd to this standard collection, the state of colour was established in a general manner, based on the most obvious trend in colour visible on the sherd surface. Colour can vary considerably, even on the same vessel, due to various circumstances in the process of manufacture and subsequent preservation (Rye 1981:119). The relative distribution in time of the nine colours distinguished is presented in tables 47-48.
The majority of the Hammam V A pottery has an orange-coloured surface (64.4%). The preceding phase IV D already indicated a sharp increase in orange pottery. This trend towards orange-coloured ceramics in the first half of the fourth millennium B.C. can be related to changes in pottery production, reflected for instance in tempering materials and firing conditions. Generally, dark-coloured pottery indicates a short firing time. Prolonged firing of this pottery would produce lighter colours, i.e., buff or cream.
Table 47 Distribution of colour by stratum (Hammam V). Count Ruw % Column % l.'l.il % CfiEAM BUFF OMNCE Kt BLACK . K A Y GREEN «KITE BROWN TOTAL stratum 1 1 -,.1 11.1 0.7 IJ • ,1 ' 1.« 37.8 0.« 0 0 0 0 0 t 1.0 2.1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 «5 1. 1 2* 167 62.3 11.7 8.1 256 H.I . . . 12.5 9» 3 76.6 65.9 «6.0 17 «1.0 1.2 O.e 3 0.2 0.1 t 39. i '. i 1 33.3 0. 1 . IJ '.. . .'. < -! 20.0 0.1 0.1 l«îl 69.6 2b 3i 12.3 11.3 1.6 Kl i .' IT.I 2.0 l»b 11.6 63.0 7.1 3 1«.3 1 . 3 0. 1 1 1, : 0.» 0.0 6 6.2 2.6 0 0 D 1 20.0 0.« . 0 0 0 0 230 11.2 > " 9.0 17.0 1.2 33 • • . • 1 .... 1.6 ... I, It.« il. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1U1 6.9 5 12 ».5 13.0 0.6 27 1. 1.3 i 2.6 35.9 1.6 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 H 16.5 17.« 2 66.7 2.2 i 0 0 2 20.0 2.2 0.1 92 ».5 6 3 1. 1 11.5 0.1 6 • -23.1 0.3 6 0.5 23.1 0.3 0 0 0 2 1«, 7.7 0. 1 6 6.2 23.1 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 3 30.0 11.5 0. 1 26 1.3 » 15 .1 17.« 0.7 1 '- ' 15. i 0.6 1.) 0.9 1 1.8 0.0 5 «5.5 5.6 0.2 30 30.9 3«. 9 1.5 0 0 0 . 0 u 3 30.0 3.5 0. 1 86 «.2 total 268 13.1 384 19.0 I2«7 60.8 2l 1.0 11 0.5 » «. ; 3 . i 5 .. 10 0.5 2051 100.1
300 AKKERMANS
Table 48. Distribution of colour by phase (Hammam V).
% phase V Ä V B CREAM 12.9 l ^ . T 18.6 22.5 ORANGE 6H.lt 28.1 GRAY 2.H 25.5 BLACK 0.2 3.4 RED 1.1 0.5 GREEN 0.1 1.0 WHITE 0.3 0 BROWN 0.1 3.9
Buff and cream-coloured pottery together comprises about 31.5% of the Hammam V A pottery and about 37.2% of the Hammam V B pottery. Buff and cream coloured ceramics are almost equally distributed throughout the Hammam V period, suggesting that, beside the introduction of grey-black ware and the resulting decrease of orange pottery, no important alterations took place in Hammam V pottery production. Nevertheless, more detailed analysis of the Hammam V pottery has indicated some important trends, which clearly demonstrates the limited use of colour in explaining ceramic development. Colour only allows some broad inferences.
Decoration (pis. 97-98, 108-109) refers to the use of paint, incision or application
been painted. A general discussion of painting is found in chapter 7. Incision is hardly used as a technique of decoration. In Hammam V A two body sherds found in stratum 2a showed incision (nos. 17, 18), whereas in Hammam V B incision is limited to a small group of plain-rim hole-mouth vessels (no. 105).
Table 49. Distribution of painted and unpainted rim sherds by stratum (Hammam V).
Count Ron % Column % Total % UNTAINTED PAINTED TOTAL 440 2.2 93.0 2.2 3 11.3 . 0.2 •3 2.3 1256 68.7 99.» »T.» a 38 1 0.6 0.« 12644 68.3 221 12.1 99.1 11.9 2 9.5 0.9 0. 1 223 12.1 121 841 6.6 4 4 . 6 96 . 0 97.7 6.5 14.5 5 2 23.8 9.5 14.0 2 . 3 0. 3 o. l 126 86 6.8 44.6 241 1.3 100. 0 1.3 0 . 0 214 1.3 83 ».5 98.8 14.5 1 44.8 1.2 0.0 844 ».5 1829 98. 21 1. 1850 100.
Table 50. Distribution of painted and unpainted rim sherds by phase (Hammam V).
phase
V A V B
UNPAINTED 98.9 98.5
PAINTED 1 . 1 1.5
302 A K K E R M A N S
S T R A T A
(no. 12). More naturalistic designs also occur, e.g., the sprig pattern (no. 5) or tree motif (no. 16). These designs invite comparison with Gawra X I I . Tobler (1950:147) notes that the sprig pattern is probably restricted to stratum XII at Tepe Gawra (an example found in Gawra XIII is considered to be out of context). Unfortunately, the Hammam V A sherd with the sprig pattern was found in stratum 3. This last Hammam V A stratum is marked by an accumulation of floor levels, the exact nature of which remains vague. Based on this stratigraphie information and the relative chronological positioning of the Hammam V A ceramics in respect of the Gawra sequence, this Hammam V A sprig-patterned sherd is considered to be out of its proper context. The other naturalistically painted sherd, indicating a tree design, was found in stratum 2a and is considered to be in situ.
Stratum 1 yielded a relatively high percentage of painted pottery. Small sample size, however, will affect this percentage. A painted miniature vessel (no. 10) was found on the lime-plastered floor in stratum 1. In the succeeding strata 2a and 2b only a minute fraction of the pottery indicated painting (0.6% and 0.9% respecti-vely).
In Hammam V B a new style of painting is introduced. This Late Chalcolithic painted ware is marked by cross-hatched triangles and resembles the painted and incised wares of e.g., Habuba Kabira-South (Sürenhagen 1978). In Hammam V B only very little painted pottery appeared, which prevents any detailed investigation into the local style of decoration.
Table 51. Relative frequencies of major Hammam V pottery types.
Table 52. Sedation of rim and base shapes (Hammam V).
TtPE ILLUSTRATION NO.
PHASES STRATA V B 6 join 302« too? I0«6 3061 0030 .Mil» JO 35 ion 103» 2026 1022 1050 2005 30*5 200« 1013 3017 1014 1012 2009 2010 1007 2036 3053 -55 25-27 41 59.60 -31-36 «6 37 «0 19 39 7« «»,»5, 101-103 120-125 52,53 -111,111 91 76-78 106-106 105 IMf, 99-100 110
Typ«« pr«a«nt In virtually «U «trat« : WE 1LLUSTRATIOH MO.
1001 29, 30, «3, 81-85, 92-98 3003 »8-51
THESE TYPES ARE EXCLUDED FROM SERIATION.
RlM AND BASE SHAPE (pis. 97-1 10)
304 A K K E R M A N S
bowl, pot, jar) and therefore vessel shape is included in the typology. The combina-tion of both rim shape and vessel shape defines a "type".
In constructing a chronological framework for Hammam V ceramics the same routine was followed as for Hammam IV pottery (see chapter 7). By use of the Wilkinson AXIS method an incidence matrix was compiled based on presence or absence of pottery types defined (table 52). With the help of this incidence matrix a two-fold division was made of the Hammam V ceramic developoment into phase V A and phase V B (V A being the earliest). Although both phases show considerable difference in techniques of pottery manufacture and vessel shape, it should be stressed that no major breaks are present. Both phases are closely interrelated and give evidence of a continuous and gradual development. The same is true for the transition from period IV (Ubaid-related) to period V (Late Chalcolithic). The major trends observed in Hammam V had been launched in the preceding period IV.
RIM SHAPE
Hammam V A (strata 1-3). Hammam V A is marked by a large variety of pottery
types. The most important Hammam V A levels are included in strata 2a and 2b. Particularly stratum 2a is important, since it yielded a mass of pottery sealed inside a burnt building. The following stratum 2b represents an almost identical rebuilding of the previous house, which suggests a close temporal relationship between both strata. The last Hammam V A stratum 3 is less well-defined and consists of an accumulation of alternating loam layers and floors. Few architectural remains were found.
In stratum 2a Coba bowls were found on the floor in the main room of the burnt building, but they were particularly numerous in one of the side-rooms of this house. Their numerous presence in this side-room may indicate the storage of these bowls. The abundant appearance of Coba bowls points to a common everyday use. This is also suggested by the possible storage of these vessels; thus large quantities of bowls were immediately at hand. The very coarse fabric of the Coba bowls suggests that only little value was attached to these vessels. Probably reproduction was easy and cheap. Although different in shape, Coba bowls resemble Uruk bevelled-rim bowls by their process of manufacture and by their abundant appearance. Perhaps Coba bowls may be viewed as the northern Syrian counterparts of Mesopotamian bevelled-rim bowls (cf. Mellaart 1981:154). True Uruk ware is not found at Tell Hammam et-Turkman and was probably introduced at a later stage in the Balikh valley.
Plain-rim hemispherical bowls (type 1041; nos. 1-8, 20-22) are present in low but consistent numbers in all strata except stratum 7. Their absence in stratum 7 may be due to functional differences between the various strata; stratum 7 represents monumental niched architecture, probably with a public function, whereas the other strata all indicate domestic architecture. Plain-rim hemispherical bowls have a remarkably uniform distribution in strata 1, 2a and 2b. About 7.2% of the pottery sample in each of these strata indicates type 1041 bowls. These early Hammam V A strata are marked by large numbers of Coba bowls, which also are distributed in rather uniform numbers. A close relationship between both types of bowls is suggested. The present data point to a close temporal connection between strata 1 to 2b and to the performance of identical activities in these strata.
Generally, plain-rim hemispherical bowls may be described as simply hand-made and plant-and-lime tempered. Most vessels show dark cores and traces of scraping. The colour is orange or cream-buff. The rim diameter ranges between 10 and 21 cm, whereas the thickness of the vessel wall ranges from 5 to 11 mm (7 mm being the most common). Most bowls are closed or slightly contracted near the rim. Flaring vessels, which were common in the preceding Hammam IV period, are virtually absent. A small number of these bowls (4.1%) was painted in late Northern Ubaid style. In contrast to the crudely made Coba bowls, plain-rim hemispherical bowls are carefully made. Interesting is the quantity of lime used as tempering material. Although plant-and-lime temper is most common, the amount of lime relative to plant inclusions is remarkably larger in plain-rim hemispherical bowls than in all other pottery types.
306 A K K E R M A N S
relative frequency of bead-rim vessels is closely related to the distribution of Coba bowls; the rapid decline of Coba bowls in stratum 3 and their final disappearance in the next strata is accompanied by a sharp increase of bead-rim vessels. Apparently both vessels partially fulfilled the same task in domestic activities. In Hammam V A Coba bowls were favoured but in Hammam V B bead-rim vessels took over their role. In general bead-rim bowls and pots are hand-made and show dark cores. Most vessels have been plant or plant-and-lime tempered. The vast majority is scraped and shows an orange or buff colour. The diameter ranges between 13 and 26 cm, whereas the thickness of the vessel wall varies from 5 to 22 mm (7 to 10 mm being the most common). In size bead-rim vessels indicate a large internal variability.
Hammam V pottery is characterized by a series of very large bowls, which show a strong variability in rim shape. In Hammam V A most of these wide bowls are found in strata 2a-3. They indicate either a slightly rounded or flattened rim (type 1011; no. 37), a straight outward bevelled rim (type 1046; no. 41), an outward bevelled rim with a gutter (type 1034; no. 40) or an inward bevelled rim with a gutter (type 1022; nos. 38, 39). All of these bowls occur only in minute numbers and are limited in distribution to Hammam V A.
A characteristic Hammam V A shape is represented by the type 1004 bowls (nos. 31-36). These vessels are marked by a protruding rim showing a large variability. Generally a two-fold division in rim shape is possible: a protruding hammer-shaped profile (nos. 31-33) and a protruding anvil-shaped profile (nos. 34-36). The latter usually shows a flattened rim and a carination just underneath it. By their carination these vessels resemble the Hammam V B type 1017 bowls. Some of the protruding-rim bowls show signs of burnishing. In Hammam V A burnishing is a very rare ceramic trait and virtually limited to these vessels. The type 1004 bowls are not found any more in Hammam V B.
A new but rare bowl shape is represented by the type 1026 strainer (no. 19). A few fragments were found in the strata 2a-3. These strainers are coarsely made and irregularly pierced.
of temper also occur. Most vessels are scraped and show a light surface colour (buff-cream). Remarkably many of these vessels are medium-fired, i.e., they show no dark core. In Hammam V B, however, some important alterations take place. Invariably the Hammam V B bead-rim hole-mouth pots are calcite-tempered and show a black or grey, often burnished surface. They have been fired under reducing conditions, which is a rare technique at Tell Hammam et-Turkman and limited in use to few shapes (bead-rim hole-mouth pots and wide bead-rim bowls).
Jars indicate a large variability in rim shape. Eight major jar rim types are distinguished. Each type shows a strong internal diversity. Both shape and size may vary.
Plain-rim angle-necked jars (type 3003; nos. 48-5I) are present in low numbers throughout the Hammam V period. They never account for more than a few percent of the pottery sample by stratum. Plain-rim angle-necked jars are already found in Hammam IV and constitute a common shape in the prehistoric strata at Tell Hammam et-Turkman. In stratum 2a and 2b only few plain-rim angle-necked jars were found in these strata bead-rim angle-necked jars are slightly more preponde-rant. No plain-rim jars were found in the last Hammam V A stratum 3.
A special variant of the plain-rim angle-necked jar is indicated by nos. 55-58. A few of these vessels were found in strata 2a-3. They are marked by a rather square, bevelled rim. Another plain-rim jar shape is represented by the type 2008 jars (nos. 52, 53). These rather large jars are marked by straight or slightly closed necks with simple rounded lips. A few fragments of these vessels were found in the strata 2a-2b. They are also found in the next phase V B.
Bead-rim angle-necked jars (type 3039; nos. 60-64) are closely related to the plain-rim jars. Generally an increase or decrease of one of these types is accompanied by a reverse development in the opposite type. Bead-rim jars were present in low quantities in Hammam V A (varying between 0% and 4.7% of the ceramcic sample per stratum). Bead-rim jars were also a common Hammam IV jar shape. In general, bead-rim jars are marked by pronounced outrolled lips. They show a large internal variability. Both large and short collars appear and the junction between body and neck may be sharp or slightly rounded. The diameter of these vessels ranges between 12 and 40 cm (20-21 cm being the most common) and the thickness of vessel walls varies between 7 and 23 mm (9-11 mm being the most numerous).
A separate group of bead-rim angle-necked jars is represented by the type 3081 jars (no. 59). These very large jars with tall collars and flaring necks appeared for the first time in Hammam IV D.
308 A K K E R M A N S
Hammam V B (strata 5-7). Hammam V B ceramics are closely related to those of
the preceding phase V A. However, many characteristic Hammam V A types are not found any more in Hammam V B and several new types are introduced. Unfortuna-tely a relatively small amount of Hammam V B ceramics is available for analysis. Nevertheless, some important trends and changes are indicated by this material. The last Hammam V B stratum, 7, is marked by monumental public architecture, not found in any of the preceding strata. The assumed performance of specific public activities in this building may be reflected by functional differences in the use of pottery.
Plain-rim bowls occur in rather small quantities in the Hammam V B strata. Coba bowls are not found any more. A new type of plain-rim bowls was already introduced in the last Hammam V A stratum 3 (type 1072; nos. 68, 71). These vessels are less coarse than their Hammam V A counterparts. They show a rather large variability in tempering materials, although plant inclusions are the most common. Most vessels have dark cores. A few burnished examples have been found. The diameter ranges between 17 and 27 cm, whereas the thickness of the vessel wall varies between 7 and 11 mm. Generally, about 8.5% of the ceramic sample by stratum indicates type 1072 plain-rim bowls. Only in stratum 5 is this percentage larger (22.8%).The fine and more carefully produced type 1041 plain-rim hemisphe-rical bowls are present in very small quantities when compared with the previous strata. Only 2% of the Hammam V B ceramic sample indicatess small plain-rim hemispherical bowls. They are absent in stratum 7.
The most common bowl type in Hammam V B is represented by the type 1001 bead-rim vessels (nos. 81-85, 92-98). About 37.3% of the recovered rim sherds in Hammam V B indicated bead rims. In Hammam V A the number of bead rims accounted for only 6.4%. It is suggested that bead-rim vessels took over the role of the Coba bowls in daily household activities.
Bead-rim vessels show a large variability. Some of these vessels point to small outrolled lips (nos. 97, 98), whereas others show slightly flattened (no.94) or overhanging rims (nos. 93, 95). Bases are rounded and sometimes pierced (nos. 84, 96). One of the large bowls carried a potter's mark (no. 96).
A special group of bead-rim vessels is shown by nos. 81-85. These large bowls are marked by a carination just underneath the rim and usually they are grey-black burnished. Pronounced outrolled lips are common, but flattened examples also occur (no. 85). These flattened rims are a characteristic Hammam V B trait. Most of these grey-black burnished bowls were found in stratum 7.
vessels display protruding rims (no. 80) or square, flat rims (type 1011; no. 79). A variant of these shows a ridge (no. 90). A common Hammam V B bowl shape is indicated by type 1012 bowls (nos. 76-78), consisting of deep vessels with infolded, bevelled lips. Another characteristic shape is represented by the wide type 1007 bowls (nos. 86-89). These vessels were built up in coils; afterwards the lower part of the vessel was smoothed. Most of these vessels have a cream or gray colour and have been burnished.
Hole-mouth pots are present in several shapes. The most common pot is represen-ted by type 2005 vessels (nos. 101-104), characterized by a "stretched" or flattened bead rim. A few of these vessels are knobbed. Virtually all of these hole-mouth pots were calcite-tempered. They have a grey or black colour and have been fired in a reducing atmosphere. Burnishing is common. In view of their shape and process of manufacture these vessels are considered to represent cooking ware.
A new type of hole-mouth pots is indicated by type 2010 vessels (no. 105), marked by a plain rim and one or more grooves just underneath it. Some of these vessels were burnished.
Other new pot shapes in Hammam V B are shown by type 2036 and type 2009 vessels. Small type 2036 pots (nos. 99-100) are marked by a pinched rim. They were found only in stratum 7. Type 2009 pots (nos. 106-109) indicate a rather thick-set shape with simple plain rims and a sharp curve in the vessel wall. These vessels occur in low numbers throughout phase V B.
Jars are present in low numbers in the Hammam V B strata. However, only a slight decrease in jar frequency is noted in comparison with Hammam V A (in Hammam V A about 8.3% of the ceramic sample indicated jars, whereas in Hammam V B this percentage was reduced to 7.9%). Jars show a large variability in rim shape, most shapes occurring only once or twice. Very large and low-collared vessels with simple rounded rims are most common (nos. 120-125). These low-neck vessels appear for the first time in the later part of the Hammam IV sequence (Hammam IV D). They are rather common in Hammam V A and in Hammam V B they also constitute a characteristic part of the pottery repertoire. In comparison with the previous phases, the Hammam V B low-collared jars display a much larger variety.
A few fragments of the large and coarsely made type 3044 jar with bevelled rim (no. 126) were found in stratum 5.
Large angle-necked jars with bead rims are still present (type 3039; no. 118), but in extremely low numbers. A complete vessel was found in one of the side-rooms of the monumental niched building in stratum 7. This jar is marked by a short neck and an ovoid body with a rounded, pierced base.
310 AKKF.RMANS
new types of small angle-necked jars are introduced. No. 110 represents a jar with a vertical-faced rim (type 3024). One fragment was found in stratum 7. Another shape is shown by nos. 111-112. This type 3047 jar is marked by an everted or slightly beaked rim. One example was painted. These jars were only found in stratum 5.
In the main room of the monumental niched building partly uncovered in stratum 7 several large pottery pipes or drains were found (no. 115). Most of them were lying in or near the niches, some distance above the floor. Their exact function and position in the stratum 7 building (e.g., as drain pipes along the roof?) remains unknown.
BASF. SHAPE
The sample of Hammam V base sherds ( n = 158) is much smaller than the sample of rim sherds (n= 1837). This is mainly due to the scarcity of vessels with clearly demarcated bases. The gradually curving bases of most pottery types made it difficult to separate base fragments from body sherds.
Two types of Hammam V bases are distinguished: flat bases and round bases. Only few round bases were recognized. However, based on negative evidence, i.e. the absence of sufficiently large numbers of recognizable base sherds (flat, round or other) in comparison with the number of recovered rim sherds, it is assumed that rounded bases were by far the most common Hammam V base shape.
Flat bases were found particularly in Hammam V A. Most flat bases are coarsely scraped and display dark cores. Colour is usually orange-brown. The diameter of the bases ranges between 5 and 12 cm, whereas the thickness varies between 4 and 15 mm. Most flat bases could be ascribed to the characteristic Hammam V A Coba bowls.
No ring bases were found. Ring bases were found in low numbers throughout the preceding Hammam IV period, but they are absent in Hammam V.
CHRONOLOGY AND COMPARISONS (table 53)
First a summary of the period V ceramic sequence at Tell Hammam et-Turkman is given below.
sherds are, at least partially, plant-tempered (about 96.6%). Decoration is rare. Only 1.1% of the Hammam V A rim sherds indicate painting. The few painted sherds show late Northern Ubaid influences. Many new types of pottery are introduced, although several shapes suggest close links to the later part of the preceding Hammam IV period (Hammam IV C-IV D). Particularly the coarse Coba bowls are preponderant in Hammam V A. This characteristic vessel accounts for 60.1% of the ceramic sample in Hammam V A.
In many aspects. Hammam V A is clearly an outgrowth of Hammam IV C-IV D developments. Both in stratigraphical and cultural terms no major break can be observed. Hammam V A represents the culmination of late Hammam IV trends towards cheap and large-scale ceramic production. Until now Hammam V remains have only been excavated within a very limited area at Tell Hammam et-Turkman. However, future extension of the area of excavation is expected to yield important evidence for pottery production on an almost industrial scale, which is no doubt also reflected in other spheres of cultural development.
The subsequent Hammam V B phase is closely related to Hammam V A. Many Hammam V A pottery types are still found, but many new types are also introdu-ced. Coba bowls are no longer found. Wide bowls and grey-black, often burnished, hole-mouth vessels are common.
The majority of the pottery is plant-tempered. Nevertheless, an important decline is visible in plant-tempered ceramics when compared with the previous phase. In Hammam V A about 96.6% of the pottery indicated the presence of vegetable inclusions, whereas in Hammam V B this percentage is reduced to 60.3%. Mineral-tempered ceramics become increasingly important. It should be noted that all states of temper applied in Hammam V B were already in use in Hammam V A, but that the relative frequencies have changed markedly. The vast majority of Hammam V B pottery fragments show dark cores, which is a characteristic Hammam V ceramic trait. "Medium"-fired ceramics increase slightly in importance. New in Hammam V B is the presence of a large amount of pottery which was fired in a reducing atmosphere. This grey or black coloured and often burnished pottery comprises only few shapes, viz. large, wide bowls and hole-mouth pots with bead rims. Scraping sharply decreases in Hammam V B. In the preceding phase, V A, about 96.9% of the ceramic sample gave evidence of scraping, whereas in Hammam V B this percentage is reduced to about 51%. Hammam V B pottery is largely smoothed. Decoration is rare. Only 1.5% of the Hammam V B rim sherds carry painted decoration. A new style of painting is introduced, marked by simple, cross-hatched designs.
312 A K K E R M A N S
Hammam V pottery resembles the Chaff-Faced Simple Ware of the Amuq F period (Braidwood and Braidwood 1960:232ff.), but it will be shown here that the Amuq F pottery is contemporary to the Hammam V B phase only. Nevertheless, its general features do hold also for the preceding phase V A ceramics.
The main shape in Hammam V A is represented by the so-called Coba bowls. These coarse, hand-made (or perhaps moulded) vessels occur in large quantities, particularly in the strata 2a-2b. Coba bowls are widely distributed (cf. Brown 1967:132). Recent field work in Turkey has attested the presence of these vessels at numerous sites in related valleys throughout southeastern Anatolia. In the Keban, excavations at Norsun Tepe yielded Coba bowl-like bowls, described as "spät-chalkolithische Besenstrichware" (Hauptmann 1972:115). At the adjacent site of Korucutepe "wiped" or "flint-scraped" pottery is reported in the second half of the Late Chalcolithic phase B (Brandt 1978:59), but no true Coba bowls seem to be present. Moreover, by some close parallels in rim shape this phase B at Korucutepe is linked to post-Coba phase V B at Tell Hammam et-Turkman. Comparable pottery was found during surveys at several sites in the Karakaya-Karababa regions (ozdogan 1977). In the Karababa valley, excavations at Hayaz Höyük yielded numerous fragments of Coba bowls and bead-rim vessels. Two radiocarbon dates from level 5 at Hayaz Höyük pointed to a date around 3600 B.C. for the Coba bowls and related ware (Thissen 1985:84).
Earlier excavations in southeastern Turkey have indicated the presence of these bowls at Mersin and at Sakce Gözü/Coba Höyük (the term "Coba bowls" is derived from the latter site). At Mersin, rough "flint-scraped" pottery is reported in level XIII-XIIB (Garstang 1953:174). However, a corrugated vessel (ibid., fig. 120, 123:4), found in level XIII, suggests a Hammam V B date for these levels. It should be noted that levels X I V - X I I I have been heavily disturbed by pits; mixing of material from various deposits is possible.
