The T r i u m p h of the ' Mu nro S y s t e m 1 . The d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s of the
E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y
w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e to the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of M a d r a s , 1 7 9 0 - 1 8 2 7 .
by
H u g o C h a r l e s B r e i t m e y e r
T h e s i s S u b m i t t e d for the D e g r e e of PhD.
U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n , 1984.
S c h o o l of O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s .
ProQuest N um ber: 11015871
All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The q u a lity of this re p ro d u c tio n is d e p e n d e n t u p o n the q u a lity of the c o p y s u b m itte d . In the unlikely e v e n t that the a u th o r did not send a c o m p le te m a n u s c rip t and there are missing p a g e s , these will be n o te d . Also, if m a te ria l had to be re m o v e d ,
a n o te will in d ic a te the d e le tio n .
uest
P roQ uest 11015871
Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). C o p y rig h t of the Dissertation is held by the A u tho r.
All rights reserved.
This work is p ro te c te d a g a in s t u n a u th o riz e d c o p y in g under Title 17, United States C o d e M icro fo rm Edition © ProQuest LLC.
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346
1
A B S T R A C T OF T H E S I S .
T h e p u r p o s e of this s t u d y is an a n a l y s i s of the
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s y s t e m of the Eas t I n d i a C o m p a n y f r o m 178 0 to 1 8 2 7 w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e to the M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y . The q u e s t i o n s e x a m i n e d are all e s s e n t i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s , b o t h in L o n d o n an d in M a d r a s . H o w d i d the d i f f e r e n t b o d i e s w h o t o g e t h e r a d m i n i s t e r e d I n d i a r e l a t e to e a c h othe r? H o w w e r e p o l i c i e s c o n c e i v e d , a d o p t e d an d i m p l e m e n t e d ? To w h a t e x t e n t w e r e the f o r m a l , o f f i c i a l c h a n n e l s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n and a u t h o r i t y a d h e r e d to,
b y e - p a s s e d or s i m p l y i g n o r e d ? C o u l d i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n the C o m p a n y i n f l u e n c e its p o l i c i e s and, if so, w h a t m e t h o d s m i g h t t he y e m p l o y ?
The d e v e l o p m e n t s tha t o c c u r r e d in the C o m p a n y ' s r e v e n u e and j u d i c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s in M a d r a s d u r i n g a p e r i o d of
B r i t i s h e x p a n s i o n an d c o n s o l i d a t i o n h a v e b e e n s e l e c t e d for this s t u d y . The ideas b e h i n d the P e r m a n e n t S e t t l e m e n t of B e n g a l and the r e a s o n s for e x t e n d i n g it int o the t e r r i t o r i e s of M a d r a s are e x a m i n e d t o g e t h e r w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of the V i l l a g e L e a s e and R y o t w a r i S y s t e m s in S o u t h India.
S i m i l a r l y , the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the C o r n w a l l i s L e g a l S y s t e m in t o M a d r a s and the s u b s e q u e n t a t t e m p t s to m o d i f y it are i n v e s t i g a t e d .
At the same time, the r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the i n t e r a c t i n g c o m p o n e n t s of the B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of I n d i a are
s c r u t i n i s e d . W i t h i n this c o n t e x t , a n u m b e r of i n t e r e s t or p r e s s u r e g r o u p s in c e n t r e s as far a p a r t as M a d r a s ,
W e s t m i n s t e r and the C o m p a n y ' s h e a d q u a r t e r s in L e a d e n h a l l S t r e e t are i d e n t i f i e d and t h e i r i m p a c t on the C o m p a n y ' s p o l i c i e s e v a l u a t e d .
B e c a u s e of the c e n t r a l r o l e t h a t he c a m e to p l a y in the d e b a t e s an d the s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e he e x e r c i s e d on the l o c al and h o m e a u t h o r i t i e s , the c a r e e r of T h o m a s M u n r o has b e e n e m p l o y e d to c h a r t the d e v e l o p m e n t s in the C o m p a n y ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and the c h a n g e s in its s t r u c t u r e and
p o l i c i e s . In the c o u r s e of the c l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n of M u n r o 1s c a r e e r for the l i g ht it s h e d s on t h e s e and the
d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s of the B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of India, o t h e r a s p e c t s of the C o m p a n y ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n are al s o a n a l y s e d , in p a r t i c u l a r r e c r u i t m e n t an d p r o m o t i o n in its s e r v i c e s . The o p e r a t i o n of p a t r o n a g e and i n f l u e n c e on c a r e e r s t r u c t u r e s is e v a l u a t e d and a n u m b e r of c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t the w a y s in w h i c h the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s b u r e a u c r a c y was s t a f f e d and o p e r a t e d ar e d r a w n . In a d d i t i o n , the
a t t e m p t s by the C o m p a n y to i n t r o d u c e a c o h e r e n t t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e for its e m p l o y e e s in India, e s p e c i a l l y the
a t t e m p t s to e n c o u r a g e its c i v i l s e r v a n t s to m a s t e r the local l a n g u a g e s and the i m p a c t of t h e s e on a p p o i n t m e n t s , are
e x a m i n e d .
L a s t l y , in the c o u r s e of this study, a g e n e r a l s u r v e y of the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the B r i t i s h and the I n d i a n r u l e r s and
p e o p l e s of S o u t h I n d i a b e t w e e n 179 0 and 1 8 2 7 e m e r g e s . The r e s e a r c h of v a r i o u s a u t h o r s on d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of the h i s t o r y of S o u t h I n d i a and of the C o m p a n y in B r i t a i n d u r i n g
this p e r i o d are b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r .
The t h e s i s is b a s e d on r e s e a r c h into a w i d e r a n g e of
c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e s , o f f i c i a l and u n o f f i c i a l , i n c l u d i n g the M u n r o P a p e r s .
3
6
.
1 2
.
43.
92.
165.
217.
300.
339 .
383 .
397 . 422 . 473.
C O N T E N T S .
I n t r o d u c t i o n .
C h a p t e r One - The B a c k g r o u n d :
The F o r m a l O r g a n i z a t i o n of the Eas t India C o m p a n y . C h a p t e r Two - The F o r m a t i v e Years:
M u n r o ' s C h i l d h o o d and E a r l y C a r e e r .
C h a p t e r T h r e e - The F o u n d a t i o n s of the 'Munro System' Rea d and M u n r o in the B a r a m a h a l , 1 7 9 2 - 9 9 .
C h a p t e r F o u r - The E m e r g e n c e of Mu n r o : M u n r o in K a n a r a , 1 7 9 9 - 1 8 0 0 .
C h a p t e r F i v e - The E c l i p s e of the 'New S c h o o l ' : M u n r o in the C e d e d D i s t r i c t s , 1 8 0 0 - 0 8 .
C h a p t e r Six - The R e - e m g e r e n c e of M u nro :
M u n r o ' s I n f l u e n c e on the Home A u t h o r i t i e s , 1 8 0 9 - 1 4 . C h a p t e r S e v e n - The T r i u m p h of the 'Munro S yst em':
M u n r o ' s S p e c i a l C o m i s s i o n e r s h i p , 1 8 1 4 - 1 8 .
C h a p t e r E i g h t - The P a s s i n g of the 'New Sch oo l ' : M u n r o ' s G o v e r n o r s h i p of M a d r a s , 1 8 1 9 - 2 7 .
C h a p t e r N i n e - The C o n c l u s i o n . R e f e r e n c e s .
B i b l i o g r a p h y .
A m a p of the d i s t r i c t s of the M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y in S o u t h India, 1825.
A d i a g r a m s h o w i n g the f o r m a l a c c o u n t a b i l i t y s t r u c t u r e of the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y b e f o r e and a f t e r 1784.
A d i a g r a m of the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e of the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y .
A m a p of S o u t h I n d i a s h o w i n g the t e r r i t o r i e s of the B a r a m a h a l and C e d e d D i s t r i c t s .
A d i a g r a m of the s t r u c t u r e of R e a d ' s i n i t i a l v i l l a g e s e t t l e m e n t s in the B a r a m a h a l D i s t r i c t .
A d i a g r a m of the s t r u c t u r e of the i n d i v i d u a l l e a s e s y s t e m i n t r o d u c e d by R e a d i n t o the B a r a m a h a l D i s t r i c t .
A d i a g r a m of the s t r u c t u r e of the r y o t w a r i s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m i n t r o d u c e d by R e a d into the B r a m a h a l D i s t r i c t . A d i a g r a m s h o w i n g the f o r m a l and
i n f o r m a l c h a n n e l s of a c c e s s to the
C o u r t of D i r e c t o r s and B o a r d of C o n t r o l .
5 M A P 1.
MADRAS P R E S ID E N C Y
96 96
J
. -
i /•K urnul > |
e 1 *
S - - . v r -.J
r-, C \ •
./' ~ W J ,r;c"“ “V \ , L.
i * t 1
t v
MYSORE
Bongok^o
'' • /
V . *G \
A l
v --S. --of 13
16 . , •
V 17 1J N f
Calicut \ v-^7 ».___ ,» . V
<• •
Counbatof* Trinchmqpoi/
• > r..- .H • .20
L, ' • * v ' . ' J & n j o r t
% \ /" V, -■
i j •'"•■__ i/C--. J C
21
Cochin j 'hUdii
A
ipoUm
Cuddalor*
N
jT
27
D I S T R I C T S
W
1. CANJAM
2. VIZACAPATAM
3. CODAVARI
4. KISTNA
5. KURNUL
6. BELLARY
7 ANANTAPUR
6. CUDDAPAH
9. NELLORE
10. CHINCLEPUT
U . MADRAS
12. NORTH ARCOT
11. SOUTH ARCOT
14. SALEM
IS. COIMBATORE
lb. NILC1R1
17 MALABAR
is. SOUTH KANARA
19. TRINCHINOPOLY
20. TANJORE
21. MADURA
22. TINNEVELLY
S
* n t r oc*uc ? n :
In his s t u d y of M u n r o ' s c a r e e r T H B e a g l e h o l e d e s c r i b e d the d e v e l o p m e n t of the r y o t w a r i s y s t e m of r e v e n u e s e t t l e m e n t and the c h a n g e s w h i c h w e r e i n t r o d u c e d into the E a s t I n dia
1
C o m p a n y ' s j u d i c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in M a d r a s . He was
p r i n c i p a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in t r a c i n g the m a n n e r in w h i c h 'a s y s t e m of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n e m e r g e d (in M a d r a s ) in m a n y way s
2 m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d in Be n g a l ' . C o r r e c t l y a s s e s s i n g the i m p o r t a n c e of the p a r t p l a y e d by T h o m a s M u n r o in this p r o c e s s , B e a g l e h o l e u s e d his c a r e e r as the f r a m e w o r k of r e f e r e n c e in w h i c h to p l a c e his s t u d y of h o w a b o d y of ideas on a d m i n i s t r a t i o n g r e w up and was e v e n t u a l l y a d o p t e d . H o w e v e r , at the time that he was
w r i t i n g , the M u n r o P a p e r s w e r e no t a v a i l a b l e to h i s t o r i a n s and it t h e r e f o r e p r o v e d i m p o s s i b l e for B e a g l e h o l e to a c h i e v e his p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e s . He was u n a b l e to a n a l y s e the w a y in w h i c h M u n r o ' s ideas d e v e l o p e d or the m a n n e r in w h i c h they w e r e a d o p t e d as a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o l i c y by the h o m e
g o v e r n m e n t . In c o n s e q u e n c e , B e a g l e h o l e ' s r e s e a r c h lef t u n a n s w e r e d a n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g the o p e r a t i o n s of the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y , in p a r t i c u l a r ones c o n c e r n i n g the m e t h o d s e m p l o y e d by i n d i v i d u a l s and p a r t i e s to i n f l u e n c e p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s and t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t
7
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . D e a l i n g a l m o s t e n t i r e l y w i t h the f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s of the C o m p a n y w h i c h w e r e r e c o r d e d in the o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s , he e x a m i n e d the c o n t r o v e r s i e s w h i c h d i v i d e d the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in the term s of c o n f l i c t s of ideas r a t h e r tha n of p e r s o n a l i t i e s and a m b i t i o n s . He
t h e r e f o r e d e v o t e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n to the p r i v a t e m o t i v e s b e h i n d i n d i v i d u a l s ' a d v o c a c y of s p e c i f i c p o l i c i e s and
c o n s e q u e n t l y p r o d u c e d a s o m e w h a t o v e r s i m p l i f i e d p i c t u r e of e v e n t s .
Some of the q u e s t i o n s w h i c h w e r e i n c o m p l e t e l y a n a l y s e d in B e a g l e h o l e ' s b o o k had a l r e a d y b e e n f u l l y e x a m i n e d by C H P h i l i p s in his s t u d y of the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s ho me
3
g o v e r n m e n t . In the c o u r s e of a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t of the o r g a n i z a t i o n , a c t i v i t i e s and i n f l u e n c e of the home
g o v e r n m e n t , this b o o k had t h r o w n c o n s i d e r a b l e l i ght on the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s of the C o m p a n y in B r i t a i n . In p a r t i c u l a r , it i l l u s t r a t e d h o w p o w e r f u l g r o u p s w e r e f o r m e d for the p r o m o t i o n of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s and the i n f l u e n c e th ese had on h o w p o l i c i e s w e r e f o r m u l a t e d and w h i c h w er e a d o p t e d . H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e P h i l i p s was p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the o p e r a t i o n s of the h o m e a u t h o r i t i e s and r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the B o a r d of C o n t r o l an d the C o u r t of D i r e c t o r s , he was u n a b l e to d e v o t e as m u c h a t t e n t i o n as they d e s e r v e to
the c h a n g e s w h i c h took p l a c e in the M a d r a s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
It is the p u r p o s e of this s t u d y to a t t e m p t a n e w a n a l y s i s of the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s y s t e m of the E as t I n d i a C o m p a n y f ro m 1780 to 182 7 w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e to M a d r a s in the hop e of a c h i e v i n g a c l e a r e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h o w d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g
the a l l o c a t i o n of r e s o u r c e s and the s e l e c t i v e a d o p t i o n of v a l u e s w e r e r e a c h e d . W h i l e P h i l i p s was p r i n c i p a l l y c o n c e r n e d
'to e s t i m a t e the i n f l u e n c e e x e r t e d by the h o m e
g o v e r n m e n t . . . on B r i t i s h p o l i c y in I n d i a 1 , 'to a s s e s s the r e l a t i v e v a l u e and i m p o r t a n c e of the p a r t s p l a y e d by these a u t h o r i t i e s ' and to a n a l y s e the i n f l u e n c e of E a s t India
4
i n t e r e s t s in B r i t a i n on the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of India, this s t u d y i n t e n d s to c o n c e n t r a t e on a n a l y s i n g the i n f l u e n c e that m e n w o r k i n g in the M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y had on the a c t i v i t i e s and d e c i s i o n s of b o t h the l oc al and h o m e a u t h o r i t i e s . In the c o u r s e of this i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n u m b e r of g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n s are e x a m i n e d , all of w h i c h are e s s e n t i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s . H o w did the d i f f e r e n t b o d i e s w h o t o g e t h e r a d m i n i s t e r e d I n d i a r e l a t e to e a c h ot h e r ? H o w w e r e p o l i c i e s c o n c e i v e d , a d o p t e d and i m p l e m e n t e d ? To w h a t e x t e n t was the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n the f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e of the C o m p a n y and the o f f i c i a l c h a n n e l s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n and a u t h o r i t y a d h e r e d to, b y e - p a s s e d or s i m p l y i g n o r e d ? H o w far did i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n the C o m p a n y
i n f l u e n c e its p o l i c i e s and w h a t m e t h o d s did th e y e m p l o y in t h e i r a t t e m p t s to do so? W h a t w e r e the f a c t o r s w h i c h
g o v e r n e d t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s and the c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r s u p p o r t or o p p o s i t i o n to n e w idea s?
In o r d e r to m a k e this a n a l y s i s of the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g
p r o c e s s , a f r a m e w o r k of r e f e r e n c e s i m i l a r to B e a g l e h o l e ' s is e m p l o y e d i n s o f a r as the c a r e e r of T h o m a s M u n r o is c l o s e l y e x a m i n e d . T h e r e is som e j u s t i f i c a t i o n for a p p r o a c h i n g the q u e s t i o n s f r o m this an g l e . F i r s t , the s t u d y of M u n r o ' s c a r e e r r e v e a l s m u c h a b o u t the w a y s in w h i c h the E a s t India
C o m p a n y ' s b u r e a u c r a c y wa s s t a f f e d and o p e r a t e d . S e c o n d l y , it i l l u s t r a t e s the e x t e n t to w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s c o u l d i n f l u e n c e p o l i c y as w e l l as the p r i n c i p a l m e a n s by w h i c h t h e y did so.
T h i r d l y , it s u p p l i e s n e w i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the i n f l u e n c e and i n t e r a c t i o n s of the m a n y p a r t i e s or i n t e r e s t s w h i c h f o r m e d in c e n t r e s as far a p a r t as M a d r a s , W e s t m i n s t e r and the C o m p a n y ' s h e a d q u a r t e r s in L e a d e n h a l l S t r e e t . L a s t b u t n o t leas t, a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e e m e r g e s of the e v e n t s w h i c h
d o m i n a t e d an i m p o r t a n t and f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d of B r i t i s h r u l e in I n di a in an a r e a w h i c h has h i t h e r t o b e e n i n c o m p l e t e l y r e s e a r c h e d .
In c h a p t e r one the f o r m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e of the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y is a n a l y s e d . Its c o n s t i t u t i o n , the
r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the v a r i o u s b o d i e s w h i c h c o m p o s e d it, the c h a i n s of a u t h o r i t y and c h a n n e l s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n are d e s c r i b e d . In the s e c o n d c h a p t e r M u n r o ' s c h i l d h o o d an d e a r l y c a r e e r in I n d i a are e x a m i n e d . The
e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h ha d a f o r m a t i v e i n f l u e n c e on his c h a r a c t e r and i d e o l o g y and so c o n d i t i o n e d his r e s p o n s e s to e v e n t s and his p e r c e p t i o n of his e n v i r o n m e n t a re i n v e s t i g a t e d . C h a p t e r s t h r e e and f o u r t r a c e the e a r l y d e v e l o p m e n t of the ideas
b e h i n d the p o l i c i e s w h i c h , w h e n e v e n t u a l l y a d o p t e d , w e r e to f o r m w h a t b e c o m e k n o w n as the M u n r o S y s t e m . In c h a p t e r fiv e the f i r s t a t t e m p t s to h a v e t h e s e i d eas a d o p t e d as o f f i c i a l p o l i c y are r e v i e w e d . F r o m t h e s e c h a p t e r s a p i c t u r e e m e r g e s of the f o r m a l an d i n f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s of the M a d r a s
G o v e r n m e n t . T h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e of p e r s o n a l as o p p o s e d to p o l i c y f a c t o r s in d e c i s i o n m a k i n g is r e v e a l e d . The r o l e of p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s s u c h as c a r e e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , the
d e s i r e for w e a l t h , s t a t u s , i n f l u e n c e and a u t h o r i t y , and i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h e x t e r n a l i n t e r e s t s as m o t i v a t i n g f o r c e s b e h i n d i n d i v i d u a l s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the C o m p a n y ' s p o l i t i c s is e v a l u a t e d . In c h a p t e r six the e v e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g M u n r o ' s f i r s t v i s i t to B r i t a i n , d u r i n g w h i c h he w a s i n s t r u m e n t a l in g e t t i n g s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s m a d e in the r e v e n u e and j u d i c i a l p o l i c i e s of the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y , are d e s c r i b e d . T h e s e t h r o w n e w l i ght on the r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the b o d i e s
w h i c h t o g e t h e r c o m p o s e d the h o m e a u t h o r i t i e s . C h a p t e r s s e v e n and eight, w h i c h deal w i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the M u n r o S y s t e m into M a d r a s , a n a l y s e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the h om e and lo cal g o v e r n m e n t s . In the c o n c l u s i o n the i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s of the C o m p a n y ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d its o p e r a t i o n s and had a c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p a c t on the
d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s d u r i n g this p e r i o d of its h i s t o r y , are d i s t i n g u i s h e d and a n a l y s e d . In p a r t i c u l a r the m a n n e r in w h i c h t h ese e n c o u r a g e d the d e v e l o p m e n t an i n f o r m a l s y s t e m a l o n g s i d e the f o r m a l is e x a m i n e d . F i n a l l y , the i m p o r t a n c e of the o p e r a t i o n s of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m on the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s is e v a l u a t e d .
This n e w s t u d y of the d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t took p l a c e in the M a d r a s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b e t w e e n 1 7 8 0 an d 1 8 2 7 and the
r e a p p r a i s a l of M u n r o ' s r o l e in the f o r m a t i o n and a d o p t i o n of p o l i c i e s w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d t h e m has b e e n m a d e p o s s i b l e by the r e c e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y of M u n r o ' s p a p e r s at the I n d i a O f f i c e . The c l o s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of M u n r o ' s c a r e e r t ha t a c c e s s to t h e s e p e r m i t s n o t o n l y r e v e a l s m a n y of the m o t i v e s b e h i n d his a c t i o n s and m u c h a b o u t the p e r c e p t i o n s t ha t g o v e r n e d his idea s b u t a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the d a i l y
11
t w i s t s and turns w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e d the C o m p a n y ' s p o l i t i c s .
T h r o u g h o u t the text, the s p e l l i n g of p r o p e r n a m e s has b e e n m o d e r n i z e d . This has h o w e v e r b e e n d o n e w i t h a v i e w to
k e e p i n g t h e s e n a m e s r e c o g i z a b l e to the n o n - s p e c i a l i s t .
C h a p t e r One
T h e B a c k g r o u n d :
The F o r ma l O r g a n i z a t i o n of the Eas t ^ I n d ia C o m p a n y•
The Ea s t I ndi a C o m p a n y , w h i c h had b e e n f o u n d e d in 1601, ha d o r i g i n a l l y b e e n a p u r e l y c o m m e r c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a j o i n t s t o c k t r a d i n g c o m p a n y w i t h its h e a d o f f i c e in L o n d o n and f a c t o r i e s , as its local h e a d q u a r t e r s w e r e c a l l e d , in India at C a l c u t t a , M a d r a s and B o m b a y . The B r i t i s h S t a t e i n i t i a l l y ha d no c o n c e r n w i t h its i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s or w i t h its
r e l a t i o n s w i t h the I n d i a n r u l e r s w i t h i n w h o s e t e r r i t o r i e s it o p e r a t e d . The d a y - t o - d a y b u s i n e s s of the C o m p a n y and the m a n a g e m e n t of its f i n a n c e s had b e l o n g e d e x c l u s i v e l y to the C o u r t of D i r e c t o r s , a b o d y e l e c t e d by the C o u r t of
P r o p r i e t o r s . In 1 7 6 4 M a j o r H e c t o r M u n r o had w o n the d e c i s i v e b a t t l e of B u x a r a g a i n s t a c o a l i t i o n of I n d i a n p r i n c e s in the c o u r s e of w h i c h he d e s t r o y e d t h e i r a r m i e s . Th i s v i c t o r y
m a r k e d a n e w d e v e l o p m e n t in the h i s t o r y of the C o m p a n y w h i c h b e c a m e a g o v e r n m e n t as w e l l as a t r a d e r e v e n if it at f i r s t r e f u s e d to a d m i t t ha t it had t e r r i t o r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
W i l l i a m P i t t ha d t a k e n the o p p o r t u n i t y of this c h a n g e in the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ’s c i r c u m s t a n c e s to a n n o u n c e t h a t all
13
I n d i a n t e r r i t o r y m u s t be b r o u g h t u n d e r the s o v e r e i g n t y of the c ro wn. In the e n s u i n g d e b a t e , the r o l e of the E as t India C o m p a n y a n d its r e l a t i o n s w i t h the S t a t e ha d b e c o m e
p o l i t i c a l issues. H o w e v e r , the p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e in B r i t a i n at that time had not b e e n r e a d y for an y r a d i c a l r e f o r m of the s i t u a t i o n and G r a f t o n ' s s e t t l e m e n t w i t h the C o m p a n y in 17 6 7 had d o n e l i t t l e m o r e t h a n g i v e the g o v e r n m e n t a s h ar e in the p r o f i t s of India. In 1772, the C o m p a n y ' s a f f a i r s had a g a i n b e c o m e a p o l i t i c a l i ssu e and the g o v e r n m e n t ha d once m o r e a n n o u n c e d its i n t e n t i o n to b r i n g the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of I n d i a u n d e r the c o n t r o l of the S t ate . Ye t at the same time the g e n e r a l o p i n i o n was t h a t the S t a t e m i g h t n o t i t s e l f take ov e r the d i r e c t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of India. It was b e l i e v e d t ha t the C o m p a n y ' s s t a k e in B e n g a l , M a d r a s and B o m b a y was s t i l l a t r a d i n g one to w h i c h the c o m p l i c a t e d p r o b l e m s of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n were , so to s p e ak, f o r t u i t o u s l y t a c k e d on.
L o r d N o r t h ' s s o l u t i o n to this p r o b l e m , w h i c h wa s c o n t a i n e d in the R e g u l a t i n g Act of 1773, had t h e r e f o r e b e e n a
c o m p r o m i s e w h i c h had left the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y r e s p o n s i b l e for the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t s in India.
By 1780, the E a s t India C o m p a n y had, in r e s p o n s e to the p r e s s u r e s p l a c e d on it by t hes e c i r c u m s t a n c e s and by
g e o g r a p h i c a l f a c t o r s , e v o l v e d a c o m p l e x b u r e a u c r a c y c o m p o s e d of a set of i n t e r - r e l a t e d b o d i e s d e s i g n e d to p e r f o r m the v a r i o u s a n d s o m e t i m e s a n t a g o n i s t i c t a sk s of o p e r a t i n g b o t h a c o m m e r c i a l c o n c e r n and a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s e b o d i e s w e r e g o v e r n e d by r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s , som e of w h i c h d e r i v e d f r o m the C o m p a n y ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n w h i l e o t h e r s h a d b e e n laid d o w n in s p e c i f i c A c t s of P a r l i a m e n t .
Th i s was the f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y .
B e f o r e 1784, the h o m e g o v e r n m e n t of the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y c o n s i s t e d of the P r o p r i e t o r s of I n d i a S t o c k and the t w e n t y fou r D i r e c t o r s of the C o m p a n y . The P r o p r i e t o r s , and a n y o n e w h o p o s s e s s e d sh a r e s in the c a p i t a l s t o c k of the E as t India C o m p a n y was a P r o p r i e t o r , w e r e e n t i t l e d to a t t e n d the
m e e t i n g s of the G e n e r a l C o u r t of P r o p r i e t o r s w h e r e , p r o v i d e d th e y p o s s e s s e d £ 5 0 0 of s t o c k or m o r e , t h e y m i g h t c a s t up to fo u r v o t e s on m o t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d . Th e p r e d o m i n a n t i n t e r e s t s in this C o u r t w e r e the b a n k i n g , s h i p p i n g and c o m m e r c i a l c o n c e r n s of the C i t y of L o n d o n , w h i c h had i n v e s t e d m o n e y in2
the C o m p a n y ’s o p e r a t i o n s , an d the m e n r e t u r n e d f r o m India, the 'N abobs', w h o o f t e n a c q u i r e d I n d i a St o c k , ' e i t h e r as a c o n v e n i e n t f o r m of i n v e s t m e n t y i e l d i n g a sur e d i v i d e n d of 8 pe r ce n t or as a m e a n s by w h i c h t he y c o u l d g a i n i n f l u e n c e ,
. . . p o w e r and p a t r o n a g e in the C o m p a n y ' . A l t h o u g h the C o u r t 3
of P r o p r i e t o r s m i g h t r e v e r s e the D i r e c t o r s ' d e c i s i o n s and c oul d, u n t i l 1784, pa s s r e s o l u t i o n s b i n d i n g on them, its m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f f i c i a l f u n c t i o n s w e r e t h o s e of e l e c t i n g e v e r y A p r i l the D i r e c t o r s w h o f o r m e d the e x e c u t i v e b o d y of the C o m p a n y , d e c l a r i n g the d i v i d e n d and s a n c t i o n i n g b y - l a w s . The C o u r t of P r o p r i e t o r s had h o w e v e r a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t rol e to p l a y w i t h i n the o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e of the C o m p a n y , that of p r o v i d i n g a f o r u m or a r e n a in w h i c h d e b a t e s on p o l i c y c o u l d take pla ce. T h e s e d e b a t e s e n a b l e d i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s to b r i n g the a c t i v i t i e s and the m e a s u r e s a d o p t e d by the C o u r t of D i r e c t o r s to the p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n and a l s o o p e n e d
o p p o r t u n i t i e s to the h o m e a u t h o r i t i e s to t e s t o p i n i o n .
15
S i n c e 1709, t w e n t y f o u r D i r e c t o r s ha d m a d e up the C o u r t of D i r e c t o r s . The R e g u l a t i n g A c t of 1773 ha d e s t a b l i s h e d a s y s t e m w h e r e b y six D i r e c t o r s w e r e a n n u a l l y e l e c t e d to r e p l a c e six r e t i r i n g D i r e c t o r s w h o w e r e i n e l i g i b l e for r e - e l e c t i o n b e f o r e the f o l l o w i n g A p r i l . The C o u r t of
D i r e c t o r s had e a r l y d e v e l o p e d a t e n d e n c y to b e c o m e c o - o p t i v e and it was c u s t o m a r y for the D i r e c t o r s in o f f i c e to e n s u r e the r e t u r n of t h o s e out of it by a n n u a l l y i s s u i n g a 'House List' of r e c o m m e n d e d c a n d i d a t e s to the P r o p r i e t o r s . In c o n s e q u e n c e the D i r e c t i o n c o n s i s t e d of t h i r t y m e m b e r s
v i r t u a l l y e l e c t e d for life. In f i v e y e a r l y c y c l e s , t h e s e m e n h e l d o f f i c e for four y e a r s and t h e n s t o o d d o w n d u r i n g the fi fth .
O n l y the d e a t h s , r e t i r e m e n t s or d i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of D i r e c t o r s o p e n e d v a c a n c i e s and c o m p e t i t i o n for t he se was a l w a y s fie r c e . C a n d i d a t e s f r e q u e n t l y a n n o u n c e d the ir
i n t e n t i o n to s t a n d for e l e c t i o n so me y e a r s b e f o r e the f i r s t op por tu n i t y , a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t e d i ts elf. O n c e a c a n d i d a t e had d e t e r m i n e d to see k e l e c t i o n , he wa s f a c e d by the p r o s p e c t of a long and o f t e n e x p e n s i v e c a n v a s s for v o t e s w h i c h , in v i e w of the s c a t t e r e d c o n s t i t u e n c y of P r o p r i e t o r s t h r o u g h o u t B r i t a i n , ha d to be l a r g e l y c o n d u c t e d by pos t. E v e n then, if the c a n d i d a t e c o u l d not d e p e n d u p o n the s u p p o r t of one or m o r e of the E a s t I n d i a i n t e r e s t g r o u p s , he had l i t t l e c h a n c e of b e i n g e l e c t e d . T h e r e w e r e e x c e p t i o n s to the g e n e r a l rule and, as C H P h i l i p s o b s e r v e s , p e r s o n a l m e r i t c o u l d
4
o c c a s i o n a l l y s e c u r e a m a n ' s e l e c t i o n . A l t h o u g h o b v i o u s b r i b e r y was n o t a f e a t u r e of the C o m p a n y ' s e l e c t i o n s , a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t of b e h i n d the s c e n e s t r a d i n g a l w a y s
o c c u r r e d . 'Help in the c a n v a s s was o f t e n a f f o r d e d onl y on the c o n d i t i o n that the c a n d i d a t e , if s u c c e s s f u l , w o u l d r e p a y
5
his h e l p e r s in p a t r o n a g e ' .
It a p p e a r s t h a t c o n t r o l of the C o m p a n y ' s p a t r o n a g e was one of the p r i n c i p a l a t t r a c t i o n s of a D i r e c t o r s h i p . A l t h o u g h the D i r e c t o r s r e c e i v e d s a l a r i e s , the C h a i r m e n £ 5 0 0 a y e a r and the oth er D i r e c t o r s £300, the se c a n n o t be c o n s i d e r e d to h a v e
. 6
b e e n a s u f f i c i e n t i n d u c e m e n t to m e n u s u a l l y a l r e a d y w e a l t h y . O t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s u c h as t h o s e of s t a t u s and i n v o l v e m e n t in I n d i a n a f f a i r s w e r e no d o u b t i m p o r t a n t b u t h a r d l y to be c o m p a r e d w i t h th at of c o n t r o l of the p a t r o n a g e . The
p a t r o n a g e at the d i s p o s a l of the D i r e c t o r s in t h e o r y e x t e n d e d f r o m the r i g h t to a p p o i n t the G o v e r n o r s , A r m y C o m m a n d e r s and M e m b e r s of C o u n c i l to the s e l e c t i o n of the m o s t j u n i o r c i v i l s e r v a n t s or w r i t e r s , c a d e t s and a s s i s t a n t s u r g e o n s . The D i r e c t o r s a l s o a p p o i n t e d the o f f i c e r s of the B o m b a y M a r i n e , b a r r i s t e r s , a t t o r n e y s , c h a p l a i n s and the
C o m p a n y ' s s t a f f in b o t h E a s t I n d i a H o u s e an d the w a r e h o u s e s . All this p a t r o n a g e wa s a n n u a l l y a p p o r t i o n e d a m o n g s t the
D i r e c t o r s a c c o r d i n g to c u s t o m a r y r u l e s of s e n i o r i t y by w h i c h the C h a i r m e n r e c e i v e d d o u b l e t ha t of the o r d i n a r y D i r e c t o r s who, it has b e e n e s t i m a t e d , m i g h t e x p e c t to h a v e an a v e r a g e
7
of six or s e v e n a p p o i n t m e n t s a ye a r at t h e i r d i s p o s a l .
The m a i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s g u i d i n g the D i r e c t o r s ' d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a t r o n a g e w e r e t h o s e of f a m i l y , f r i e n d s h i p , p o l i t i c s and c o m m e r c e . Of these, t h a t of f a m i l y w a s the m o s t i m p o r t a n t . Th e a l l o c a t i o n of C h i n e s e w r i t e r s h i p s w a s a s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e of this in o p e r a t i o n . T h e s e w r i t e r s h i p s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d the
17
m o s t v a l u a b l e , so m u c h so that a D i r e c t o r a c c e p t i n g one r e l i n q u i s h e d his o t h e r p a t r o n a g e for the s e a s o n , and they w e r e n e a r l y a l w a y s g i v e n to i m m e d i a t e r e l a t i v e s . In 1795, 12
of the 20 w r i t e r s s t a t i o n e d at C a n t o n w e r e n e a r r e l a t i v e s of
8
the D i r e c t o r s . The e x a m p l e s of i n d i v i d u a l D i r e c t o r s also i l l u s t r a t e this po i n t . L a u r e n c e S u l l i v a n h o p e d to use his p o s i t i o n in the C o u r t to r e s t o r e his f a m i l y ' s f o r t u n e s by e m p l o y i n g his i n f l u e n c e to a d v a n c e his s o n ' s c a r e e r in
9
India. H e n r y St G e o r g e T u c k e r , w h o s e c a r e e r w i t h the C o m p a n y s p a n n e d over 60 yea r s , sent f i v e sons to India. C o l o n e l
A l e x a n d e r L a w r e n c e , w h o was r e l a t e d by m a r r i a g e to the
D i r e c t o r J o h n H u d d l e s t o n , o b t a i n e d a p p o i n t m e n t s in I n dia for
10
fo u r of his six sons t h r o u g h his r e l a t i v e ' s g e n e r o s i t y . On a v e r a g e , 23 per c e n t of all a p p o i n t m e n t s to the c i vil
11
s e r v i c e and the a r m y w e n t to the D i r e c t o r s ' r e l a t i v e s . This t e n d e n c y of the D i r e c t o r s to e m p l o y t h e i r p a t r o n a g e on
b e h a l f of t he ir f a m i l i e s e x e r c i s e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e ov e r the C o m p a n y ' s p o l i c i e s as w e l l as its c o m p o s i t i o n .
A c c o r d i n g to W a r r e n H a s t i n g s , w h i l e he w a s in B e n g a l , 'there w e r e . . . s o m a n y so ns and c o u s i n s of the D i r e c t o r s ' in India, it w a s i m p o s s i b l e for h i m to p r u n e the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
12
w i t h o u t p r o v o k i n g 'an a r m y of o p p o n e n t s ' .
Th e D i r e c t o r s , a p a r t f r o m s h a r i n g the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and p r i v i l e g e of d i s p o s i n g of the C o m p a n y ' s p a t r o n a g e , als o f o r m e d its h i g h e s t e x e c u t i v e body. T h e y m e t t o g e t h e r as the C o u r t of D i r e c t o r s at l e a st once a w e e k in E a s t I n d i a House . In the C o u r t all l e t t e r s f r o m I n d i a w e r e read, a p p e a l s f r o m the C o m p a n y ' s e m p l o y e e s hear d, f i n a l d e c i s i o n s t a k e n and d e s p a t c h e s to the local g o v e r n m e n t s a p p r o v e d an d sig n e d . All
p o i n t s at i ssu e w e r e d e c i d e d by b a l l o t a n d i m p o r t a n t , c o n t r o v e r s i a l d e c i s i o n s r e q u i r e d the p r e s e n c e of at leas t t h i r t e e n D i r e c t o r s to f o r m a q u o r u m b e f o r e t h e y c o u l d be s e t t l e d . W h e n the n u m b e r s in a v o t e w e r e eq u a l , the
T r e a s u r e r ' s lot d e c i d e d the q u e s t i o n . The onl y s u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l s e x e r c i s e d over the C o u r t w e r e t h o s e g r a n t e d
P a r l i a m e n t in L o r d N o r t h ' s R e g u l a t i n g A c t of 1773. The D i r e c t o r s w e r e r e q u i r e d to lay b e f o r e the T r e a s u r y all
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e f r o m I n d i a d e a l i n g w i t h the r e v e n u e s and they h a d also to s u p p l y the S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e w i t h e v e r y t h i n g th a t d e a l t w i t h or c o n c e r n e d the c i v i l and m i l i t a r y
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s .
To e x p e d i t e the C o u r t ' s b u s i n e s s , the D i r e c t o r s d i v i d e d m u c h of their w o r k a m o n g a n u m b e r of C o m m i t t e e s of w h i c h the m o s t i m p o r t a n t was the S e c r e t C o m m i t t e e . E s t a b l i s h e d , as C H
P h i l i p s ' s r e s e a r c h r e v e a l s , in 1683, the S e c r e t C o m m i t t e e d e a l t w i t h m a t t e r s w h i c h a p p e a r e d to r e q u i r e the q u i c k and
\
e f f i c i e n t m a n a g e m e n t w h i c h onl y a small, e x p e r t g r o u p of m e n
13
c a n r e a d i l y give. It was t h e r e f o r e g e n e r a l l y c o m p o s e d of the C h a i r s and one or two of the m o s t s e n i o r D i r e c t o r s . In time of war, the C o m m i t t e e d i r e c t e d the C o m p a n y ' s m i l i t a r y and n a v a l o p e r a t i o n s , c o n d u c t e d n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h I n d i a n s t a t e s and f r e q u e n t l y r e p r e s e n t e d the C o u r t . F r o m 1778, the
C o m m i t t e e e x e r c i s e d e x t e n s i v e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r s a f t e r the D i r e c t o r s a u t h o r i z e d it to ' c o n s i d e r an d p r o c e e d u p o n all m a t t e r s r e l a t i n g to the C o m p a n y as s h a l l a p p e a r to t he m of a
14
s e c r e t n a t u r e ' . T h e r e w e r e t w e l v e o t h e r C o m m i t t e e s , e a c h d e a l i n g w i t h s p e c i f i c a r e a s of the C o m p a n y ' s b u s i n e s s , and th e s e w e r e e a c h c o m p o s e d of n i n e D i r e c t o r s an d the two
19
C h a i r m e n , w h o 'were of all C o m m i t t e e s ' . T h e c r i t e r i o n g u i d i n g the a p p o i n t m e n t of D i r e c t o r s to the v a r i o u s
C o m m i t t e e s w a s s e n i o r i t y and n e i t h e r m e r i t no r q u a l i f i c a t i o n w e r e c o n s i d e r e d . Th us the nin e s e n i o r D i r e c t o r s sat on all
the m a j o r C o m m i t t e e s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e of C o r r e s p o n d e n c e and T r e a s u r y .
P r e s i d i n g at the h e a d of the C our t, a n d s i t t i n g on all the t h i r t e e n C o m m i t t e e s , w e r e the C h a i r m a n a n d D e p u t y C h a i r m a n . A l t h o u g h t h e i r a n n u a l e l e c t i o n by the C o u r t of D i r e c t o r s c o n s t i t u t e d s om e c h e c k on t h eir p o w e r , t h e s e m e n e x e r c i s e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o l over the C o u r t ' s p r o c e e d i n g s . A c c o r d i n g to c u s t o m , no s u b j e c t was i n i t i a t e d , o f f i c i a l l y d e b a t e d or d e c i d e d w i t h o u t the C h a i r m a n ' s s a n c t i o n . R i c h a r d A t k i n s o n o b s e r v e d in 1 78 4 that 'the C h a i r m a n b r i n g s f o r w a r d w h a t he p l e a s e s , w h e n he p l e a s e s ' and this s i t u a t i o n e n a b l e d the b e t t e r t a c t i c i a n s a m o n g t h e m to d e t e r m i n e the C o m p a n y ' s
15
p o l i c i e s . T h e y c o u l d c a r r y m e a s u r e s the y f e l t d e s i r a b l e by w a i t i n g for the a b s e n c e of t h e i r o p p o n e n t s or d e f e r the
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h os e they o b j e c t e d to for as long as th ey r e m a i n e d in o f f i c e .
S u p p o r t i n g the D i r e c t o r s in t h e i r r o l e as the C o m p a n y ' s e x e c u t i v e b o d y w e r e the o f f i c e s t a f f of E a s t I n d i a House.
T h e r e w e r e a b o u t 150 of t h e s e m e n and t h e y w e r e d i v i d e d into d e p a r t m e n t s t h a t c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h the C o m m i t t e e s of the C o u r t . T he m o s t i m p o r t a n t of t h e s e d e p a r t m e n t s w e r e t h os e of the S e c r e t a r y and the E x a m i n e r of I n d i a n C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . The S e c r e t a r y ' s d e p a r t m e n t took c h a r g e of the b u l k of the
b u s i n e s s c o n d u c t e d by the C o u r t of D i r e c t o r s w h i l e all
d e s p a t c h e s for I n d i a w e r e p r e p a r e d in the E x a m i n e r ' s d e p a r t m e n t . The E x a m i n e r and his c h i e f a s s i s t a n t s o f t e n
e x e r t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e in the p r e p a r a t i o n of r e p l i e s to l e t t e r s f r o m India. T h e s e , w h e n t h e y a r r i v e d at
L e a d e n h a l l , w e r e f i r s t r e a d in the C o u r t and then
d i s t r i b u t e d by the S e c r e t a r y a m o n g the b r a n c h e s of the
E x a m i n e r ' s d e p a r t m e n t . H e r e th ey w e r e a b s t r a c t e d and c o p i e s of t h es e a b s t r a c t s , t o g e t h e r w i t h e x t r a c t s f r o m the r e c o r d s and c o p i e s of d o c u m e n t s w h i c h m i g h t be u s e f u l for the
p r e p a r a t i o n of r e p l i e s , w e r e sen t to the D i r e c t o r s . D r a f t d e s p a t c h e s w e r e o r i g i n a t e d in the d e p a r t m e n t , s o m e t i m e s u n d e r the s u p e r v i s i o n of the C h a i r s w h o a l w a y s s c r u t i n i z e d
t h e m c a r e f u l l y w i t h r e f e r e n c e to the d o c u m e n t s on w h i c h the y w e r e b a s e d b e f o r e th ey w e r e p r e s e n t e d to the C ou rt. It w o u l d n o t be an e x a g g e r a t i o n to c l a i m that, w h e n i m p o r t a n t i ss ues
or i n t e r e s t s w e r e no t at issue, the C o u r t f r e q u e n t l y did l i t t l e m o r e than r u b b e r s t a m p the w o r k of the C h a i r s and the d e p a r t m e n t s .
Th e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the loca l g o v e r n m e n t s was, of n e c e s s i t y , s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t to that of the h o m e g o v e r n m e n t . P r i o r to 1773, the h i g h e s t e x e c u t i v e b o d y w i t h i n the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of e a c h of the t hr ee P r e s i d e n c i e s wa s f o r m e d by the
P r e s i d e n t and his C o u n c i l . The P r e s i d e n t s and the m e m b e r s of the C o u n c i l s w e r e all a p p o i n t e d by the D i r e c t o r s u n d e r the p o w e r s d e l e g a t e d to the m by the e a r l y c h a r t e r s of the
B r i t i s h C r o w n and P a r l i a m e n t . The C o u n c i l s , w h i c h v a r i e d in size f r o m b e t w e e n ten and s i x t e e n m e m b e r s , c o n s i s t e d of the C o m p a n y ' s m o s t s e n i o r o f f i c i a l s in the P r e s i d e n c i e s ,
16
i n c l u d i n g the C h i e f s of the s u b o r d i n a t e s e t t l e m e n t s .
21
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e was an i n h e r e n t d e f e c t in this s ys tem .
•All p o w e r was l o d g e d in the P r e s i d e n t and C o u n c i l j o i n t l y a n d n o t h i n g c o u l d be t r a n s a c t e d e x c e p t by a m a j o r i t y of
17
v o t e s ' . T hi s c o n s p i r e d a g a i n s t the u n i f o r m a p p l i c a t i o n of c o n s i s t e n t p o l i c i e s . S m all c h a n g e s in a l l e g i a n c e c o u l d r e s u l t in m a j o r s h i f t s in the b a l a n c e of p o w e r and this
e n c o u r a g e d the f o r m a t i o n of p a r t i e s w i t h i n the C o u n c i l s . The t e n d e n c y was for p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s or a n i m o s i t i e s to
p r e d o m i n a t e , o f t e n to the e x t e n t w h e r e the y i n t e r f e r e d w i t h the c o n d u c t of the C o m p a n y ' s p u b l i c b u s i n e s s .
To o v e r c o m e t h e se p r o b l e m s w h o s e i n c o n v e n i e n c e the
e x i g e n c i e s of c o n f l i c t had e x a g g e r a t e d , S e l e c t C o m m i t t e e s w i t h m u c h s m a l l e r m e m b e r s h i p s w e r e f o r m e d - in B e n g a l in 1756, late r in the o t h e r P r e s i d e n c i e s . T h e s e , e a c h c o m p o s e d of the P r e s i d e n t and t h r e e s e n i o r C o u n c i l m e m b e r s , at f i r s t o n l y d e a l t w i t h i m p o r t a n t m i l i t a r y and p o l i t i c a l m a t t e r s . H o w e v e r they g r a d u a l l y a s s u m e d m o s t of the p o w e r s of
g o v e r n m e n t u n t i l the C o u n c i l s w e r e left w i t h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for l i t t l e m o r e that the c o n d u c t of the C o m p a n y ' s c o m m e r c i a l f u n c tions.
Th e R e g u l a t i n g A c t of 1773 s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e s t r u c t u r e d the B e n g a l G o v e r n m e n t and a l t e r e d the b a l a n c e of p o w e r b e t w e e n the t h r e e P r e s i d e n c i e s . The G o v e r n m e n t of B e n g a l was
c o n s t i t u t e d the S u p r e m e G o v e r n m e n t an d the P r e s i d e n t p r o m o t e d to the p o s i t i o n of G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l . T h e larg e
C o u n c i l was d i s m a n t l e d and the G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l and his four n e w C o u n c i l m e m b e r s i n s t r u c t e d to a s s u m e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the b u s i n e s s p r e v i o u s l y c o n d u c t e d by the S e l e c t C o m m i t t e e .
T h i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e d the p o s s i b i l i t y for f a c t i o n but the d e c i s i o n to c o n t i n u e m a j o r i t y r u l e did n o t c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e it. M o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y , the A c t g a v e the B e n g a l G o v e r n m e n t a c o n t r o l l i n g a u t h o r i t y over the o t h e r two P r e s i d e n c i e s . T h e i r g o v e r n m e n t s w e r e p r o h i b i t e d fr o m d e c l a r i n g wa r or m a k i n g p e a c e w i t h o u t the c o n s e n t of the B e n g a l G o v e r n m e n t in all c ase s e x c e p t t h o s e w h e r e ' i m m i n e n t
18
n e c e s s i t y ' s h o u l d m a k e it d a n g e r o u s to p o s t p o n e a d e c i s i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y the A c t fell s h o r t of its i n t e n t i o n s and onl y g a v e a s u p e r i n t e n d i n g p o w e r w h i c h was h e d g e d a b o u t w i t h e x c e p t i o n s and l i m i t a t i o n s . In p r a c t i c e , the
G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l and his C o u n c i l o nl y had the p o w e r of s a y i n g 'yes' or 'no'. It s t ill lay w i t h i n the p o w e r of the s u b o r d i n a t e g o v e r n m e n t s to f o l l o w p o l i c i e s w h i c h c o u l d r e n d e r w a r or p e a c e i n e v i t a b l e and they als o ha d at thei r d i s p o s a l a v a r i e t y of w a y s of f r u s t r a t i n g the S u p r e m e G o v e r n m e n t ' s w i s h e s . In p a r t i c u l a r , it wa s left to the s u b o r d i n a t e g o v e r n m e n t s to d e c i d e w h e n ' i m m i n e n t n e c e s s i t y ' s h o u l d be a p p l i e d to the i n d i v i d u a l s i t u a t i o n s they w e r e r e q u i r e d to deal with.
F r o m 1777, the G o v e r n m e n t of M a d r a s c o n s i s t e d of a P r e s i d e n t and C o u n c i l , the l a t t e r b e i n g c o m p o s e d of the f i v e m o s t
19
s e n i o r c i v i l s e r v a n t s in the P r e s i d e n c y . In 1781, the C o u n c i l was e n l a r g e d to e l e v e n m e m b e r s , one of w h o m was a
20
m i l i t a r y e m p l o y e e of the C o m p a n y . In p r a c t i c e h o w e v e r , this did n o t g r e a t l y a f f e c t the o p e r a t i o n of the s y s t e m . Of the f i v e o l d e s t and m o s t s e n i o r m e m b e r s of the C o u n c i l , all C h i e f s of s u b o r d i n a t e s e t t l e m e n t s , onl y one r e s i d e d in
21
M a d r a s and r e g u l a r l y a t t e n d e d the C o u n c i l ' s m e e t i n g s .
23
W h a t e v e r the t h e o r e t i c a l s t r e n g t h of the C o u n c i l , in r e a l i t y it was o f t e n a c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r body. M a c a r t n e y , w h e n he a r r i v e d as G o v e r n o r in M a d r a s in 1781, i n f o r m e d W a r r e n
H a s t i n g s that, on his a r r i v a l , he o n l y f o u n d ' M e s s i e u r s Smith , J o h n s o n and W i l l i a m s in C o u n c i l ; all the o t h e r m e m b e r s h a p p e n e d to be a b s e n t e x c e p t Mr S a d l e i r , w h o had
22
b e e n s u s p e n d e d ' .
T h e M a d r a s G o v e r n m e n t a l s o had a S e l e c t C o m m i t t e e s i m i l a r to B e n g a l ' s , o p e r a t i n g as a c a b i n e t w i t h i n the C o u n c i l . F r o m the same l e tter of M a c a r t n e y , it a p p e a r s t h a t the m e m b e r s of the S e l e c t C o m m i t t e e w e r e c h o s e n by the G o v e r n o r . O n l y one r u l e l i m i t e d his f r e e d o m to s e l e c t w h i c h m e m b e r s of the C o u n c i l s h o u l d s e r v e w i t h him, that w h i c h ' i n c a p a c i t a t e d f r o m s i t t i n g in s uc h c o m m i t t e e s p e r s o n s m a r r i e d into F r e n c h
23
or D u t c h f a m i l i e s ' .
P r i o r to 1784, t h e r e w e r e no f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d r u le s
g o v e r n i n g p r o m o t i o n in the C o m p a n y ' s I n d i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s a n d p a t r o n a g e , w h i c h was e x e r c i s e d in a p e c u l i a r l y
d e m o r a l i z i n g m a n n e r , p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t role. As D o d w e l l o b s e r v e d , the D i r e c t o r s , 'not c o n t e n t w i t h h a v i n g the n o m i n a t i o n of the p e r s o n s w h o w e r e to e n t e r the C o m p a n y ' s c i v i l and m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s , a l s o s o u g h t to c o n t r o l t h ei r p r o m o t i o n . C o v e n a n t e d and m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s w o u l d take a trip to E n g l a n d in o r d e r to g a i n a d m i s s i o n to c o u n c i l , a p p o i n t m e n t to some l u c r a t i v e o f f i c e , or the c o m m a n d of a r e g i m e n t or an a r m y out of t h e i r t u r n . . . . The n e c e s s a r y r e s u l t was th at the g o v e r n m e n t in I n d i a l a c k e d the m o s t
24
s a l u t a r y p o w e r of r e w a r d i n g m e r i t by p r o m o t i o n ' . In
a d d i t i o n , it was no t u n u s u a l for the D i r e c t o r s to a p p o i n t m e n in B r i t a i n wh o w e r e not m e m b e r s of the c o v e n a n t e d
s e r v i c e s to s p e c i a l p o s t s in India. T h u s m e n w i t h p o w e r f u l c o n n e c t i o n s or i n f l u e n c e w e r e c o n s t a n t l y a p p e a r i n g in I n d i a w h e r e the y e x p e c t e d to be p r o v i d e d for. T h e onl y g e n e r a l r u l e to apply, u n t i l M a c a r t n e y ' s a p p o i n t m e n t , had b e e n the c u s t o m a r y one of a p p o i n t i n g a m e m b e r of the C o m p a n y ’s
c o v e n a n t e d c i v i l s e r v i c e in M a d r a s to the p o s t of P r e s i d e n t or G o v e r n o r of t ha t P r e s i d e n c y .
C e r t a i n f e a t u r e s of the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ’s s t r u c t u r e at this p e r i o d d e s e r v e p a r t i c u l a r n o t i c e . F i r s t l y , w h i l e P a r l i a m e n t c o u l d e x e r c i s e some s u p e r v i s i o n of the C o m p a n y t h r o u g h S e l e c t C o m m i t t e e s and at s u c h tim es as the C h a r t e r c a m e up for r e n e w a l , it had no d i r e c t m e a n s of c o n t r o l l i n g the C our t. L i k e w i s e , the p r i n c i p a l m e a n s at the M i n i s t r y ' s d i s p o s a l for c o n t r o l l i n g the D i r e c t o r s was the us e of its i n f l u e n c e a m o n g s t the P r o p r i e t o r s d u r i n g the e l e c t i o n s to the Co u r t . S e c o n d l y , w h i l e the s y s t e m was e s s e n t i a l l y an a d j u d i c a t i v e one, d e l a y s r e s u l t i n g f r o m g e o g r a p h i c a l f a c t o r s u n d e r m i n e d the a r r a n g e m e n t s . A u t h o r i t y wa s d i v i d e d a m o n g too m a n y p e o p l e in the v a r i o u s b o d i e s and this i n t r o d u c e d
s t r e s s e s into the s yst e m . P a r t i e s in d i s p u t e w e r e e n c o u r a g e d to p u s h d i s p u t e s up the h i e r a r c h y and this, t o g e t h e r w i t h the s y s t e m ' s f a i l u r e to c l e a r l y d e f i n e the c o m p o n e n t s ' p o w e r s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , m a d e the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of c o n s i s t e n t p o l i c i e s d i f f i c u l t . T h i r d l y , the s t r u c t u r e g e n e r a t e d d e p e n d e n c y . The i m p o r t a n c e of p a t r o n a g e and
i n f l u e n c e in the s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s a nd t h e i r i m p a c t on the c a r e e r s t r u c t u r e r e s u l t e d in the C o m p a n y ' s e m p l o y e e s
25
p e r c e i v i n g t h e m s e l v e s p e c u l i a r l y d e p e n d e n t on the h i g h e r 1 eve 1 s .
By the 1 7 7 0 ' s , the C o m p a n y w a s in f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s , r e c e i v i n g aid f r o m the T r e a s u r y an d s t r u g g l i n g to m e e t an a b n o r m a l n u m b e r of b i l l s d r a w n on L o n d o n . In India,
H a s t i n g ' s g o v e r n m e n t had b e e n m a r k e d by b i t t e r and p e r p e t u a l d i s p u t e s w i t h i n the B e n g a l C o u n c i l and b e t w e e n the C o u n c i l and the c h i e f of the J u d i c i a r y . P r e s s u r e e m e r g e d in B r i t a i n for a g r e a t e r d e g r e e of g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n of the
C o m p a n y . P u b l i c o p i n i o n , the R e p o r t s of the S e l e c t and S e c r e t C o m m i t t e e s of 1781 and the a p p a r e n t f a i l u r e of the R e g u l a t i n g A c t f o r c e d P a r l i a m e n t to seek a n e w s y s t e m of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n for b o t h the h o m e an d I n d i a n g o v e r n m e n t s of the C o m p a n y . The d e c i s i o n to do this was in p a r t d e f e n d e d on the g r o u n d s tha t the s t a t e h a d a ju st i n t e r e s t in
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e v e n u e s in India , tha t the s t a b i l i t y of the C o m p a n y wa s e s s e n t i a l to the L o n d o n m o n e y - m a r k e t , and that s o u n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and p e a c e w e r e the c o n c e r n of the p u b l i c . H o w e v e r , all a t t e m p t s to b r i n g the C o m p a n y u n d e r s t a t e c o n t r o l e n c o u n t e r e d the g r e a t p r e j u d i c e of the p e r i o d a g a i n s t an i n c r e a s e in the p o w e r s of the e x e c u t i v e .
I n i t i a l l y this d e f e a t e d a t t e m p t s to r e o r g a n i z e the E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y un t i l , in 1784 a f t e r the f a i l u r e of F o x ' s two b i l l s , P i t t i n t r o d u c e d a bill of his own. The a p p a r e n t idea b e h i n d P i t t ' s bill was that 'the s t a t e s h o u l d take the
C o m p a n y into p a r t n e r s h i p , a s s u m i n g the p o s i t i o n of
c o n t r o l l i n g an d p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t n e r in all m a t t e r s r e l a t i n g to the h i g h e r b r a n c h e s of g o v e r n m e n t , bu t l e a v i n g to the C o m p a n y the m o n o p o l y of trade, the d i s p o s a l of its v a l u a b l e
