Temporality in Urgency Narratives
The Promotion of a Safety Culture
Robbin M. Hof University of Groningen
Temporality in Urgency Narratives
The Promotion of a Safety Culture
University of Groningen Faculty of Economics and Business
Master of Science in Business Administration (MSc.BA) Change Management
February 17th, 2016
Robbin M. Hof Robbin.hof@hotmail.com Student number: S2673851
Supervisor: dr. M.A.G. van Offenbeek Co-assessor: dr. C. Reezigt
Acknowledgements
Writing this master thesis means that the final chapter of the master Business Administration Change Management is almost coming to an end. It was a great learning experience and sometimes challenging to conduct an academic master thesis in a practical environment.
First, I would like to thank Martijn van Ooijen as thesis supervisor from Kessels & Smit, The Learning Company for his support and opportunity to write my master thesis about this very interesting subject in a very relevant and dynamic field of research. I am looking back to a great collaboration the past months. As supervisor from the University of Groningen, I would also thank dr. Marjolein van Offenbeek for her great support, feedback and input during the entire writing process. Finally, I would like to thank all participants of NAM and employees of Platform Vlink for their great contribution during data collection.
1 Content Abstract ... 3 1. Introduction ... 4 2. Theoretical Background ... 7 2.1 Narratives ... 7 2.1.1 Defining narratives ... 7
2.1.2 The role of narratives in creating urgency ... 8
2.1.3 Narrative temporality ... 9
2.1.4 Temporality used in urgency narratives ... 10
2.2 Promoting a safety culture ... 10
2.2.1 Defining safety ... 10
2.2.2 Implementing a safety culture ... 10
2.2.3 Urgency narratives used in the promotion of a safety culture ... 12
2.3 Conclusion of the Literature Review: Theoretical Framework ... 12
3. Method ... 14
3.1 Research Design ... 14
3.2 Research Context ... 14
3.3 Data Collection Methods ... 15
3.3.1 Semi-structured narrative interviews ... 15
3.3.2 Observations ... 16
3.3.3 Document studies ... 16
3.4 Data analysis ... 16
4. Results ... 18
4.1 Content of a Safety Urgency Narrative ... 18
4.1.1 Urgency components ... 18
4.1.2 Safety objectives ... 21
4.1.3 The co-occurrence between urgency components and safety objectives... 23
4.2 Temporality in Safety Urgency Narratives ... 24
4.2.1 Content of safety urgency narratives with temporality elements ... 24
4.2.2 The co-occurrence between temporality and urgency components ... 25
4.2.3 The co-occurrence between temporality and safety objectives ... 26
4.3 Urgency Level in Safety Urgency Narratives ... 26
4.3.1 The level of urgency ... 26
2
4.3.3 The co-occurrence between the level of urgency and safety objectives ... 28
4.3.4 The co-occurrence between temporality and the level of urgency ... 28
4.4 Narrative Matrix: The Contribution of Temporality to Communicate the Sense of Urgency ... 29
5. Discussion & Conclusion ... 31
5.1 Summary and Interpretation of Key Results ... 31
5.2 Theoretical Implications ... 33
5.3 Practical Implications ... 34
5.4 Limitations and Future Research ... 35
5.5 Conclusion ... 36
References ... 37
Appendix A: Interview Protocol... 45
Appendix B: Code Book ... 47
Appendix C: List of Data Sources ... 54
Appendix D: Combining different Urgency Components with one another ... 55
Appendix E: Combining different Safety Objectives with one another ... 56
Appendix F: Co-occurrence between Urgency Components and Safety Objectives ... 57
Appendix G: Content of Safety Urgency Narratives referring to the past ... 58
Appendix H: Content of Safety Urgency Narratives referring to the present ... 59
Appendix I: Content of Safety Urgency Narratives referring to the future ... 60
Appendix J: The co-occurrence between Temporality and Urgency Components ... 61
Appendix K: The co-occurrence between Temporality and Safety Objectives ... 62
Appendix L: Urgency Components contributes to the Level of Urgency ... 63
Appendix M: The co-occurrence between the Level of Urgency and Safety Objectives ... 64
Appendix N: Narrative Matrix of Urgency Components ... 65
Appendix O: Narrative Matrix of Safety Objectives ... 66
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Abstract
Organizations in hazardous industries face risks in safety issues, with occupational accidents and incidents as a result. In respect to this, many organizations today implement safety measures to overcome risks of occupational accidents and incidents. This study contributes to the narrative literature, by studying the use of temporality in the construction of urgency narratives, specifically those directed at promoting a safety culture. In total, eleven interviews were conducted with people of various positions in the organization in the oil and gas industry as primary data source. Secondary data was collected by a document study and an observation. In this narrative research, the interpretive approach was used for data analysis. During the analysis, 1.010 quotes were coded with 38 deductive and inductive codes. In total during analysis, sixteen urgency components and fourteen safety objectives were found. Four propositions were derived from the findings of this study. First, urgency components are used to spread the sense of urgency and to create awareness of the dangers of the status quo. Second, safety objectives are used to induce action in the promotion of a safety culture. Furthermore, temporality is used in urgency narratives to contribute to the sensemaking of urgency components and safety objectives. Finally, temporality elements are used in the construction of safety urgency narratives to shape the urgency level of the narrative. These results contribute to the narrative literature as the theoretical implications of this study. The results of this study provide management practitioners insight into how urgency narratives are constructed in a reputable organization in the oil and gas industry.
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1. Introduction
In recent years, business scholars became increasingly interested in narratives and their role in shaping organizational culture (Dailey & Browning, 2014; Martin, Feldman, Hatch, & Sitkin, 1983; Parada & Viladás, 2010; Weick & Browning, 1986). Narratives are used to create stories for sensemaking purposes and to foster organizational change (Sonenshein, 2010). Most often, old stories and narratives are revised and changed by an evolving organization (Boje, 1995; Abbott, 1988; Stevenson & Greenberg, 1998). This meets the requirements of Van de Ven and Poole’s (1995) theological theory, which is a continuous change process of goal formulation, implementation, evaluation and modification. A clear definition of the narrative concept is given by Cunliffe, Luhman, & Boje (2004, p. 275); they state that “narratives are enacted over discursive space and time.” This means that narratives are temporal and can change over-time (Richardson , 2006); due to the construction and reconstruction of narratives by their “storytellers and listeners” (Cunliffe, Luhman, & Boje, 2004, p. 275).
In the change management literature, a narrative is described as a tool to “establish a sense of urgency” of the change project (Cawsey, Deszca, & Ingols, 2016, pp. 47-48; Sonenshein, 2010). Kotter (1996) described this in the first stage of his eight-stage model of organizational change (Cawsey, Deszca, & Ingols, 2016, pp. 47-48; Sonenshein, 2010). Another example is the first “unfreeze-stage” of Kurt Lewin’s (1947) “changing as three steps” model, which can be compared with the first stage of Kotter’s (1996) model (Schein, 2010; Cummings, Bridgman, & Brown, 2016; Sonenshein, 2010). In line with this concept, Vaara, Sonenshein, & Boje (2016, p. 57) define narratives as a concept to “create urgency by alerting employees to the dangers of the status quo”. Hence, this shows that the construction of narratives is an important tool to spread urgency and to create awareness of the necessity of a particular change.
5 Little is shown in the literature about the use of temporality in narratives of stability and change and how temporality provokes organizational change (Vaara, Sonenshein, & Boje, 2016). Because of the scarce availability of literature on Narrative Temporality (Vaara, Sonenshein, & Boje, 2016), an opportunity exists to enrich the Narrative Temporality literature with an explorative study. To study temporality in urgency narratives, Smith & Graetz’s (2013) critical philosophy of changing reality was used as theoretical lens. In this approach, it is “recognized that language creates social worlds,” and that there is no universal way to construct narratives (Smith & Graetz, 2013, p. 15). In other words, people will construct every narrative differently, even if the topic of the narrative is equal. So far, the topic of the urgency narratives has not been discussed yet in the literature.
This study, focusses on the use of temporality in urgency narratives that are used to promote a safety culture. A safety culture is part of an organizational culture and has been defined by Reason (2000) as the “ability of individuals or organizations to deal with risks and hazards so as to avoid damage or losses and yet still achieve their goals” (Parker, Lawrie, & Hudson, 2006; Clarke, 1999). A managerial process, called ‘safety practices’ is often used to direct an organization towards a safety culture (Alarcón, Acuna, Diethelm, & Pellicer, 2016; Vinodkumar & Bhasi, 2010; Fung, Tam, Tung, & Man, 2005). One of the safety practices mentioned by Vinodkumar & Bhasi (2010) is safety communication (Alarcón, et al., 2016), which uses narratives as an important component (Ocasio, Loewenstein, & Nigam, 2015; Czarniawska, 1997; Hardy & Maguire, 2010; Jameson, 2001; Spee & Jarzabkowski, 2011). While a safety culture includes beliefs, norms, attitudes and roles, that are all concerned with minimizing the risks of occupational accidents (Mearns & Flin, 1999; Turner, Pidgeon, Blockley, & Toft, 1989), narratives are used to distribute these beliefs, norms, attitudes and roles among employees, managers and other stakeholders (Boje, 1991; Hansen & Kahnweiler, 1993; Martin, 1982; Brown, 1985; Rhodes & Brown, 2005). This means that the construction of narratives could be very helpful to minimize the risks of occupational accidents and to foster organizational change towards a safety culture.
6 culture. Thereby, this study is very relevant to support organizations in constructing urgency narratives to help workers make sense of the desired safety culture. Practitioners can learn from this study how other firms promote a safety culture and reduce the risks of occupational accidents. Eventually, reductions of occupational accidents will bring positive benefits for the workers, the families, entire society.
The aim of this study is to gain a better understanding of temporality used in urgency narratives. Hence, the study on urgency narratives related to the promotion of a safety culture among workers in the gas and oil industry. A qualitative research approach was adopted (Myers, 2013; Aken, Berends, & Van der Bij, 2012; Yin, 1994), due to the explorative character of this study. In this qualitative study, the following research question was addressed:
How is temporality being used in urgency narratives, specifically in those directed at promoting a safety culture?
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2. Theoretical Background
This chapter provides an overview of the relevant literature. First, the concepts of narratives, narrative temporality and the role of narratives in creating urgency are discussed. Next, literature concerning the promotion of a safety culture is reviewed, including specific elements of safety, safety culture, and methods used to promote a safety culture. The safety literature provides more information for the research context of this study. Finally, the theoretical framework derived from the literature review is presented in the concluding section of this chapter.
2.1 Narratives
In the first part of this chapter, the role of the narrative concept in creating urgency among employees is elaborated in a greater detail. Assumptions about the role of temporality in narratives and the influence of temporality in conveying urgency are further explained in this section. To provide a clear structure, comprehensive definitions of narratives, narrative temporality, and urgency narratives are discussed first.
2.1.1 Defining narratives
In the literature, there are many debates among scholars about the definition of narratives and their relation to stories (Sonenshein, 2010). Actually, narratives are stories that are different than other organizational stories (Barry & Elmes, 1997; Sonenshein, 2010). While Cunliffe et al. (2004) defined “narrative” and “story” as interchangeable words; Pentland (1999) suggests to group, narratives and stories under the definition of narratives (Sonenshein, 2010). However, according to Cunliffe et al. (2004), a story has a plot line, unlike a narrative which may not have a plot line at all. This means that a story has a “beginning, middle and end,” based on the Aristotelian approach, and a narrative is “events and happenings that are configured into a temporal unity by means of a plot” (Polkinghorne, 1995; Dailey & Browning, 2014, p. 23). In this study, no distinction is made between a narrative and a story, following the approach of Pentland (1999). This was because stories and narratives, regardless of structure, were both cached during data collection.
8 In the narrative literature, a distinction is made between individual narratives and composite narratives in constructing narratives for sensemaking purposes (Vaara, Sonenshein, & Boje, 2016). First, individual narratives are constructed by individual actors, based on personal experience and interpretation of reality (Vaara, Sonenshein, & Boje, 2016). Composite narratives are constructed by a group of actors, based on the actors’ collective meaning, experiences and interpretations (Vaara, Sonenshein, & Boje, 2016). Interestingly for this study, composite narratives could be used to identify and compare patterns to create a general interpretation of the narratives constructed by groups of actors and individual actors (Vaara, Sonenshein, & Boje, 2016). Because this study focuses on the general use of temporality in urgency narratives to promote a safety culture, the composite narrative approach was used to capture the collective interpretation and use of temporality in urgency narratives by different actors in promoting a safety culture. 2.1.2 The role of narratives in creating urgency
In many organizations, narratives are often used to foster organizational change by stressing the urgency of a situation (Granqvist & Gustafsson, 2016; Lundin & Soderholm, 1995; Vaara, Sonenshein, & Boje, 2016). Urgency is created by showing people the dangers of a situation to induce an action for change (Cawsey, Deszca, & Ingols, 2016). A good example to show ‘how’ urgency is used in narratives is “The Room for the River Program” (Warner & Buuren, 2011) a government plan to address flood protection of the Netherlands’ major rivers. In this project, time pressure was used as an urgency component in the narratives to force progress in the project (Warner & Buuren, 2011). In this example, time pressure was used to show the urgency of the problem and to foster change when the availability of time was limited (Granqvist & Gustafsson, 2016; Warner & Buuren, 2011). This example shows that time pressure can be used as an urgency component in the construction of a narrative.
Another opportunity to create urgency is mentioned by Granqvist & Gustafsson (2016) and Maitlis & Sonenshein (2010). They stated that most often, urgency can be created in times of crisis or in situations of accidents or incidents. In addition, this applies to situations that threaten the current structure of a system (Hynes & Prasad, 1997; Shrivastava, 1987). The use of a crisis situation as an urgency component is mentioned by Kotter (1995); he described the establishment of a sense of urgency as “relating external environmental realities to real and potential crises and opportunities facing an organization” (Armenakis & Bedeian, 1999, p. 301). This definition shows that urgency can be used as an urgency component. In this case, urgency is created to “make everybody talk and think and worry” (Kotter & Cohen, 2002, p. 429), to make sense of a crisis situation, or to make sense of situations with accidents and incident (Maitlis & Sonenshein, 2010). As the literature shows, constructing narratives for crisis situations and accidents and incidents as urgency components are very often used to convey the urgency of the situation.
9 the mine became “buffered from fear” over time and they overlooked the potential risks of mining (Maitlis & Sonenshein, 2010). They accepted the risks and the dangerous conditions of the work became a normal routine, resulted in an enormous mine disaster (Maitlis & Sonenshein, 2010). This example shows that the risks were not communicated urgently enough to the mine workers, who had to become less of dangers. After the disaster, it became clear that risks were ignored by workers due to time pressure, poor safety controls and a lack of management involvement in safety rules and procedures (Wicks, 2001). It was revealed that before the disaster, management told workers that they did not take any particular precautions and control measures to guarantee the safety of the miners (Wicks, 2001). This example illustrates that risks, control and management involvement can be components in the construction of a narrative to spread urgency.
2.1.3 Narrative temporality
Time is always present in our existence and influences how human beings live, every second of the day (Dawson, 2014). Dawson (2014) expressed time as something that can be visualized as linear movement forward, that shows the past, the present and future expectations. The past cannot be changed; change occurs as time moves forward (Dawson, 2014). In contrast, some scholars suggest that time is not linear, but cyclical, and repeats over a certain period of time (Lundin & Soderholm, 1995; Burrell, 1992). The cyclical interpretation of time could be compared with sunrises and sunsets, that occur daily as a cyclic process (Lundin & Soderholm, 1995; Burrell, 1992). However, in organizations, time is usually considered linear (Lundin & Soderholm, 1995). This study assumes that time “is subjective; experienced and enacted in different ways by different people” (Cunliffe, Luhman, & Boje, 2004, p. 275).
10 2.1.4 Temporality used in urgency narratives
As explained in the previous section, narrative temporality can contribute to urgency narratives in the sensemaking of a crisis situation and can foster organizational change. Incorporating temporality aspects, like referring to past accidents or incidents and precaution measures to prevent similar events for the future, could support the sensemaking and sensegiving involved by an urgency narrative (Weick, 1988). To conclude, temporality seems to be an important component of a narrative to stress the urgency of a situation.
2.2 Promoting a safety culture
Many organizations promote a safety culture to reduce the risk of occupational accidents and incidents (Drupsteen & Guldenmund, 2014; Parker, Lawrie, & Hudson, 2006). As mentioned previously, urgency narratives are used to raise awareness and induce change in organizations. In this study, the use of urgency narratives in the promotion of a safety culture is examined. In the following sections, ‘safety’ and the meaning of safety in organizations are discussed first, followed by a review of the state-of-the-art knowledge about the implementation of a safety culture and promoting safety among actors.
2.2.1 Defining safety
Today, safety is an important issue for organizations that want to prevent accidents on the work floor (Drupsteen & Guldenmund, 2014; Parker, Lawrie, & Hudson, 2006). In the safety literature, many scholars underpin the importance of safety management in the prevention of accidents and incidents (Jones, Kirchsteiger, & Bjerke, 1999; Kjéllen, 2000; Kletz, 1993; Drupsteen & Guldenmund, 2014). Incidents are defined as “unwanted and unexpected events within the organization with an effect on safety” (Drupsteen & Guldenmund, 2014, p. 81), while accidents are defined as “unexpected and unplanned events with a consequence that leads to damage or injury of people, materials, production or other assets” (Kletz, 2002; Sklet, 2004; Jørgensen, 1982; Jørgensen, 2015). There is a great difference in the meaning incidents and accidents demonstrated the distinct definitions; an incident only affects the risks for safety violations, while an accident causes serious damage of property or even harm to people, with an injury or death as a result. Based on the definitions of accidents and incidents, in this study, safety is approached as a situation where the risks of accidents and incidents are minimized or prevented.
2.2.2 Implementing a safety culture
11 management is closely involved and supports the implementations of a safety culture (Parker, Lawrie, & Hudson, 2006). Today, prevention is an important safety objective during the implementation of a safety culture (Parker, Lawrie, & Hudson, 2006).
Another frequently used safety objective in many hazardous industries is the ‘zero accident vision,’ an initiative that strives to make significant improvements in the reduction of occupational accidents (Zwetsloot, et al., 2013). Many organizations worldwide have employed the ‘zero accident vision’ (Zwetsloot, et al., 2013), including the organization examined in this study, which had adopted the catchphrase: Goal Zero, We Care. The main aim of organizations in implementing the zero accident vision is that employees adopt the vision that all accidents are preventable, and think and act accordingly (Zwetsloot, et al., 2013). In many organizations that use the zero accident vision, learning from accidents and incidents is a very important safety objective to improve safety and to prevent unwanted and unexpected events (Drupsteen & Guldenmund, 2014). The zero accident vision is a very attractive safety objective that helps management send a clear safety message and promote the desired safety culture of the organization (Zwetsloot, et al., 2013).
To implement a safety culture, several actions can be taken that promote safety and establish urgency among actors (Cawsey, Deszca, & Ingols, 2016). Cawsey, Deszca and Ingols (2016) recommend to inform employees about safety issues, provide proper education, identify common or shared goals and visions and use transformation leadership to promote change. Different media can be used to promote a safety culture among people within an organization, as mailings, posters, presentations, and videos (Fox & Amichai-Hamburger, 2001, p. 92). Various promotion methods can be used to distribute the urgency narratives among actors in an organization to promote a safety culture.
12 Figure 1 HSE Culture Ladder: Implementation of a Safety Culture (Adapted from: Hudson, 2007)
2.2.3 Urgency narratives used in the promotion of a safety culture
The literature review has shown so far that urgency narratives are frequently used to promote a safety culture. First, urgency narratives can be used to enlarge the importance of a zero accident vision among people as mentioned by Zwetsloot, et al. (2013). In the literature, an important aspect to promote the zero accident vision is learning from accidents and risk prevention. Hence, an urgency narrative is used to enlarge the importance of the prevention of accidents. Next, organizations use the HSE culture ladder to measure the level of urgency of safety within departments and the entire organization. While the literature shows that urgency narratives are used to promote a safety culture, how temporality is used to construct these specific urgency narratives is unclear.
2.3 Conclusion of the Literature Review: Theoretical Framework
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3. Method
This chapter provides an extensive overview of the methods used in this study. First, the research design is explained. Next, the research context of this study is discussed. In the third part, a comprehensive review of the research process is conducted, including the data collection process. Finally, the methods used for data collection and analysis are discussed.
3.1 Research Design
This study is designed as a qualitative study, because of the scarce availability of literature on narrative temporality and urgency narratives. Due to the limited amount of literature, an explorative study is the most suitable (Aken, Berends, & Van der Bij, 2012; Yin, 1994; Eisenhardt, 1989; Myers, 2013). In total, five quality criteria were taken into account: transparency, replicability, consistency, logical reasoning and convincing (Jonker & Pennink, 2010). First, all steps of the research process were carefully processed and described to ensure the transparency of the research process and the replicability of this study. To ensure consistency and logical reasoning, coding schemes were used with clear definitions of specific codes to ensure that consistency and logical reasoning were secured during the entire research process. Finally, clear tables and figures were created to underpin the results of this study, and to convince the reader of the reliability of this study.
Narrative research can be conducted according to the realist approach, the interpretive approach or the poststructuralist approach (Vaara, Sonenshein, & Boje, 2016; Myers, 2013). In this qualitative research, the interpretive approach was used to concentrate specifically on the construction of temporality narratives (Vaara, Sonenshein, & Boje, 2016). This is also in line with Morgan’s (1980) interpretive paradigm, which is subjective and is related to the sociology of regulation. According to Smith and Graetz (2013), every person has his own unique personal perception of social reality. The focus of interpretive research lies in the meaning and context of the narrative, because context is important in defining the situation of the narrative; it “makes it what it is” (Myers, 2013). In interpretive research, there is also focus on the complexity of the sensemaking of people, whereas the dependent and independent variables are not predefined in detail (Myers, 2013). Essentially, interpretive research attempts to create an understanding of phenomena, which is in this study is the urgency narrative and the role of temporality therein, through the meanings that people assign to them (Klein & Myers, 1999).
3.2 Research Context
15 compensation to local residents affected by the earthquakes (Van der Voort & Vanclay, 2014; Kosters & Ommeren, 2015) As contractor, NAM accepts responsible for the compensation of property damage, but also wants to enlarge safety activities on construction sites to minimize the risk of accidents among construction workers in this earthquake region. Platform Vlink was founded in collaboration with NAM to foster safety among workers of construction companies in the earthquake region. Together with several stakeholders in the earthquake region, Platform Vlink aims to develop its safety narrative to be more effective in raising safety issues among construction workers working in the earthquake region. In this study, the focus is particularly directed on those urgency narratives of NAM directed to promote a safety culture within the NAM organization and narratives directed to promote safety among construction workers in the earthquake region.
The NAM case was used as single social unit of analysis in this study (Myers, 2013). The NAM organization as a case study has clear boundaries that make the narratives easy to identify (Myers, 2013; Payne & Payne, 2004). The research looks at urgency narratives from NAM about its safety culture, and how temporality is used in these urgency narratives. All the employees working for NAM were part of the research context as the unit of analysis.
3.3 Data Collection Methods
The data were collected through different sources, to ensure instrument reliability (Myers, 2013; Yin, 1994; Aken, Berends, & Van der Bij, 2012; Kvale & Brinkman, 2009). Three different data collection methods were used in this study to ensure triangulation (Aken, Berends, & Van der Bij, 2012; Jonker & Pennink, 2010). In this study, (1) semi-structured narrative interviews were used as a primary data source, and (2) observations and (3) document studies were secondary data sources for data collection. An overview of all the data sources is displayed in Appendix C.
3.3.1 Semi-structured narrative interviews
16 Eleven semi-structured narrative interviews were conducted with different employees from NAM in October and November 2016. The interviews lasted between 45 and 95 minutes. The interviews were conducted with board members, senior/middle management and other NAM employees to collect narratives from different hierarchical levels of the organization. With the permission of the participants, the interviews were recorded on tape. This approach ensured the researcher’s reliability (Aken, Berends, & Van der Bij, 2012). After recording, a one-on-one transcript was written. To ensure anonymity of all participants and their colleagues were removed (Myers, 2013), and replaced by [...] in the transcripts.
3.3.2 Observations
In this study, observation was used as a secondary data collection method. NAM has a Safety Centre in Sappemeer (Groningen, The Netherlands), to show their employees and hired contractors how they have to work according to the NAM standards. The observation was done in early September 2016, during a 3.5 hour visit. The aim of this observation was to get a better impression of NAM’s promotion of their safety culture and how their urgency narratives are translated into practice. During this visit, actors were observed while the researcher participated as well during the training (Myers, 2013). Extensive notes of the observations were documented and photos of the location were taken to provide a better impression of the NAM Safety Center and to ensure the researcher’s reliability (Aken, Berends, & Van der Bij, 2012).
3.3.3 Document studies
Besides the observations, written documents and instruction videos from NAM were used as secondary data sources. Annual safety reports and NAM instruction videos about safety related issues were studied. To assess the quality of the documents, Scott’s (1990) assessment criteria were used (Myers, 2013). Only documents and videos that were published online on the Internet were used in the document studies. The annual safety reports were gathered through NAM’s partner website GLT Plus. Video content with instructions and learning from accidents were gathered from the official GLT Plus and NAM channel on Vimeo and the official NAM CASOS Channel on YouTube. Transcripts were written of all video content. These transcripts were used as secondary data source.
3.4 Data analysis
17 read digitally several times until certain patterns emerged. Next, thoughts and comments were added to the documents. In the third step, distinct themes were selected in every interview and document. In the fourth step, as suggested by Lieblich et al. (1998), colored marks identified various topics in the story. In this research, ATLAS.ti software was used, and a coding scheme with deductive themes to smoothen the data analysis process. During coding, inductive themes were added. According to Friese (2014), ATLAS.ti is a very suitable tool in interpretive narrative analysis to structure a large part of the analysis process. The deductive themes were derived from the literature review, while the inductive themes emerged during previous steps of the holistic content approach. The coding scheme, with all deductive and inductive codes, can be found in Appendix B. The complete analysis entails 1.010 quotes and 38 codes. Every quote was coded with one of the three temporality elements, with the level of urgency as a deductive code. Thereby, urgency components and safety objectives were coded if applicable, based on the researchers own interpretation. Besides the deductive urgency components and safety objectives, inductive codes emerged during coding
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4. Results
In this chapter, all relevant data that was gathered through the interviews, document study and observations are presented. This result section is structured, based on the theoretical model. First, the content of narratives are presented, including urgency components and safety objectives. Next, the results related to temporality in urgency narratives are discussed and the results related to the level of urgency will be presented. In the final section, a narrative matrix is constructed to show how temporality elements were used in urgency narratives. All quotes that are used in this chapter were translated from Dutch to English, to support smooth reading. The original Dutch quotes can be found in Appendix P.
4.1 Content of a Safety Urgency Narrative
As discussed in the concluding section of the theoretical background, the content of an urgency narrative includes one or more urgency components and safety objectives. In this part of the results chapter, the results will show which urgency components and safety objectives were used to construct safety urgency narratives.
4.1.1 Urgency components
19 Table 1 Urgency components used in the construction of safety urgency narratives (No. #P = Number of documents)
Urgency component s No. #P No. Urgency components % of 1.010 Quotes Quote examples Accidents and incidents 16 150 15%
“Just grind without protection, with consequence of losing an eye. Hey, then you will get a steel splinter in your eye, or people are going to lose fingers.” [P4; 80]
Audits
8 24 2%
“So, the SODM is going to do witch hunting now. So, they send a new inspector, and they found somewhere a gasket at one of our sites, and that gasket appeared to be an asbestos gasket during demolishing.” [P1; 49]
Contract
8 20 2% “And they have to fulfill the contract in a sufficient way, where
NAM is also pleased with it.” [P5; 4]
Control
10 30 3% “That uh… of leaders, because you are in the end responsible,
while you do not have everything under control.” [P10; 25]
Crisis situation
10 48 5%
“Ten years ago, we had two deadly accidents here, fifteen years ago in Warffum, a gas tank exploded due to a lack of
communication, and risks were not identified beforehand.” [P4; 81]
Legal
Pressure 11 40 4%
“Always follow the law, use that as a basis, because it is not set up for nothing.” [P9; 24]
Management
Involvement 13 47 5%
“Positive attention for our colleagues on location, to appreciate the by management committed interventions on Environment and safety performances of all the teams.” [P21; 11]
Financial pressure
10 25 2%
“And because they have seen that their costs decreased, their stimulus was costs, but indirectly the result was that you had a car fleet on the way which was scaled-up to a much higher plan.”[P2; 51]
Personal experience
16 88 9%
“Well look, […] was closely involved there in the incident investigation, and he has a lot of, yeah, it affected him very personally, and he can promote the learning effect of the Warffum narrative very intensely, and he is still doing that.” [P9; 10]
Listener
involvement 14 76 8%
“If you do not make it personal, it never will work. In Great Britain we say, you can only make it personal if you have seen blood on the procedure.” [P6; 16]
Political
involvement 6 18 2%
“I am sure about one thing, NAM cares for the safety culture, and politicians are yelling,’ throw NAM out’; they do not realize in that moment that they are lacking safety.” [P6; 116]
Punishment
11 51 5%
“Because violating one of the lifesaving rules are so serious that there will be consequences, and then you are back to the blame culture.” [P11;19]
Reporting
14 48 5% “Then you see, that there a lot of incidents happening. At NAM,
we have every year still three thousand incident reports.”[P6;29]
Risk
12 44 4%
“In the past, they had put thirty thousand accidents from the work inspections in an IT system, and so we know where the exposure of risks lie. Number one is working on heights.” [P10; 51]
Social involvement
11 41 4%
“There, they had without awareness of the men, made a film of their children. And there were a lot of tough guys in that room, the film was turned-on, and their own children were saying, “Daddy you are working safe? We are going to football this weekend or…” and then there were grown-up guys who were crying like little children, and hey, that has a lot of impact.” [P3; 85]
Time pressure
4 13 1%
“Even if you have to do it in a shorter amount of time, safety will always be placed as number one on the agenda. So the urgency is there, indeed.”[P8; 46]
20 Table 2 General overview of combined urgency components
Urgency components (N=538) Acc id en ts an d in cid en ts Au d its C o n tr ac t C o n tr o l C ris is s itu atio n L eg al Pre ss u re Ma n ag em en t in v o lv em en t Fin an cial p ress u re Per so n al ex p er ien ce L is ten er in v o lv em en t Po liti ca l in v o lv em en t Pu n is h m en t R ep o rtin g R is k So cial In v o lv em en t T im e p ress u re O v er a ll to ta l Total combinations 107 28 4 11 49 16 20 8 95 85 11 20 35 26 44 7 566 % of total combinations 19 % 5 % 1 % 2 % 9 % 3 % 4 % 1 % 17 % 15 % 2 % 4 % 6 % 5 % 8 % 1 % 100%
As mentioned above, a safety urgency narrative is not always constructed with just one urgency component. The results show that sometimes, more urgency components are used to construct a safety urgency narrative. A general overview of the results is depicted in Table 2, and a more extensive table can be found in Appendix D. Table 2 shows that all urgency components are used sometimes in combination with one another. In total, 566 urgency component combinations were found in the 538 of the 1.010 unique quotes. None of the urgency components are used more than 25% of the overall combinations.
Interestingly, the results, as depicted in Appendix D, show that a combination of personal experience and listener involvement (35 combinations) is used most frequently. Most narratives constructed with these two safety components were trying to involve the listener in the story of the narrator. Hence, this shows that the experience of the narrator can be used to show the urgency of a situation (personal experience) and reflect the impact of the experience on the listener (listener involvement). An example quote that reflects this relationship is:
“I performed hundreds of presentations about Warffum, and the thing that makes the biggest impression, I noticed that in the room, it is the memorial monument on slide two, in which I show them, ‘boys, safety is not about procedures, safety does not count on books full of anything and everything, safety is all about this; people. And if you do not believe that it is all about people, quit immediately’.” [P6; 18]
21
4.1.2 Safety objectives
Besides urgency components, safety objectives are used to construct safety urgency narratives as depicted in the theoretical model (Figure 2). In total, fourteen different safety objectives emerged from the analysis. Besides the three deductive safety objectives, eleven inductive safety objectives were induced during analysis. In total, 767 unique quotes of the 1.010 were constructed with one or more of the fourteen safety objectives. Because one quote could entail more than one safety objective, a total of 1.276 safety objectives were used in the 767 quotes.
All of the fourteen safety objectives are displayed in Table 3, in the same way as the urgency components were displayed in the previous section. The results shows that 33% of the quotes were constructed to raise personal safety awareness, followed by safety prevention 18% of the quotes and 13% of the quotes were constructed with the objective to learn from accidents and incidents. While prevention and learning from incidents and accidents are also mentioned in the literature (Drupsteen & Guldenmund, 2014) as safety objectives, raising personal safety awareness was most often used as a safety objective to construct a safety urgency narrative. Raising personal safety awareness was used as a safety objective in 20 of the 21 sources included in this study. Interestingly, almost all participants mentioned personal safety awareness specifically during the interviews as the most important driver to promote a safety culture. A very good quote that reflects this is mentioned by participant 4 (P4):
“The conclusion for me was actually, and then specific for the people on the floor. In the past years, also in the oil and gas industry, also all external contractors. I call it, unconscious and incapable. Unconscious and incapable in the independent development of safety awareness.” [P4; 11]
An interpretation of this quote (P4; 11) is that people need to develop their personal safety awareness to ensure that safety becomes natural and part of their unconsciousness. When people are aware of safety and unsafe situations, they can prevent risks, near incidents and accidents.
22 Table 3 Safety objectives used in the construction of safety urgency narratives (No. #P = Number of documents)
Safety objectives No. #P No. Safety objectives % of 1.010 Quotes Quote examples Behavior
17 67 7% “Culture, macho behavior et cetera. That is for me an
important element.” [P4; 12]
Goal Zero
16 102 10% “The concretization of it is, every accident is preventable and
I have complete faith in it.”[P1; 17]
HSE
11 29 3%
“Our HSE performance will become better, but we must not relax. We have to be alert, always having a clear mind and being a well prepared and concentrated employee. That is our standard, and we have to keep that. We owe it to each other.” [P17; 6]
Improvement
17 85 8%
“Hey, so think by yourself, develop, implement, and NAM should facilitate that. An uh… that is working now for some years within NAM. I think very successful.”[P3; 11]
Interventions
11 60 6%
“How I experience it indeed is that everything is done, both within our company and also for the boys in the field who are helping each other, and such an intervention culture helps indeed to make sure that we can together come home safely.” [P8; 21]
Learning from
A&I 16 136 13%
“Uh ... because of the past, the statistical learning from accidents is learning of what the consequences could be.” [P11; 28]
Personal care
7 8 1%
“We care for you in a certain way. You have also to care for yourself, but we think also that you can work safely here.” [P9; 44]
Personal safety
awareness 20 334 33%
“Did you think that the man has blown-up himself on purpose? If he knew that there was dangerous material in there, then he never climbed on that tank. This man did not know that.”[P1; 56]
Prevention
19 185 18%
“But if I say, Goal Zero is our goal, and then you can only say, because I firmly believe that we prevent incidents with injuries.” [P6; 103]
Responsibility
16 90 9%
“Then, the distance is so far that you can only contribute something incidentally, uh… and the other end is that I will take my responsibility and I through on every site an
inspection team, because otherwise you never can control it.” [P2; 29]
Sharing
information 16 59 6%
“And very important is that you better, people needs to be better informed as high become higher on the ladder.” [P6; 34]
Stimulate
collaboration 9 23 2%
Early in 2011, contractors that were working for NAM joined each other in CASOS and presented together a plan that resulted in a joint policy and performance. [20; 13]
Stimulate
leadership 9 28 3%
“Well, and this is leadership where you are saying, yeah, hold on, the law is fine, but we have to do is completely safe.” [P10; 61]
Stimulate
thinking 14 70 7%
“It will be very nice if people will think about the
consequences for themselves, and to come with not invented or unintended consequences, from their selves.” [P11; 29]
Total 1276 Safety objectives in 767 of the 1.010 quotes
Legend
23 Interestingly, the results as depicted in Appendix E show that a combination of prevention and raising personal safety awareness (69 combinations) was used as most. This could imply that a lot of safety urgency narratives try to increase the safety awareness of the listener and to make sure that the listener will actively participate in the prevention of risks. A short quote that reflects this, is mentioned by participant 3 (P3):
“That you are conscious about that beforehand. Nobody wants to be in a situation that he would blame himself afterwards. I have not done everything to prevent it.” [P3; 106]
This quote can be interpreted as follows. The narrator (P3) says that people need to be aware of safety risks and prevent these risks for their own consciousness. Hence, the narrator constructs a story to involve the listener in the safety urgency narrative. The safety objective of the quote is raising personal safety awareness and prevention of risks.
Table 4 General overview of combined safety objectives
Urgency components (N=538) Beh av io r Go al Z er o HSE Im p ro v em en t In ter v en tio n s L ea rn in g f ro m A& I Per so n al car e Per so n al saf ety Awa ren ess Pre v en tio n R esp o n sib ilit y Sh ar in g in fo rm atio n Sti m u late co llab o ratio n Sti m u late lea d er sh ip Sti m u late th in k in g O v er a ll to ta l Total combinations 66 105 37 110 55 122 23 289 218 79 84 38 24 102 1352 % of total combinations 5 % 8 % 3 % 8 % 4 % 9 % 2 % 21 % 16 % 6 % 6 % 3 % 2 % 8 % 100%
4.1.3 The co-occurrence between urgency components and safety objectives
The results show that urgency components and safety objectives were sometimes used together in the construction of safety urgency narratives. In 342 of the 1.010 quotes, at least one urgency component and one safety objective were jointly used. In total, 628 combinations were found during analysis. The results, displayed in Appendix F, shows that not all combinations between urgency components and safety objectives were constructed in safety urgency narratives indicated by the empty spots in the table (Appendix F). The table in Appendix F shows, as well, that raising personal safety awareness (186 combinations, 30% of total combinations) as a safety objective is used together with all urgency component combinations. Looking closer at Appendix F, accidents and incidents were most often used to raise personal safety awareness (36 combinations). A very good quote that reflects this combination comes from participant 2 (P2):
24 opened the window and had fallen down. She was brought by an ambulance to Qatar for… all ended well. But the employee was willing to talk about his story for our staff on a safety day. And… but is very personal. Everyone can have empathy with it, and at the same time you can spread the general narrative that you have to think about risks, even on such a moment while you think further, people get understanding by themselves, but on a certain moment, an accident like this needs to happen unfortunately.” [P2; 60]
This quote is a great example to show how urgency components and safety objectives are combined to construct safety urgency narratives. Most often, narratives based on personal experiences of accidents and incidents or a crisis situation are constructed to raise the personal safety awareness of the audience and to make the story personal. In this case, the results show that constructing a personal narrative of the narrator (urgency component) was most often used to address the listener personally, for instance to increase personal safety awareness (safety objective).
4.2 Temporality in Safety Urgency Narratives
This study focuses on how temporality is used in urgency narratives. In the previous section, the results show that urgency narratives are constructed with urgency components and safety objectives. In this part, the involvement of temporality in the construction of urgency narratives is discussed. The results of each temporality element past experiences, present interpretations and future expectations are discussed separately.
4.2.1 Content of safety urgency narratives with temporality elements
All 1.010 quotes were coded with one of the three temporality elements. This implies that every quote can be placed in one of the temporality elements. The results (Table 3) show that most safety urgency narratives (59%) were constructed with present interpretations of the narrator, followed by past experiences (25%). Only 16% of the quotes refer to future expectations of the narrator. An overview of example quotes of the three temporality elements are depicted in Table 3, below.
Table 5 Overview of example quotes related to the past, present and future
Past Present Future
“Yeah, then we were wearing a baseball cap, with tennis shoes. Huh, we were walking around in the past like that, yes. In the beginning. Then, we were still huh, and then we had one accident over the other, huh, and […] can tell you more about it.” [P4; 39]
“Where we stand today, is that when at one of my locations, if just two cubic centimeters of oil is spilled from a valve, a pressure vessel, then it will be reported on my computer so that I can see that.”[P1; 2]
“Besides the team leaders and management field visits, also in the coming year we will execute a few
audits/inspections on the program.” [P21; 18]
Total of 253 quotes Total of 597 quotes Total of 160 quotes
Overall total of 1.010 quotes
25 safety component, or jointly used together. Especially in the last example, many urgency components and safety objectives were jointly used together in the construction of an urgency narrative. Hence, 330 combinations were constructed. The results are depicted in Appendix G. The table in Appendix G shows that accidents and incidents (28%) were used most as urgency component, and learning from accidents and incidents (31%) and raising personal safety awareness (26%) as safety objective. However, the safety objective ‘personal care’ was not used. A good example that reflects these results was mentioned in the previous section (4.1.3) by participant 2 [P2; 60]. Other combinations were used as well in narratives with recollections of past experiences of the narrator; however these combinations were used less often (Appendix G).
Most safety urgency narratives were constructed based on recollections of present interpretations. In total, 597 of the 1.010 quotes were used. The results show that 315 urgency components and 445 safety objectives were used in 330 combinations. The table in Appendix H shows that most safety urgency narratives with recollections of present interpretations were constructed to raise safety awareness (31% of the combinations) together with all fourteen urgency components. The results show as well that none of the fourteen urgency components were used in more than 25% of the combinations. An example quote that reflects these results comes from participant 9 (P9):
“And by this, you notice that people, yeah, are more conscious about the dangers of H2S escapes, and thereby, they are more careful in the security of installations.” [P9; 7]
Finally, 160 of the 1.010 quotes were constructed with recollection of future expectations of the narrator. In total, 58 urgency components and 139 safety objectives were used. The table in Appendix I show that 112 combinations were used between urgency components and safety objectives in the 160 quotes. The results show that only the safety objective of raising personal safety awareness (36% of all combinations), and the urgency component ‘social involvement’ (25%) were used as frequently. The urgency components “control” and “personal experience” were not used in the construction of safety urgency narratives referring to the future. A quote that reflects the construction of safety urgency narratives with recollections of future expectations occurred during the observation at the NAM Safety Centre; the trainer explained:
“The environment can rapidly change in the future, that is why we must fill in the LMRA cart!” [P12; 14] This quote refers to a changing future situation. By filling in the LMRA cart, which stands for Last Minute Risk Analysis, the worker must to think about the potential safety situation on the work floor. In this case, by stimulating thinking personal safety awareness is stimulated.
4.2.2 The co-occurrence between temporality and urgency components
26 components were used more than 25% of the time in one of the temporality elements. The specific results are depicted in Appendix J.
Interestingly, the results show that in safety urgency narratives constructed with recollections of the future, 102 (64%) of the 160 quotes did not contain any urgency components. In quotes that were constructed with present interpretations of the narrator, 283 (47,4%) of the 597 quotes did not contain any urgency components. Of the 253 safety urgency narratives constructed with recollections of the past and 88 (34,8%) were constructed without an urgency component. This implies that safety urgency narratives with recollections of past experiences were constructed with one or more urgency components compared to safety urgency narratives with recollections of future interpretations.
4.2.3 The co-occurrence between temporality and safety objectives
According to the results, safety objectives were almost always used in co-occurrence with the three temporality elements in the construction of safety urgency narratives. Only ‘personal care’ was not used in safety urgency narratives constructed with recollections of the past and future. While none of the urgency components were used more than 25% in any one of the temporality elements, at least some safety objectives are used. The results are depicted in Appendix K.
The results show that personal safety awareness was used very frequently in combination with all three temporality elements: 31,2% in urgency narratives based on recollection of past experiences, 34,8% with recollections of present interpretations and 31,3% with recollections of future expectations, respectively. This result could imply that most of the safety objectives entail raising the safety awareness of the listener. Another result shows that learning from accidents and incidents was used in 27,3% of the safety urgency narratives with recollections of past experiences of the narrator. In safety urgency narratives referring to the future, prevention (45,6%) was frequently used as a safety objective. Still, 70 (27,7%) of the 253 quotes that were constructed with recollections of the past and 154 (25,9%) of the 597 quotes with recollections of present interpretations did not include any safety objectives. It seems that the results as depicted in Appendix K show that some safety objectives are more frequently used than others.
4.3 Urgency Level in Safety Urgency Narratives
The urgency levels of all 1.010 quotes were coded, based on the five steps of the HSE culture ladder (Hudson, 2007). In this section, the occurrence of the urgency level in safety urgency narratives is discussed.
4.3.1 The level of urgency
27 Table 6 Example quotes that reflects the level of urgency related to the safety components
Urgency Level of urgency No. quotes % Quotes
Quote example Urgency
components
Very
High Pathological 137 14%
“Well, that is construction. I visited different
construction sites. Well, some loose stones, uh… pieces of equipment on scaffolding. Uh… dozens...” [P6; 79]
Risk
“But yeah, people are most often interested in speed, and then it will go wrong.”[P2; 46]
Accidents & Incidents
High Reactive 182 18%
“And besides that you know, we have a time ago, some years back, it is now eleven years ago, we had a huge incident at Warffum where two colleagues lost their lives, and they cannot tell it back anymore. Yeah, you know that’s something which I think; I will never experience that again in this organization.” [P9; 9]
Accidents & Incidents
“If I talk with people in the field with my Warffum background, I can tell them from my own experience how it feels when you are involved in an accident.” [P11; 50]
Personal Experience Medium Calculative 254 25%
“During a field visit, no checklist will be used. We expect from the group that they make a SMAT report and that it will be uploaded in the We Care application.” [P20; 15]
Reporting
Violation of a lifesaving rule means that there are
consequences. [P11; 20] Punishment
Low Proactive 322 32%
“Contractors that are working for NAM have an
important responsibility to take care that all work will be executed safely. Annually, CASOS and NAM organize the contractor day where personal experiences are shared with each other based on selected topics and newest developments will be discussed.” [P21; 22]
Personal Experience
“What is happened, what you have done, and especially which steps you have taken personally.” [P10; 26]
Listener Involvement
Very Low Generative 115 11%
“Without great work you cannot work safely. Great work means also that you work efficiently. Great means also that you have to work cheaply. Accidents are expensive.” [P1;65]
Financial pressure
“Uh… actually everything directed to HSE, is all mentioned in a huge handbook, also called the Shell Control Framework, and we also perform audits on it.” [P8;16]
Audit
Total 1.010 100%
Legend
Occur more than (≤) 25%
4.3.2 Urgency components contributes to the level of urgency
28 were not constructed with an urgency component, the results shows that 69% of the narratives with a generative urgency level were constructed without an urgency component. It seems that urgency components are used more in safety urgency narratives with high urgency (pathological and reactive) than in safety urgency narratives with a low urgency level (proactive and generative).
4.3.3 The co-occurrence between the level of urgency and safety objectives
Safety objectives were used in all five urgency levels. The results, depicted in Appendix M, show that safety objectives were used more in safety urgency narratives with a proactive (87%) or generative (90%) urgency level, while safety objectives were frequently less used in safety urgency narratives with a higher urgency level. It seems that safety objectives are used more to construct safety urgency narratives with a low urgency level (proactive or generative) than a higher urgency level (pathological, reactive or calculative).
Interestingly, the results show that many narratives are constructed to raise personal safety awareness. In safety urgency narratives with a pathological, calculative and generative urgency level, ‘raising personal safety awareness’ was used as safety objective in more than 25% of the quotes. Safety urgency narratives that were constructed based on a reactive urgency level, ‘learning from accidents and incidents’ was used in 85 (46,7%) of the 182 quotes as a safety objective. Other results show that ‘improvement’ (25,2%) was frequently used as safety objective in safety urgency narratives with a proactive urgency level, and ‘Goal Zero’ (50,4%) and ‘prevention’ (30,4%) were most used as safety objective in safety urgency narratives with a generative urgency level.
Related to the definitions of each urgency level as mentioned by Hudson (2007) as depicted in Figure 1, many safety objectives match with these definitions. A reactive urgency level is defined as “safety is important, we do a lot (of safety activity) every time we have an accident” (Hudson, 2007). Remember, ‘learning from accidents and incidents’ was most used (46,7%) in safety urgency narratives with a reactive urgency level. For another example, a proactive urgency level is defined as “safety leadership and values drive continuous improvement” (Hudson, 2007). Hence, ‘improvement’ was used many times (25,2%) in safety urgency narratives with a proactive urgency level. It seems that the level of urgency contributes to use of specific safety objectives by the narrator to construct a safety urgency narrative that reflects the phase of the organization’s safety culture.
4.3.4 The co-occurrence between temporality and the level of urgency
29 narratives with calculative (75%) and proactive (65%) urgency level were used to make sense of present interpretations.
Table 7 The co-occurrence between temporality and the level of urgency
Temporality (N=1.010) Level of urgency Pathological (N= 137) Reactive (N=182) Calculative (N=254) Proactive (N=322) Generative (N=115) Past 56 41% 106 58% 40 16% 41 13% 10 9% Present 71 52% 57 31% 190 75% 209 65% 70 61% Future 10 7% 19 10% 24 9% 72 22% 35 30% Total 137 182 254 322 115 Legend
Occur more than (≤) 25%
4.4 Narrative Matrix: The Contribution of Temporality to Communicate the Sense of
Urgency
Based on the results presented in the previous three sections, a narrative matrix is constructed with all of the key results. All narrators construct safety urgency narratives in different ways. That is also what the results shows. There is a co-occurrence between all of the different safety objectives and urgency components. Almost all of them are used at least one times and often more than one time, with each other. More interesting is the effect on temporality in combination with the safety objectives and urgency components. Here, the results show that some urgency components and safety objectives are used more than others. Finally, the results show that and urgency component contributes to the level of urgency, and the level of urgency contributes to the safety objective. It seems that there is an interplay between these three dimensions.
30 Table 8 Narrative Matrix
Temporality Elements (N=1010)
Past (N=253) Present (N=597) Future (N=160)
L ev el o f urg ency ( N=1 .0 1 0 ) P a tho lo g ica l (N=1 3 7 ) N = 56 N = 71 N = 10 Urgency components - Urgency components - Urgency components
Accidents and incident (5; 50%) Risk (4; 40%)
Social involvement (4; 40%)
Safety objectives
Behavior (14; 25%)
Personal safety awareness (28; 50%)
Safety objectives
Personal safety awareness (31; 44%)
Safety objectives
Personal safety awareness (5; 50%)
Rea ct iv e (N=1 8 2 ) N=106 N=57 N=19 Urgency components
Accidents and incident (41;39%) Crisis Situation (32;30%)
Personal Experience (32;30%)
Urgency components
Accidents and incident (32;56%)
Urgency components
Accidents and incident (9; 47%)
Safety objectives
Learning from A&I (61;58%)
Safety objectives
Learning from A&I (18;32%)
Safety objectives
Learning from A&I (6; 32%) Personal safety awareness (7; 37%) Prevention (7; 37%) Ca lcula tiv e (N=2 5 4 ) N=40 N=190 N=24 Urgency components - Urgency components - Urgency components - Safety objectives - Safety objectives
Personal safety awareness (53; 28%)
Safety objectives
Personal safety awareness (9; 38%) Prevention (13; 54%) P ro a ct iv e ( N=3 2 2 ) N=41 N=209 N=72 Urgency components - Urgency components - Urgency components - Safety objectives Improvement (19; 46%) Personal safety awareness (13; 32%)
Prevention (14; 34%)
Safety objectives
Personal safety awareness (90; 43%)
Safety objectives
Personal safety awareness (25; 35%) Prevention (32; 44%) G ener a tiv e (N=1 1 5 ) N=10 N=70 N=35 Urgency components - Urgency components - Urgency components - Safety objectives Goal zero (4; 40%)
Personal safety awareness (5; 50%)
Prevention (4; 40%)
Safety objectives
Goal zero (26; 37%)
Personal safety awareness (24; 34%)
Safety objectives
Goal zero (28; 80%) Prevention (20; 57%)
Legend
Occur more than (≤) 25% in an urgency level
