University of Groningen
Towards ecological governance in EU energy law
Giljam, Renske Anne
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2019
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Giljam, R. A. (2019). Towards ecological governance in EU energy law: with a focus on biomass regulation
and the use of ‘best available techniques’. Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.
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Towards ecological governance
in EU energy law
with a focus on biomass regulation and
the use of ‘best available techniques’
Towards ecological governance in EU energy law
with a focus on biomass regulation and the use of ‘best available techniques’ ISBN: 978-94-6375-278-7
Author: Renske Giljam
Lay out: Marilou Maes (persoonlijkproefschrift.nl) Printing: Ridderprint BV | www.ridderprint.nl Copyright © 2019 Renske Giljam
All rights reserved. No part of this thesis may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any way or by any means without the prior permission of the author, or when applicable, of the publishers of the scientific papers.
Supervisors Prof. H.H.B. Vedder Prof. M.M. Roggenkamp Assessment Committee Prof. K.J. de Graaf Prof. M.G.W.M. Peeters Prof. M. Lee
Contents
Table of figures 8
Abbreviations 9
Chapter One | Introduction 13
1.1. Environmental degradation, societal change and the role of law 14
1.2. Theoretical foundations and terminology 15
1.2.1. Sustainable development 15 1.2.2. Ecosystem approach 18 1.2.3. Ecological governance 19 1.2.4. Ecosystem resilience 20 1.2.5. Demarcations 20 1.2.6. EU energy law 21 1.3. Research questions 23
1.4. Methodology, aims and outline 25
Chapter Two | Holisticity in the regulation of biomass and biofuels 31
2.1. Introduction 32
2.2. Outline of the legal framework 34
2.3. Core of the framework 38
2.3.1. Renewable Energy Sources Directive 38
2.3.2 Industrial Emissions Directive 42
2.4. Peripheral framework 44
2.4.1. Environmental Impact Assessment Directive and Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive 44
2.4.2. Energy Efficiency Directive 46
2.4.3. Fuel Quality Directive 48
2.4.4. Waste Framework Directive 48
2.4.5. Regulation of solid raw materials 49
2.4.6. Gas Directive & Electricity Directive 51
2.4.7. BAT Reference Documents 54
2.5. Conclusions 57
2.5.1. Holistic elements and the current framework 57
2.5.2. Carbon neutrality 61
2.5.3. Consequences for legal design 63
2.6. Late amendments 65
Chapter Three | Ecological governance through the use of ‘best available techniques’ 67
3.1. Introduction 68
3.3. Internal changes in the definition of BAT 74
3.3.1. The Polluter Explains Principle 79
3.3.2. Substitution and Sunsetting 80
3.4. External application of BAT 80
3.4.1. Biofuels and biomass 81
3.4.2. BAT in agricultural land use and forestry 85
3.4.3. Extraterritoriality 87
3.5. The role of information 88
3.5.1. Normative precaution 89
3.5.2. Independent auditor 90
3.6. Conclusions 91
Chapter Four | Trade law compatibility of an expanded application of
‘best available techniques’ 95
4.1. Introduction 96
4.1.1. Ecological governance 96
4.1.2. Aims & outline 98
4.2. The debate on process measures 99
4.3. The legality of process measures 103
4.3.1. World Trade Organization (WTO) 103
4.3.2. Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) 110
4.3.3. European Union (EU) 111
4.4. BAT and energy production 115
4.4.1. Defining energy 118
4.4.2. Categorisation and differentiation 120
4.5. Conclusions 124
Chapter Five | The role of technology neutrality in incentivising energy-related
innovations 129
5.1. Introduction 130
5.2. Regulation of the EU energy sector 134
5.2.1. Characteristics of the sector 134
5.2.2. Material norms 137
5.3. Technology neutrality and stimulating innovation 143
5.4. Implementing ecological governance 147
5.4.1. Uncertainties 148
5.4.2. Externalities 149
5.4.3. Adaptability 150
5.4.4. The BAT concept 151
Chapter Six | Conclusion 159
6.1. Implementing a holistic approach in EU energy law 160
6.1.1. Answering the research questions 160
6.1.2. Applying the findings to (the regulation of) the energy sector 169
6.2. Broader implications of the findings 170
6.2.1. Hiatuses in the current approach 170
6.2.2. Required levels of change 171
6.3. Connecting the dots: the overall research theme 173
6.3.1. General 173
6.3.2. BAT 174
6.3.3. Paradigm change 176
6.4. Working towards ecological energy law 176
6.4.1. Ecological BAT approach 177
6.4.2. Ecologically responsible use of biomass 178
6.4.3. Lifelong learning 181
6.5. Taking a helicopter view 185
6.5.1. Be humble 185
6.5.2. Think circular 187
6.5.3. Limit growth 188
Annex I | Policy update 193
I.1. General amendments and headline targets for 2030 194
I.2. New Renewable Energy Sources Directive 196
I.2.1. Transport sector rules 197
I.2.2. The sustainability of biomass and biofuels 199
I.2.3. Compliance and calculations 201
I.3. Regulation on the Governance of the Energy Union 203
I.4. General appraisal of the new framework 205
Annex II | Posters 210
Annex III | English summary 215 Annex IV | Nederlandse samenvatting 221 Annex V | Acknowledgements 229 Annex VI | Curriculum Vitae 233
Table of figures
Figure 1.1: The redefined sustainable development concept 17 Figure 2.1: Legal framework applicable in consecutive phases of biomass life cycle 36 Figure 2.2: Flowchart of rules applicable to different biomass applications 59
Figure 4.1: Mandatory use of BAT 117
Figure 6.1: The potential of technology neutrality 168
Figure 6.2: Ecological EU energy law 181
Figure II.1: My research as presented at VMR Conference, March 2016 (poster 1) 210 Figure II.2: Second half of my research depicted (poster 2) 211 Figure II.3: Dissertation in a nutshell: correlation between the four articles (poster 3) 212
Abbreviations
AB Appellate Body (of the WTO)
AEEL Associated Net-Electrical Efficiency Levels (BAT) AoA Agreement on Agriculture (agreement part of WTO) BAT Best Available Techniques
BATNEEC Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Costs BAU Best Available Use
BREF Reference Document on Best Available Techniques CAP Common Agricultural Policy
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage CDM Clean Development Mechanism CEN Committee for Standardisation
CHP Combined Generation of Heat and Power
CJEU Court of Justice of the European Union (formerly ECJ) CO2 Carbon Dioxide
COP Conference of the Parties CUP Cambridge University Press DLUC Direct Land-use Change DSO Distribution System Operator
EC European Community (predecessor EU) ECJ European Court of Justice (now named CJEU) ECM Economics and Cross-Media Effects (REF) Eco-AP Eco-innovation Action Plan
ECT Energy Charter Treaty
EEA European Environment Agency
EEC European Economic Community (predecessor EC) EED Energy Efficiency Directive
EEELR European Energy and Environmental Law Review EELF European Environmental Law Forum
EFS Emissions From Storage (BREF) EIA Environmental Impact Assessment ELV Emission Limit Value
ENE Energy Efficiency (BREF)
EPR Extended Producer Responsibility ETAP Environmental Technologies Action Plan ETS Emissions Trading Scheme
EU European Union
FQD Fuel Quality Directive
GAEC Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions
GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services (agreement part of WTO) GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (agreement part of WTO) GC General Court of the CJEU (formerly Court of First Instance, CFI) GCEL Groningen Centre of Energy Law
GESP Groningen Energy and Sustainability Programme GHG Greenhouse Gas
ICT Information and Communication Technology IEA International Energy Agency
IED Industrial Emissions Directive ILUC Indirect Land-Use Change
INECP Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan INRA Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISO International Organization for Standardization JEL Journal of Environmental Law
JERL Journal of Energy and Natural Resources Law LCP Large Combustion Plant(s)
LRN Legal Research Network
LULUCF Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry
LVOC Production of Large Volume Organic Chemicals (BREF) MFN Most Favoured Nation
MW Megawatt
NDC Nationally Determined Contribution NEEAP National Energy Efficiency Action Plan NeVER Nederlandse Vereniging voor Energierecht NOx Nitrogen Oxides
npr-PPM ‘non-product related’ PPM
NREAP National Renewable Energy Action Plan NT National Treatment
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OJ Official Journal of the European Union
OUP Oxford University Press
PBL Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving POT Phase Out Technique
p.p. percentage point
PPM Processes and Production Method pr-PPM ‘product related’ PPM
RE Renewable Energy
REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (Directive) RECIEL Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law RED Renewable Energy Sources Directive
REF Reference Document (type of BREF) SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SFM Sustainable Forest Management SMR Statutory Management Requirements
SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (agreement part of WTO) TBT Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement (agreement part of WTO) TEU Treaty on European Union
TFEU Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union TPA Third Party Access
TRIMs Trade-Related Investment Measures (agreement part of WTO) TRIPs Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (agreement part of WTO) TSO Transmission System Operator
UN United Nations
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme US United States (of America)
VMR Vereniging voor Milieurecht WAT Worst Available Technique WFD Waste Framework Directive WI Waste Incineration (BREF)
WMO World Meteorological Organization WT Waste Treatment (BREF)
