The effect of exergaming on intrinsic motivation and the intention to
remain physically active of children (aged 7-12)
An experimental study conducted at Work Out Wijs
Kirsten Roesink 6062520
Master’s Thesis
Graduate School of Communication
Master’s programme Communication Science: Youth and Media Supervisor: E.S.H. Tan
2
Abstract
Overweight has become a growing problem in the Netherlands, also among children.
Especially children from low SES are at high risk of becoming overweight. Overweight and obesity at a young age comes with many health risks, as a child but also later on in life. Therefore it is important to decrease and prevent overweight and obesity. One reason for overweight is lack of exercise. To help children establish a healthy lifestyle Work Out Wijs has created a program focussing on several health related fields, of which one is physical activity. At their lifestyle center, Work Out Wijs has several exergames which they
incorporate in their sports lessons. It is argued that exergames, or active video games, contain elements that can result in higher motivation to engage in physical activity. The purpose of this study is to research whether exergaming leads to higher levels of intrinsic motivation and whether this results in a greater intention to remain physically active in the future. To do so, an experiment was conducted among two groups: an experimental group and a control group. Both groups filled out a pre-test to measure their intrinsic motivation, flow and enjoyment levels prior to the ‘treatment’. After the experimental group participated in an exergame and the control group participated in an exercise, the groups filled out a post-test questionnaire to measure whether intrinsic motivation, flow and enjoyment had increased and whether they had the intention to remain physically active once the program has finished. The main finding of this research is that intrinsic motivation does not so much increase when engaging in exergames, however, it does decrease when engaging in traditional exercise. In this sense, it is effective to use exergames to stimulate children to participate in physical activity.
3
Table of contents
Abstract 2
Introduction 5
Theoretical framework 6
Exergaming and Work Out Wijs 6
Self-determination theory and motivation 8
Intrinsic motivation 8
Extrinsic motivation 9
Motivation and exergaming 9
Enjoyment, physical activity, and exergaming 10
Flow and exergaming 11
Method 13
Work Out Wijs and target group 13
Participants 14 Research design 14 Procedure 15 Measures 15 Intrinsic motivation 16 Enjoyment 16 Flow 17
Intention to remain physically active 17
Results 18
Increase of intrinsic motivation 18
Predicting intrinsic motivation based on flow and enjoyment 19
Increase of enjoyment and flow 20
Predicting intrinsic motivation controlling for age, gender, and
intention to remain physically active 21
Intrinsic motivation and the intention to remain physically active 22
Discussion 22
Do exergames increase intrinsic motivation 22
And does intrinsic motivation lead to the intention to remain physically active? 24 Flow and enjoyment’s influence on intrinsic motivation 24
4
Other variables affecting intrinsic motivation 25
Limitations 26
Recommendations for future studies 27
Conclusion 28
References 28
Appendix
A. Questionnaire
5
Introduction
Over the past 30 years, overweight has become a growing problem in the Netherlands. This problem does not just exist among adults, the number of overweight children is also increasing. In 2009, 13% of Dutch boys and 15% of Dutch girls between 2 and 21 years were overweight. Around 2% of Dutch youth is obese (Schönbeck, 2011). Children of low
socioeconomic status (SES) have been found to be at a higher risk of becoming overweight (van Rossem, 2011). There are great health risks related to overweight and obesity. Obese youth are at higher risk of cardiovascular disease and more likely to have pre-diabetes. Also, if overweight as child one is more likely to be overweight as an adult. Independent of their adult weight, people who were obese as a child have higher mortality rates. This shows the importance of prevention and treatment of overweight at a young age (Koivisto, Merilampi & Kiili, 2011).
Lack of physical activity is an important cause of overweight and obesity. Especially among children, physical inactivity is a serious health issue. In 2008 only 35% of Dutch children met the recommended physical activity standards (de Vries et al., 2010). Activities as watching television and playing videogames are mainly done while seated. This activities draw children away from health-promoting activities. High levels of screen time are said to contribute and encourage sedentary behavior among young people (Daley, 2009). As
inactivity and overweight levels rise, it has been proposed that exergames (active computer- and video console games) may increase children’s physical activity levels.
Work Out Wijs is an organization situated in the Schilderswijk in The Hague that tries to stimulate children (from low SES) to engage in a more healthy lifestyle. Part of their program is dedicated to sports in which they incorporate exergaming. Using exergames offers the children the opportunity to see that exercising can be fun. Ideally this would lead to the perception that physical activity is fun and important and increases the amount of exercise the
6
children get. Children from several schools in the neighborhood participate in the WIJS program. These children are selected to participate based on different criteria. To research whether exergames can increase the motivation of children from low SES to exercise, an experiment was conducted among the several children participating in the WIJS program. Based on the experiment, this study will answer the question: can intrinsic motivation to exercise among children who are not physically active on their own be increased by using exergames?
Theoretical framework Exergaming and Work Out Wijs
As physical inactivity has found to be a problem among children, it is important to find a solution to stimulate children to become active. Although children spend a great time engaging in technology-driven entertainment instead of playing outside, a solution may be found in technology: active gaming. Active gaming, or exergaming uses game design
elements in combination with physical activity (Zuckerman, Gal-Oz, 2014). Participants must engage in physical activity in order to play the game; their bodies become the controllers (Hansen & Sanders, 2011). It is assumed that the combination between gaming and physical activity makes exercise more enjoyable and stimulates users to become more active
(Zuckerman, Gal-Oz, 2014). There is an emphasis on fun and enjoyment which is appealing to children. Ultimately, while participating in the exergames, children have so much fun they are not aware of the fact they are actually exercising (Hansen & Sanders, 2011).
The effectiveness of exergaming is a frequently researched subject (Whitehead et al., 2010; Maloney et al., 2012; Baranowski et al., 2014). There are studies that have found that exergaming can lead to greater enjoyment of physical activity (Graves et al., 2010), increased self-esteem (Song, Peng & Lee, 2011), weight loss (Staiano, Abraham & Calvert, 2013), etc. Due to these positive findings, many interventions based on health improvement work with
7
exergaming. Work Out Wijs is one of these organizations that have implemented exergaming in their intervention. They are situated in the Schilderswijk in The Hague. This is a
neighborhood with many different nationalities and families of low SES. As mentioned, children from low SES are more likely to become overweight and less likely to engage in physical activity. For this reason Work Out Wijs was founded with the purpose of motivating children to establish a healthy lifestyle. The intervention program exists of three parts:
nutrition lessons, health coaching, and physical activity lessons. In some of the physical activity lessons exergames are used. Children can come and exercise by themselves at Work Out Wijs, but there are also special school programs.
There are two types of school programs, both in which the children participate after school. The first program takes place at the school itself. Together with several sport instructors from WIJS the children partake in an exercising program. These exercises vary each lesson. In this research for example, the exercises were dodgeball and basketball. The other type of lesson takes place at WIJS’ lifestyle center. Here WIJS has a gym with different kinds of exergames, for example: a treadmill as well as indoor rowers attached to a screen that tracks progress and shows the children an outdoor environment, dance mats, an interactive wall with lights that the children have to switch off, an interactive floor on which the children must avoid the lights, etc.
Physical activity is an important part of the program and the key focus of this study. As it is WIJS’ intention to establish a lasting, healthy lifestyle for the children it is of great importance that the children become motivated to remain physically active, also once the program has ended. It is argued that if one can be encouraged to engage in an activity for the sole purpose of fun and enjoyment, the person is likely to remain engaging in this activity. Therefore, the main goal of this study is to research whether exergaming can lead to such motivation that children will be encouraged to stay active and incorporate activity in their
8
daily life, leading to a more healthy lifestyle. Self-determination theory and motivation
Self-determination theory (SDT) is an approach to human motivation and personality that differentiates several types of motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). In general, motivation can be described as being moved to do something and a pre-condition for action. People are moved to act by widely variating factors (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). SDT distinguished a number of basic types of motivation based on these different reasons for engaging in an action (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). The easiest distinction to make in types of motivation is between intrinsic motivation, doing something because it is interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation, engaging in an activity for the outcome it leads to (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to engage in an activity solely for the satisfaction of the engagement rather than for the outcome. An individual who is intrinsically motivated will act for the fun or challenge of the action, not for external pressures or rewards (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Intrinsic motivation defines the natural will of engagement, mastery, spontaneous interest, and exploration of an activity (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). Humans in general are “active inquisitive, curious, and playful creatures, displaying an ubiquitous readiness to learn and explore, and they do not require extraneous incentives to do so” (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). This is stronger during childhood, but all humans have a natural motivational tendency. However, although each individual can be intrinsically motivated, not everyone can be intrinsically motivated for every activity (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Despite this fact, it is possible to enhance intrinsic motivation. One way to establish increased intrinsic motivation is through positive feedback. Where negative feedback decreases intrinsic motivation, positive feedback has the ability to enhance intrinsic motivation (Deci & Cascio, 1972). Ryan and Deci (2000a) explain this in relation to the human need for competence. When receiving positive feedback, one’s competence is
9
acknowledged, increasing intrinsic motivation. Negative feedback obstructs the need for competence, decreasing intrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation contrasts with intrinsic motivation. When one is extrinsically motivated one engages in an activity for the separable outcome of the action. There are several types of extrinsic motivation, varying in relative autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). External regulation is the central from of extrinsic motivation in which people’s actions are controlled by external factors. “People behave to attain a desired consequence such as tangible rewards or to avoid a threatened punishment” (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Identification is a more autonomous form of extrinsic motivation and takes place when individuals recognize and accept the values of a certain behavior (Deci & Ryan, 2000). An example would be exercising because one knows this is healthy. This is autonomous behavior but it remains extrinsic because it is not based on enjoyment but on the outcome of the
activity (Deci & Ryan, 2000). When one is intrinsically motivated to do something, it is more likely that this participation will be long-lasting compared to those engaging in an activity based on extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Motivation and exergaming
Motivation arises from confidence and self-esteem established through positive experience; experience that has been recognized as successful and perceived as such (Whitehead et al., 2010). As not everyone is equally intrinsically motivated to engage in a particular activity, not all children are equally attracted to sports and leisure. Their attitude towards physical activity is influenced by success or failure in exercising (Graham, Holt & Hale, 2007). It is suggested that exergaming could be a solution to motivate those children who are less interested in traditional forms of physical activity (Widman, McDonald & Abresch, 2006). There are six characteristics in exergames that are related to motivation: fun, challenge, motivation, developmental appropriateness (the activity meets the abilities of the
10
developmental stage of the participant), individualized, and contemporary (games match technology driven society) (Hanson & Sanders, 2008).
Children report fun as the most important part of physical activity, which means it is crucial that activities include a certain level of excitement (Lindstrom & Seybold, 2003). This can be achieved through exergames. While children who are intrinsically motivated exercise for enjoyment and satisfaction, children who are driven by external rewards may not develop a positive attitude towards exercising. Instead their goal is to receive the ‘reward’ with the least amount of effort (as cited in Sheehan & Katz, 2012). As children with a higher intrinsic motivation to exercise are more likely to keep up this behavior in the future, it is important to stimulate this motivation. Hinson (2001) mentions five components to stimulate intrinsic motivation for children to exercise: control, challenge, curiosity, creativity, and constant feedback. These elements can be found in exergaming. Examples of these elements in the WIJS program can for example be found in the treadmill and indoor rowers keeping track of the childrens’ achievements and provides them with feedback on how they performed
(distance, time, etc.). Therefore it can be argued that the use of exergames may be an effective way to motivate children to become involved in physical activity.
Enjoyment, physical activity, and exergaming
Enjoyment is strongly related to intrinsic motivation in the sense that to achieve intrinsic motivation an activity must be perceived as enjoyable. As previously stated,
enjoyment is one of the primary reasons for children to participate in or drop out of physical activity. In order to motivate children to exercise it is therefore important to make physical activity attractive “by making it enjoyable and keeping them coming back because of an intrinsic desire to be physically active” (Weiss, 2000). An activity can be considered
enjoyable when not only a person’s prior expectations are met or needs/desires are satisfied, but when also something unexpected is achieved. Enjoyment goes beyond the expectations of
11
an activity. It is possible for one to experience enjoyment even if one is motivated by extrinsic factors as long as the activity becomes self-motivating at some point. Enjoyment is related to the experience of an activity and not so much to the outcome (Kimiecik & Harris, 1996). Not only is enjoyment one of the main reasons for people engaging in physical activity, it is also one of the main reasons why people play videogames. This is another implication why exergaming could be an effective strategy to motivate children to become physically active. By enhancing the enjoyment children experience during exergaming, the intensity and duration of their engagement should also increase, leading to enhanced health benefits. Exergaming uses game play mechanics to encourage physical activity, partially by enhancing the enjoyment levels of the games.
As exergaming aims at increasing intrinsic motivation and stimulating enjoyment, it is not unreasonable to suggest that exergaming can motivate children to exercise. Based on this suggestion, it can also be assumed that children who have followed the WIJS program and who have engaged in exergaming are more likely to remain physically active.
Flow and exergaming
Flow can be described as the optimal state of intrinsic motivation. It can be seen as an optimal experience that results in heightened engagement, increased motivation, receptiveness to information, and reduced perception of time. Flow is experienced when perceived
opportunities for action and one’s perceived skills are in balance. Mihalyi Csikzentmihaly (1975) developed the theory of flow and came up with several conditions required to experience flow:
1. Balance between the difficulty of an activity and an individual’s proficiency. The challenge should be perceived as achievable.
2. Apparent goals. There should be a clear objective that distinguishes pertinent from immaterial information.
12
3. Immediate feedback. Users should be provided with personalized feedback in a timely manner.
4. The harmony of awareness. Are users aware of what is happening without focussing on this awareness?
5. Focussed concentration. Users could be able to concentrate on a limited stimulus field. 6. Perception of control. The user should be able to adequately achieve the prescribed
task without (high) concern about perfection.
7. Decreased self-consciousness: Is the user aware of the engagement in the activity and less focussed on one’s self-image (while maintaining a sense of their physical reality)? 8. Decreased awareness of time. Users should have a feeling that the importance of time
is diminished.
Of these conditions, the first six are conditions that contribute to flow. The last two can be seen as outcomes of experiencing flow. To experience flow it is especially important that the activity challenges the individual, but does not overwhelm him or her (see Figure 1)
(Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002).
Figure 1: Skill and challenge in relation to flow (Csikzentmihalyi, 1990)
Exergames such as Wii Fit and Dance Dance Revolution incorporate these elements of flow. “When the optimal balance between challenge and ability is achieved in these activities, many players will enter the flow zone […] and begin to lose track of time and care less about those around them and more about being immersed in the activity” (Sheehan & Katz, 2012).
13
When children reach this stage of flow they will also become more motivated to engage in the activity, making them more physically active. Although there is some doubt about the
effectiveness of exergames, researchers have found “how new forms of play using computer software can provide children with beneficial play opportunities” (as cited in Sheehan & Katz, 2012).
Based on previous findings and theory, there are five hypotheses that will be tested: H1: Intrinsic motivation will increase more (from pre-test to post-test) in the experimental condition than in the control condition.
H2: Intrinsic motivation is related to the intention to remain physically active.
H3: Children who experience higher levels of enjoyment will be more intrinsically motivated than those who experience lower levels of enjoyment.
H4: Children who experience higher levels of flow will be more intrinsically motivated than those who experience lower levels of flow.
H5: Children with higher intrinsic motivation are more likely to remain active once the WIJS program has ended than those with lower intrinsic motivation.
Method
Work Out Wijs and target group
The target group of this study exists of children participating in the WIJS program between 7 and 12 years of age from generally low SES. The WIJS program offers children with overweight and obesity the opportunity to participate in nutrition, physical activity and coaching lessons for the period of one school year. The main purpose of the program is to promote a healthy lifestyle, which will lead to a sustainable decrease of the BMI of the participating children. As children are still growing, this means that they weight remains stable as their length increases.
14
Most of these schools are situated in a low SES neighborhood. To decrease drop-out rates, the program is offered in the children’s direct environment; in the school’s gym or at a location close to the children’s school. Several children from each school are selected to participate in the program. WIJS bases this selection on the international cut-off values for body mass index (BMI). There are three categories of children that are qualified to participate in the WIJS program: children with moderate overweight, obese children without co-morbidity, and children with a high risk of becoming overweight in the near future1.
Participants
Children (N = 43, 14 boys, 29 girls) between 7 and 12 years of age were selected from the WIJS program to participate in this experiment. Two boys were excluded from the final sample due to the fact that they did not fill out the survey correctly. The experimental group (N = 20) and the control group (N = 21) were divided based on the type of lessons the children followed. The WIJS program exists of two types of physical activity lessons: lessons with exergames (experimental group) and lessons without exergames (control group). The lessons with exergames take place at Work Out Wijs’ lifestyle center, while the lessons without exergames generally take place at school.
Research design
For this research, a pre-test-post-test experiment was held with an experimental group and a control group, where a comparison was made between children exercising with
exergames and children exercising without exergames. The importance of the pre-test was based on the fact that the children were already part of the WIJS program and therefore the experimental group was already familiar with exergaming. Therefore a pre-test (see appendix A) was used to measure the children’s attitude towards exercise prior to the ‘treatment’. In the pre-test the children also included their age, gender, and the amount of times a week they
1
A child has a high risk of becoming overweight if his/her BMI has increased considerably over the past year, or both of its parents are overweight.
15
exercised. The post-test questionnaire (see appendix A) was aimed at measuring intrinsic motivation, flow, and enjoyment of the exergame or exercise that the children participated in. In addition, they were asked to fill out questions regarding the likelihood of remaining active once the WIJS program had ended. Randomly assigning the children to a condition was not possible as this would interfere too much with the program.
Procedure
As previously mentioned, before participating in the experiment, the children filled out a questionnaire regarding their attitude towards exercise and physical activity in general. The questionnaires will filled out with pen and paper. Once all children had completed the
questionnaire these were handed in and the regular teachers continued with the lesson as they normally would. The lessons did not differ for the purpose of this research.
Two experimental groups and two control groups participated in the research. The children in the first experimental group were allowed to choose which exergame they wanted to play. Exergames they used were the interactive wall on which they had to switch off the lights, the interactive floor where they had to avoid the light, and the stationary indoor bicycle connected to a video screen. The second experimental group played the exergames as a group. They used the interactive wall and the interactive floor. The first control group had a lesson at school, where they played several versions of dodge ball. The second control group had a basketball lesson at the gym at Work Out Wijs. After completing the lessons, the children were given back their answer sheets and were asked to complete the second half of the questionnaire. These questions were about the lesson that they had just followed. Additionally, they were asked to provide information about their intentions to remain physically active once the WIJS program ends.
Measures
16
scales were translated from English to Dutch and adapted in order to be suitable for the target group. The use of language of some of the original items was quite difficult for children. Therefore, these items were rephrased. If it was possible, items that overlapped were combined so that the item could be used to measure more than one variable. For example: “This activity was a lot of fun” was used to measure both intrinsic motivation as enjoyment. The motivation to continue participating in physical activity was measured on a
self-developed scale. The questionnaire generally existed of statements that the children answered on 5-point Likert scales, ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). Intrinsic motivation. To measure intrinsic motivation the validated Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) (McAuley, Duncan & Tammen, 1987) was used. This scale is based on 45 items measuring: interest/enjoyment, perceived competence, effort/importance, pressure/tension, perceived choice, value/usefulness, and relatedness. Examples of items used in this study are: “I enjoyed this activity very much”, “I think I did pretty well at this activity compared to other students”, and “I did this activity because I had to”. This scale was used to measure pre-test and post-test intrinsic motivation.
The scale used to measure intrinsic motivation included the items: “When I exercise I feel nervous”, “I enjoy exercising”, “When I exercise I feel at ease”, “I know exactly what I’m doing when I’m exercising”, “I think exercising is very boring”, and “When I exercise I have the feeling that I decide what I do myself”. The scale existing of six items has a
reliability of Cronbach’s α = .42 for pre-test intrinsic motivation, and Cronbach’s α = .66 for post-test intrinsic motivation.
Enjoyment. The Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) (Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991) was used to measure enjoyment regarding physical activity for both the experimental as the control group. The original scale exists of 18 items of which several suitable items were selected for this research. Items used in this research are for example: “I
17
felt bored participating in this activity”, “I disliked the activity”, and “This activity was a lot of fun”. The PACES was used in both the pre-test and post-test questionnaire.
The scale to measure enjoyment included all eight items that were included in the questionnaire: “I enjoy exercising”, “I’m pleased with how I exercise”, “Exercising gives me energy”, “I feel (physically) good when I exercise”, “Exercising makes me feel happy”, “I’d rather do something else than exercising”, “I find exercising very tiring”, “I find exercising very unpleasant”. This scale has a reliability of Cronbach’s α = .71 for pre-test enjoyment, and Cronbach’s α = .89 for post-test enjoyment.
Flow. There are different scales to measure flow. For this research, the flow short scale developed by Engeser and Rheinberg (2008) was used. Using this scale has several advantages. The scale exists of relatively few items, which is beneficial when working with children, and the scale is developed to measure the experience of flow components instead of operationalizing flow in terms of challenge and skill. The latter makes it possible to measure to what extent the participants experienced the flow components. Examples of items of this scale are: “I feel just the right amount of challenge”, “I am totally absorbed in what I am doing”, and “I know what I have to do each step of the way”. This scale was used to measure pre-test and post-test levels of flow.
The scale used to measure flow included all five items that were included in the questionnaire: “Compared to others I think I’m good at exercising, “I know exactly what I’m doing when I’m exercising”, “When I exercise I find it easy to concentrate”, “I don’t think exercising is too difficult or too easy”, “When I exercise I forget the time”. This scale has a reliability of Cronbach’s α = .58 for pre-test flow, and Cronbach’s α = .50 for post-test flow. Intention to remain physically active. To determine whether or not intrinsic
motivation increases the motivation to remain physically active, the children were asked to answer several questions regarding their intention to exercise outside of the WIJS program.
18
Unfortunately due to time limitations, it is not possible to do a check-up after a few months to see whether the children indeed remained active. Therefore, the intention of remaining
physically active was measured. The intention to remain physically active was only measured in the post-test questionnaire. A new scale was created to measure this intention. Questions included on this scale were: “In the future I see myself participating in a sport”, “I would like to become part of a sports club”, “I only exercise because I have to participate in the WIJS program, and “Once the program ends, I would like to stay physically active”. This scale has a reliability of Cronbach’s α = .65.
Results
43 children initially participated in this study, of which 29 girls and 14 boys aged 7 to 12. The results of 41 children (29 girls and 12 boys) were analysed, as two boys did not fill out the questionnaire correctly. The experimental condition (N = 20) and control condition (N = 21) each consist of two combined groups.
Increase of intrinsic motivation
To measure whether intrinsic motivation increases more from pre-test to post-test in the experimental group than in the control group a mixed ANOVA was conducted between the pre-test and post-test and within the experimental and control condition. Results show that there is no main effect of condition on intrinsic motivation (F(1,39) = .63, p = .43, partial η2 = .02). This means that there is not an effect of solely the condition on intrinsic motivation. There is however an interaction effect between condition and pre-test and post-test (F(1, 39) = 9.69, p = .003, partial η2 = .20). When controlling for gender and age in an analysis of
covariance the interaction effect remains, however its significance does decrease (F(1,37) = 8.33, p = .006. This indicates that the difference between intrinsic motivation from pre-test to post-test was dependent on the condition. A paired samples t-test determined that intrinsic motivation does not significantly increase (t(19) -.44, p = .67) for the experimental condition
19
from pre-test (4.16, SD = .55) to post-test (M = 4.21, SD = .55). However, intrinsic motivation does significantly decrease (t(20) = 3.54, p = .002) for the control condition from pre-test (M = 4.33, SD = .48) to post-test (M = 3.76, SD = .88) as can be seen in table 1.
Table 1. Intrinsic motivation: pre-test to post-test
M SD N
Pre-test experimental condition 4.16 .55 20 Pre-test control condition 4.33 .48 21
Post-test experimental condition 4.21 .55 20 Post-test control condition 3.76 .88 21 Predicting intrinsic motivation based on flow and enjoyment
Multiple regressions with flow and enjoyment as predictors were conducted to determine whether children who experience higher levels of flow and enjoyment also experience higher levels of intrinsic motivation. First the pre-test levels of enjoyment and flow were analysed in relation to pre-test intrinsic motivation. The multiple regression shows that the model is significant (F(2, 38) = 12.70, p = .000). The outcome of the multiple
regression shows that together the two independent variables explain 36.9% (adj. r2 = .369) of the variance in pre-test intrinsic motivation. Pre-test enjoyment, however, does not
significantly explain pre-test intrinsic motivation levels, b = .18, b* = .21, t = 1.43, p = .16. Pre-test flow, b = .34, b* = .51, t = 3.51, p = .001, does significantly explain pre-test intrinsic motivation levels.
Table 2. Predictors of intrinsic motivation: enjoyment and flow
B B* t p
Enjoyment pre-test .18 .21 1.43 .16 Flow pre-test .34 .51 3.51 .001 Enjoyment post-test .41 .51 4.17 .000 Flow post-test .38 .39 3.22 .003
Additionally, it was tested to what extent post-test levels of enjoyment and flow predicted post-test levels of intrinsic motivation by conducting a multiple regression. The
20
multiple regression presents a significant model (F(2, 38) = 36.31, p = .000). Post-test enjoyment, b = .41, b* = .51, t = 4.17, p = .000, significantly explains post-test levels of intrinsic motivation. Post-test flow, b = .38, b* = .39, t = 3.22, p = .003, also significantly explains post-test levels of intrinsic motivation. Together, post-test enjoyment and post-test flow explain 63.8% (adj r2 = .638) of the variance in post-test intrinsic motivation.
Increase of enjoyment and flow. As enjoyment and flow are predictors of intrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation decreases in the control group from pre-test to post-test, it can be expected that the same happens for enjoyment and flow. A mixed ANOVA shows that there is no main effect of condition on enjoyment (F(1, 39) = 1.78, p = .19, partial η2= .04). This means that the just the condition does not have a significant influence on enjoyment. Also the interaction effect of condition and pre-test and post-test is not significant (F (1,39) = .74, p = .39, partial η2= .02). Additionally, there is not interaction effect found when
controlling for either gender or age (F(1,37) = .95, p = .34). Table 3. Enjoyment: pre-test to post-test
M SD N
Pre-test experimental condition 4.33 .59 20 Pre-test control condition 4.17 .62 21
Post-test experimental condition 4.25 .79 20 Post-test control condition 4.05 1.07 21
There is no main effect of condition on flow (F(1, 39) = 1.78, p = .19, partial η2= .04), which means that the condition does not influence the level of experienced flow. Additionally, there is no interaction effect found of condition and pre-test and post-test (F(1, 39) = 2.06, p = .16, partial η2= .05). Also controlling for gender and age does not influence the interaction effect (F(1,37) = 1.43), p = .24). In exploring the outcomes there are hardly any trends visible, except that flow seems to decrease from pre-test (M = 3.83, SD = .16) to post-test (M = 3.41, SD = .17) in the control condition, but not in the experimental condition
21
as can be seen in table 4.
Table 4. Flow: pre-test to post-test
M SD N
Pre-test experimental condition 3.77 .83 20 Pre-test control condition 3.81 .73 21 Post-test experimental condition 3.78 .78 20 Post-test control condition 3.41 .78 21
Predicting intrinsic motivation controlling for age, gender, and intention to remain physically active. In addition to flow and enjoyment being possible predictors of intrinsic motivation further analyses were run to determine whether additional variables influenced the prediction of intrinsic motivation. As the post-test variables explained the most variance, the tests were run for post-test intrinsic motivation. The first variable that could influence intrinsic motivation is gender. The multiple regression however showed that this variable does not significantly predict posttest intrinsic motivation (b = .12, b* = .07, t = -.76, p = .45). Also age does not significantly predict post-test intrinsic motivation levels (b = .04, b* = .08, t = .79, p = .44). The intention to remain physically active once the WIJS program is over does correlate significantly with intrinsic motivation (Pearson correlation = .27, p = .04). This variable approaches a significant outcome regarding the variance in post-test intrinsic motivation (b = .15, b* = .18, t = 1.87, p = .07).
Table 5. Predictors of intrinsic motivation: gender, age, intention to remain physically active
B B* t p
Gender -.12 -.07 -.76 .45 Age .04 .08 .79 .44 Intention to remain physically active .15 .18 1.87 .07
Together with post-test flow and post-test enjoyment, the intention to remain physically active significantly (F(3, 37) = 26.96, p = .000) explains 66.1% (adj r2 = .661) of the variance in post-test intrinsic motivation.
22
Intrinsic motivation and the intention to remain physically active
Based on theory it is assumed that children’s intrinsic motivation significantly correlates with children’s intention to remain physically active once the WIJS program has ended. To test the robustness of this correlation, multiple regressions were conducted. First, the influence of pre-test intrinsic motivation on the intention to remain physically active was tested. The regression shows that the model is not significant (F(1, 39) = 2.57, p = 1.12) and that pre-test intrinsic motivation does not significantly explain the intention to remain physically active (b = .44, b* = .25, t = 1.6, p = .12). The second regression was run to determine whether post-test intrinsic motivation influenced the intention to remain physically active. Again, the outcome shows that the model is not significant (F(1, 39) = 3.07, p = .09) and that post-test intrinsic motivation , b = .32, b* = .27, t = .1.75, p = .09, does not
significantly explain one’s intention to remain physically active once the WIJS program has ended.
Discussion
The discussion reviews the results somewhat more extensively than may be usual. A more detailed discussion of the findings may be of relevance to the evaluation of
WIJS’program.
Do exergames increase intrinsic motivation?
As the goal of exergames is to incorporate elements of flow and enjoyment in the games to increase children’s intrinsic motivation, it can be expected that the intrinsic motivation of the children in the experimental condition will increase more from pre-test to post-test than the children in the control condition. Prior to the exergame or exercise period, the children reported similar levels of intrinsic motivation in the experimental as well as the control condition. These levels were unexpectedly high, around 4 on a 5-point scale. Findings regarding the difference in intrinsic motivation from pre-test to post-test differ for both
23
conditions. On the one hand, the increase of intrinsic motivation in the experimental group is minimal and found to be insignificant. On the other hand, is notable that in the control condition intrinsic motivation decreases from pre-test to post-test measurements. Hence, the hypothesis that intrinsic motivation increases more from pre-test to post-test in the
experimental group than in the control group cannot be accepted, but it can be argued that exercise leads to a decrease of intrinsic motivation from pre-test to post-test.
Exergaming focuses on elements that are said to increase intrinsic motivation by emphasizing on fun and enjoyment (Hanson & Sanders, 2011; Zuckerman & Gal-Oz, 2014). The participants are a group of which is expected that they are not highly motivated to engage in physical activity in a traditional manner. The decrease of intrinsic motivation levels
between the pre-test and the post-test of the control condition supports this suggestion,
although the children do indicate having high levels of intrinsic motivation at the pre-test. For the children in the experimental condition, the levels of intrinsic motivation remained the same. This can be supported by the fact that exergames include elements that are said to stimulate intrinsic motivation, while traditional exercises do not. Based on this argument, the decrease in intrinsic motivation in the control group could be explained by the fact that the traditional exercises lacked elements that stimulate intrinsic motivation. This is in agreement with the notion that exercise can easily become unattractive and that this target group is less drawn to exercise. The is at least in line with the suggestion that exercise has a more limited capacity to keep intrinsic motivation levels stable than exergaming does. However, it could also be that the elements of fun and enjoyment must be more prominent in the exergames to lead to an increase of intrinsic motivation. Although the increase in intrinsic motivation in the experimental group is insignificant, one must be careful jumping to conclusions. This
insignificance could be explained by various limitations to the study that will be discussed further on.
24
And does intrinsic motivation lead to the intention to remain physically active? The intention to remain physically active once the WIJS program has ended is an important factor in this research, as it is the goal of the WIJS program to teach children about a healthy lifestyle an motivate them to establish a long-lasting engagement in this lifestyle. As supported by theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000a) intrinsic motivation and the intention to remain physically active after the WIJS program ends correlate as intrinsic motivation is more likely to lead to a long-lasting engagement in an activity. The hypothesis that states that intrinsic motivation is related to the intention to remain physically active once the WIJS program has ended can be accepted, which leads to the assumption that children with a higher intrinsic motivation are also more likely to intend to remain physically active. The results however do not show significant proof to support this statement. This is in contrast with previously stated findings as well as the theory presented by Ryan and Deci (2000a). In future research it should be considered to measure the intention to remain physically active once the WIJS program has ended not only in the post-test but also in the pre-test. This way it could be measured whether the exergaming also has an influence on the intention to remain physically active.
Flow and enjoyment’s influence on intrinsic motivation
The results show that especially flow significantly predicts intrinsic motivation, both pre-test as post-test. This is in line with the theory that states that flow is the optimal state of intrinsic motivation. When challenge and ability are perfectly balanced the stage of flow is reached (Sheehan & Katz, 2012). The more a child experiences this balance, the more likely one is to reach a state of flow, increasing one’s intrinsic motivation. This statement is in line with the findings which show that the more flow a child experiences during either the exergame or the exercise the higher his or her intrinsic motivation is. Therefore, it can be argued children who experience higher levels of flow will be more intrinsically motivated
25
than those who experience lower levels of flow.
As with flow, it is expected that the more a child enjoys an activity the higher its intrinsic motivation will be. The results however show that when pre-test enjoyment is
compared to pre-test intrinsic motivation the relationship is not significant. Pre-test enjoyment does nog significantly predict pre-test intrinsic motivation. Post-test enjoyment, on the other hand, does significantly predict post-test intrinsic motivation. This is in agreement with the theory that states that to be intrinsically motivated one must experience an activity as enjoyable. By making an exercise enjoyable, children will experience an intrinsic desire to engage in the specific activity (Weiss, 2000). This does seem to be the fact for the post-test findings. Due to insignificant findings in the pre-test, it cannot be stated that children who experience higher levels of enjoyment will be more intrinsically motivated that those who experience lower levels of enjoyment. However, regarding the WIJS program, it can be stated that the more children enjoy the program, whether they participated in exercise or exergames, the higher their intrinsic motivation is. Making the activities as enjoyable as possible for the children seems to increase intrinsic motivation levels.
Other variables affecting intrinsic motivation. In addition to enjoyment and flow, it is assumed that there may be other variables that, in combination with enjoyment and flow, can predict intrinsic motivation. The multiple regression including age showed that age does not significantly predict intrinsic motivation. This is in contrast with the assumption that younger children are more intrinsically motivated to engage in physical activity and find enjoyment more important than older children (Digelidis & Papaloannou, 1999; Weiss, 2000). Additionally gender does not significantly predict intrinsic motivation, contradicting the claims that boys are more competitive and girls are more intrinsically motivated (Weiss, 2000; Vu et al., 2006). The intention to remain physically active once the WIJS program has ended did significantly predict intrinsic motivation. This is in line with the statement that one
26
is intrinsically motivated one is more likely to have a long-lasting engagement with the activity (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Limitations
There are several limitations to this study which can explain the insignificance of certain results. First of all, the sample was relatively small and contained an uneven division between boys and girls. As the sample consisted of significantly more girls than boys, it is also difficult to find significant results regarding gender differences. As it is suggested that there are gender differences, it would be recommended for future research to not only increase the sample but also try to have a somewhat equal distribution of boys and girls.
Another limitation that should be optimized for future research is that both the experimental and the control conditions were made up of two separate groups. These groups were combined for the analyses. However, each class was taught by a different teacher which may have had an effect on the children. More important, the exergames and the exercises were not identical for each of the conditions. This may influenced the children’s attitude and motivation towards the lessons.
Age can also be seen an element to take in to consideration for future research. The questionnaires were made to suit the age group and most of the children were able to
understand them easily. However, there were children that had more difficulty understanding some of the questions than others. It was especially difficult for the youngest children to understand the 5-point Likert scale. They had trouble making the distinction between for example ‘agree’ and ‘completely agree’, which undoubtedly had an effect on how they filled out the questionnaire. One of these effects could be the high rating of intrinsic motivation. As the results show, pre-test intrinsic motivation was remarkably high, making it hardly
impossible to significantly increase for the post-test. It should therefore be considered to focus even more on creating suitable scales for this age group.
27
A final factor that is a limitation that must be acknowledged is that the exercises also included game elements. Elements as fun and challenge were stimulated, while the teachers also provided the children with feedback. This could have a positive effect on intrinsic motivation, enjoyment and flow that a ‘basic’ exercise would not have had. To make a better distinction between exercise and exergame and to research what the influences of exergame elements are, it may be better to compare the (exact) same physical activity in exercise and exergame form. This could be done using, for example, the treadmill. Just running on the treadmill would be seen as exercise while running on the treadmill with the screen would be the exergame. This comparison may give a more clear result of whether exergaming leads to higher intrinsic motivation, enjoyment and flow. However, due to time limitations this was not possible. The best way to compare the conditions was to compare the two different lessons. This did give a clear view of how the lessons are rated and additionally gave an interesting insight in the exercise group with regards to the decrease of intrinsic motivation and flow.
Recommendations for future research
With regard to the WIJS program and its goal to improve the children’s lifestyle and make sure the children maintain this lifestyle, it would be beneficial for future research to focus on the relationship between intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and the children’s intention to remain physically active. The emphasis of this research has been on intrinsic motivation as the key element to motivate children to exercise. Although fun and enjoyment may lead to high levels of intrinsic motivation which could increase the likelihood of children remaining physically active, it is known that not all children can be equally motivated for all activities. In a future study, it would therefore be interesting to research which extrinsic elements can be targeted through exergaming to stimulate children with low intrinsic motivation to exercise.
28
Conclusion
This study can be seen as beneficial research for the WIJS program as it shows that in both the experimental condition as the control condition levels of flow and enjoyment are relatively high and both lead to higher levels of intrinsic motivation. Although it is important to state that intrinsic motivation decreases in the exercise condition. There is no direct evidence found in this study that exergaming increases intrinsic motivation, however, exergames do keep intrinsic motivation levels stable while exercise decreases these levels. For exergames to increase intrinsic motivation it may be necessary for the elements of flow and enjoyment to be more present. What this study does show is that children consider traditional exercise as less intrinsically motivating than exergames.. It can therefore be concluded that using exergames to motivate children to be physically active is effective for this target group.
References
Baranowski, T., Maddison, R., Maloney, A., Medina Jr, E., & Simons, M. (2014). Building a better mousetrap (exergame) to increase youth physical activity. GAMES FOR
HEALTH: Research, Development, and Clinical Applications, 3(2), 72-78.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1975. Play and intrinsic rewards. Journal of Humanistic Psychology,
15(3), 41-63.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper and Row.
Daley, A. J. (2009). Can exergaming contribute to improving physical activity levels and health outcomes in children?. Pediatrics, 124(2), 763-771.
Deci, E.L., & Cascio, W. F. (1972, April). Changes in intrinsic motivation as a function of
negative feedback and threats. Presented at the meeting of Eastern Psychological
Association, Boston.
29
the self-determination of behavior. Psychological inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.
Digelidis, N., & Papaioannou, A. (1999). Age‐group differences in intrinsic motivation, goal orientations and perceptions of athletic competence, physical appearance and motivational climate in Greek physical education. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine
& Science in Sports, 9(6), 375-380.
Engeser, S., & Rheinberg, F. (2008). Flow, performance and moderators of challenge-skill balance. Motivation and Emotion, 32(3), 158-172.
Graves, L. E., Ridgers, N. D., Williams, K., Stratton, G., & Atkinson, G. T. (2010). The physiological cost and enjoyment of Wii Fit in adolescents, young adults, and older adults. Journal of Physical Activity & Health, 7(3), 393-401.
Hansen, L., & Sanders, S. (2008). Interactive gaming: Changing the face of fitness. Florida
Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Dance & Sport Journal, 46(1),
38-41.
Hansen, L., Sanders, S.W. (2011). Active gaming: A new paradigm in childhood physical activity. Digital Culture & Education, 3(2), 123-139.
Hinson, C. (2001). Games kids should play at recess. 2nd ed. Wilmington, DE, Physical Education Resources, Co.
Kendzierski, D., & DeCarlo, K. J. (1991). Physical activity enjoyment scale: Two validation studies. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 13(1), 50–64.
Kimiecik, J. C., & Harris, A. T. (1996). What is enjoyment? A conceptual/definitional analysis with implications for sport and exercise psychology. Journal of Sport and
Exercise Psychology, 18, 247-263.
Koivisto, A., Merilampi, S., & Kiili, K. (2011, October). Mobile exergames for preventing diseases related to childhood obesity. In Proceedings of the 4th International
30
29). ACM.
Lindstrom, M., Seybold, P. eds (2003). Brand child: Remarkable insights into the minds of
today’s global kids and their relationships with brands. Revised ed. Great Britain:
Kogan Page Publishers.
Maloney, A. E., Stempel, A., Wood, M. E., Patraitis, C., & Beaudoin, C. (2012). Can dance exergames boost physical activity as a school-based intervention? GAMES FOR
HEALTH: Research, Development, and Clinical Applications, 1(6), 416-421.
McAuley, E., Duncan, T., & Tammen, V. V. (1987). Psychometric properties of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory in a competitive sport setting: A confirmatory factor analysis.
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 60, 48-58.
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). The concept of flow. Handbook of Positive
Psychology, 89-105.
Rossem, L. van (2011). Vroege risicofactoren in de ontwikkeling van sociale verschillen in
overgewicht bij kinderen op peuterleeftijd. Rotterdam: Erasmus Universiteit
Rotterdam.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 54-67.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American psychologist, 55(1), 68-78. Schönbeck, Y., Talma, H., van Dommelen, P., Bakker, B., Buitendijk, S. E., Hirasing, R. A.,
& van Buuren, S. (2011). Increase in prevalence of overweight in Dutch children and adolescents: a comparison of nationwide growth studies in 1980, 1997 and 2009. PloS
one, 6(11), e27608.
Sheehan, D. P., & Katz, L. (2012). The practical and theoretical implications of flow theory and intrinsic motivation in designing and implementing exergaming in the school
31
environment. The Journal of the Canadian Game Studies Association, 6(9), 53-68. Song, H., Peng, W., & Lee, K. M. (2011). Promoting exercise self-efficacy with an
exergame. Journal of Health Communication, 16(2), 148-162.
Staiano, A. E., Abraham, A. A., & Calvert, S. L. (2013). Adolescent exergame play for weight loss and psychosocial improvement: a controlled physical activity
intervention. Obesity, 21(3), 598-601.
Vries, S. I. van, Slinger, J., & Schokker, D. F. (2010). Beweegvriendelijke stadswijken voor
kinderen: resultaten van een quasi-experimenteel onderzoek. TNO Preventie en Zorg.
Vu, M. B., Murrie, D., Gonzalez, V., & Jobe, J. B. (2006). Listening to girls and boys talk about girls’ physical activity behaviors. Health Education & Behavior, 33(1), 81-96. Weiss, M. R. (2000). Motivating kids in physical activity. President's Council on Physical
Fitness and Sports Research Digest, 3(11), 1-8 .
Whitehead, A., Johnston, H., Nixon, N., & Welch, J. (2010, July). Exergame effectiveness: what the numbers can tell us. In Proceedings of the 5th ACM SIGGRAPH Symposium
on Video Games (pp. 55-62). ACM.
Widman, L. M., McDonald, C. M., & Abresch, R. T. (2006). Effectiveness of an upper extremity exercise device integrated with computer gaming for aerobic training in adolescents with spinal cord dysfunction. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine, 29(4), 363-370.
Zuckerman, O., & Gal-Oz, A. (2014). Deconstructing gamification: evaluating the
effectiveness of continuous measurement, virtual rewards, and social comparison for promoting physical activity. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 18(7), 1705-1719.
1
Appendix A. Questionnaire Hoi!
Mijn naam is Kirsten en ik doe voor mijn studie een onderzoek naar sport en plezier. Ik zou je graag een paar vragen willen stellen over jouw ervaringen met sport. Het eerste deel van de vragenlijst vul je in voordat je aan de oefening begint. Na de oefening vul je de rest van de vragenlijst in.
Voordat je aan de vragenlijst begint is belangrijk om het onderstaande goed door te lezen:
- Je kan geen verkeerde antwoorden geven. Beantwoord de vragen eerlijk, alle antwoorden zijn goed voor dit onderzoek.
- Geef het antwoord wat jij denkt dat het beste bij je past.
- Jouw antwoorden worden alleen door mij gelezen en verder door niemand anders.
Voor mijn onderzoek is het belangrijk dat je alle vragen beantwoordt en dat alle antwoorden eerlijk zijn. Nogmaals: alle antwoorden zijn goed!
Om een vraag te beantwoorden zet je een kruisje in het juiste vakje. Als je een antwoord wilt veranderen, kras dan het verkeerde antwoord door en zet een kruisje bij het juiste antwoord.
Als je vragen hebt over de vragenlijst mag je mij die altijd stellen. Ik zal je dan proberen te helpen.
2
Naam……….
1. Ben je een jongen of een meisje?
Jongen Meisje
2. Hou oud ben je? Ik ben … jaar oud.
3. Wat is je postcode?
Weet je je postcode niet? Woon je dichtbij school/WIJS?
Postcode: …………. Ja
Nee
4. Sport je ook buiten WIJS?
Ja
Nee (ga door naar vraag 7) 5. Geef aan hoeveel keer per week je
ongeveer buiten WIJS sport.
Ik sport …… keer per week buiten WIJS.
6. Kun je aangeven hoe leuk je het vindt om te sporten?
1 = helemaal niet leuk
2 = niet leuk
3 = niet leuk maar ook niet stom 4 = leuk
5 = heel leuk 7. Kun je aangeven hoeveel keer per
week je bij WIJS sport?
Ik sport ….. keer per week bij WIJS
8. Kun je aangeven hoe leuk je het vindt om in je vrije tijd bij WIJS te sporten?
1 = helemaal niet leuk
2 = niet leuk
3 = niet leuk maar ook niet stom 4 = leuk 5 = heel leuk [ T r e k d e a a n d a c h t v a n u w l e z e r m e t e e n v e e l z e g g e [ T r e k d e a a n d a c h t v a n u w l e z e r m e t e e n [ T r e k d e a a n d a c h t v a n u w l e z e r m e t e [ T r e k d e a a n d a c h t v a n u w l e z e r m
3
Het volgende deel van de vragenlijst zal bestaan uit uitspraken. Ik wil graag weten of jij het met de uitspraken eens of juist oneens bent? Je kan steeds uit 5 antwoorden kiezen: 1 = helemaal niet mee eens, 2 = niet mee eens, 3 = niet mee eens maar ook niet oneens, 4 = mee eens, 5 = helemaal mee eens.
Onthoud goed: geef alsjeblieft eerlijk antwoord, je kan geen verkeerd antwoord geven!
Geef aan in hoeverre de volgende uitspraken voor jou gelden. 1 = helemaal niet mee eens
2 = niet mee eens
3 = niet mee eens maar ook niet mee oneens 4 = mee eens
5 = helemaal mee eens
9. Tijdens het sporten ben ik vaak zenuwachtig.
1 2 3 4 5
10. Ik heb het gevoel dat ik verplicht ben te sporten.
1 2 3 4 5
11. Ik vind sporten leuk.
1 2 3 4 5
12. Ik denk dat ik goed ben in sporten vergeleken met andere kinderen.
1 2 3 4 5
13. Als ik sport voel ik me op mijn gemak.
1 2 3 4 5
14. Ik ben tevreden over de manier waarop ik sport uitoefen.
1 2 3 4 5
15. Ik weet precies wat ik doe als ik aan het sporten ben.
1 2 3 4 5
16. Als ik aan het sporten ben vergeet ik de tijd.
4
1 = helemaal niet mee eens 2 = niet mee eens
3 = niet mee eens maar ook niet mee oneens 4 = mee eens
5 = helemaal mee eens
17. Ik vind sporten erg saai.
1 2 3 4 5
18. Als ik sport kan ik me daar makkelijk op concentreren.
1 2 3 4 5
19. Ik vind sporten niet te moeilijk maar ook niet te makkelijk.
1 2 3 4 5
20. Ik krijg energie van sporten.
1 2 3 4 5
21. Ik voel me (lichamelijk) goed als ik sport.
1 2 3 4 5
22. Ik word blij van sporten.
1 2 3 4 5
23. Ik zou liever iets anders doen in plaats van sporten.
1 2 3 4 5
24. Ik vind sporten erg vermoeiend.
1 2 3 4 5
25. Ik vind sporten erg vervelend.
1 2 3 4 5
26. Ik heb het gevoel dat ik zelf bepaal wat ik doe als ik sport.
1 2 3 4 5
Nu mag je deelnemen aan de oefening. Als je klaar bent kun je het tweede deel van de vragenlijst invullen.
De vragen die je nu mag beantwoorden zijn bijna hetzelfde als de vorige vragen. Maar deze vragen gaan over de oefening die je net hebt uitgevoerd. Denk bij het beantwoorden van de vragen dus goed aan de oefening.
5
1 = helemaal niet mee eens 2 = niet mee eens
3 = niet mee eens maar ook niet mee oneens 4 = mee eens
5 = helemaal mee eens
27. Tijdens de oefening voelde ik me zenuwachtig.
1 2 3 4 5
28. Ik had het gevoel dat de oefening verplicht was.
1 2 3 4 5
29. Ik vond de oefening leuk.
1 2 3 4 5
30. Ik denk dat ik goed ben in de oefening in vergelijking met andere kinderen.
1 2 3 4 5
31. Ik voelde me op mijn gemak tijdens de oefening.
1 2 3 4 5
32. Ik ben tevreden over hoe ik de oefening heb uitgevoerd.
1 2 3 4 5
33. Ik wist precies wat ik deed tijdens de oefening.
1 2 3 4 5
34. Ik vergat de tijd tijdens de oefening.
1 2 3 4 5
35. Ik vond de oefening erg saai.
1 2 3 4 5
36. Ik kon me goed concentreren op de oefening.
1 2 3 4 5
37. Ik vond de oefening niet te moeilijk maar ook niet te makkelijk, precies goed
1 2 3 4 5
38. Ik kreeg energie van de oefening.
6
39. Ik voelde me (lichamelijk) goed tijdens de oefening.
1 2 3 4 5
40. Ik werd blij van de oefening.
1 2 3 4 5
41. Ik had eigenlijk liever iets anders gedaan in plaats van de oefening.
1 2 3 4 5
42. Ik vond de oefening erg vermoeiend.
1 2 3 4 5
43. Ik vond de oefening erg vervelend.
1 2 3 4 5
44. Ik heb het gevoel dat ik zelf bepaalde wat ik deed tijdens de oefening.
1 2 3 4 5
45. Ik sport alleen omdat ik deelneem aan WIJS.
1 2 3 4 5
46. Als het WIJS programma afgelopen is wil ik graag blijven sporten.
1 2 3 4 5
47. Ik zou wel mee willen sporten dan ik nu doe. 1 2 3 4 5
48. Ik zou ook andere sporten willen proberen. 1 2 3 4 5
49. Ik wil ook in mijn eentje sporten, dus niet alleen in een groep.
1 2 3 4 5
50. Ik zou graag lid worden van een sportvereniging.
1 2 3 4 5
51. Ik ben al lid van een sportvereniging.
Ja Nee
Je bent nu klaar met het invullen van de vragenlijst. Je kunt je ingevulde vragenlijst bij mij inleveren.
Ik wil je heel erg bedanken voor het meedoen aan mijn onderzoek en het invullen van de vragenlijst. Je hebt me er enorm mee geholpen!
[ T r e k d e a a n [ T r e k d e a
