ENHANCING BRAND AWARENESS THROUGH SOUND
A study about the role of musical fit of the sound logo and degree of exposure in
enhancing brand awareness
Author: Sacha Stoffers Student ID: 11138629
Master’s thesis University of Amsterdam Graduate School of Communication
Master’s programme Communication Science; Corporate communication Supervisor: T.B. Aurajo Date of completion: 12-06-2016
Abstract
Research on the strategic use of sound and music suggests that both have the ability to reinforce or weaken a brand’s image and that this might be dependent on whether the sound or music corresponds with features of the advertised brand or not. Reason for this would be that music and sound can evoke relevant associations with the brand. This study carried out an experiment among 124 participants, testing whether musical fit of a sound logo and degree of exposure to that sound logo could influence brand awareness among consumers. Results showed that both musical fit and a high degree of exposure led to enhanced recall and recognition of the brand’s image, but not the brand’s name. These findings confirm that musical fit in a sound logo as well as degree of exposure can reinforce a brand’s image and thus influence brand awareness. Showing that sound and especially music are positive tools for branding ends, but should be selected with care.
Keywords: Sound logo, Musical fit, Degree of exposure, Brand awareness
Everyday, around 100 million new businesses are launched worldwide (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, 2016). In such a highly competitive world, brand awareness among consumers is the foundation for a successful brand. According to Baredda, Bilgihan, Nusair and Okumus (2015), brand awareness is the “consumer’s ability to recognize and recall the brand when provided a cue” (p. 600) (Berry, 2000; Bilgihan, Peng, & Kandampully, 2014; Lin, 2013).
One of the most well-known and most used cues that solicits recall and recognition of a brand is the visual logo (Wallace, 2001). However, it is claimed that other senses such as smell, sound, touch and taste can also be used as an important cue to the brand (Bartholmé & Melewar, 2011). For instance, Abercrombie uses its own distinctive perfume and is known to play loud, upbeat music in their stores. Another example is Nokia’s jingle, which is
recognized all around the world. In branding research, less attention has been paid to the use of sound as compared to the use of visuals. As music has been revealed as one of the most significant environmental stimuli to which a customer can be exposed (Milliman, 1982, 1986), and because advances in technology have made sound and music easy to use, this paper will focus on the acoustic counterpart of the visual logo, the sound logo (Jackson, 2004). The aim of this paper is to extend the literature on sound and music in branding, in particular the literature on the role of the sound logo.
In previous literature about the strategic use of music, it is often argued that the sound or music should “correspond with consumers’ subjective perceptions of the music’s relevance or appropriateness to the message” (Macinnes & Park, 1991, p. 162). In the case of branding this would mean that music should correspond with the image the brand is trying to convey (Beverland, Lim, Morrison & Terziovski, 2006; Baker, 1994; Morrison & Beverland, 2003). This so-called ‘musical fit’ has mostly been studied in a retail setting, but its potential role in branding seems understudied. This study will investigate whether musical fit plays a role in reinforcing the brands image through the equivalent of the visual logo; the sound logo. More precisely, this study wants to answer the question whether a perceived musical fit will lead to higher brand awareness and even a better recall of the image of a brand as compared to a perceived misfit of the sound logo. In addition, this experiment will test the assumptions of North et al. (2004) that musical fit works through raising attention, whereas musical misfit might cause distraction. This would explain the proposed relation between musical (mis)fit and the degree of brand awareness.
Logos are used consistently and repeatedly over time and across multiple touch points. Since repetition leads to learning, (Cacioppo & Petty, 1979), it is interesting to study what role variation in degree of exposure to a sound logo might play in influencing consumers’ ability to recall or recognize the brand and its image. Furthermore, the Human Association
Memory theory (Osselaer & Janiszweski, 2001) leads to think that musical fit and degree of exposure might interact with each other.
To the best of my knowledge, there are no studies on the role of the combined influence on brand awareness of musical fit of the sound logo and degree of exposure to the sound logo, respectively. This study extends the literature on musical fit towards the area of the sound logo and tries to find through what processes musical fit operates.
Therefore, this study will try to answer the following research question: To what extent does musical fit between a sound logo and a brand’s values enhance brand awareness and what is the role of degree of exposure in this process?
Theoretical Framework Brand Awareness
Brand awareness can be thought of as the consumers’ ability to identify and
distinguish a brand within a category in enough detail to make a purchase. (Percy & Rossiter, 1992; Keller, 2009; Lin, 2013) Consequently, it has a significant effect on consumer purchase choices (Hoyer & Brown, 1990; Lin, 2013). Before a brand can start building a favourable image or motivate customers to buy, it is of the essence that consumers are aware what the brand stands for.
Brand awareness consists of two components. Recall of the brand and recognition of the brand. Recall occurs when the brand name is correctly retrieved from memory without any mention of product class or other brand names (Aaker, 1992; Bagozzi & Silk, 1983). Recognition however, only involves consumers remembering having seen the brand (Bagozzi & Silk, 1983). According to Percy and Rossiter (1992) brand awareness can either work from a category-need-first function or a brand-awareness-first function. In the category-need-first function, the consumer first needs a product or service and consequently recalls what brand
could be a solution. The category-need-first function is linked to brand recall. An example for the category-need-first function is when for instance a family wants to go out for dinner. They would not drive around town until they come across a restaurant, but will rather think of or recall some restaurants they would like to go to.
With the brand-awareness-first function, a brand would be presented to consumers after which the consumers would decide whether the product or service category of that particular brand is relevant to them at the given point of time. The brand-awareness-first function is linked to brand recognition. A clear example where the brand-awareness-first function occurs is in the supermarket. Consumers are exposed to an array of brands and will only need to recognize the brand in order to be aware of the brand (Percy & Rossiter, 1992).
Since both functions require brand awareness, this study will focus on recall as well as recognition. Furthermore, as consumers do not only base their choice of purchase on the brand name alone, but also on the brand’s image this study will measure consumers’ ability to recall and recognize both the name and the image.
The Sound Logo
Balmer and Gray (2003) argue that the brand logo plays in important role concerning brand awareness. “A brand logo is the visual representation of a brand and a crucial means to communicate corporate and brand identity in rapidly changing markets” (Grinsven, & Das, 2014, p. 2; Schechter, 1993). Logos fulfil branding objectives as consistency and continuity, but also identification and differentiation (Park, Eisengerich, Pol & Park, 2012).
Consequently, they act as an important cue that leads consumers to recognize or recall the brand and what it stands for.
The acoustic equivalent of a visual logo is the sound logo (Jackson, 2004). A sound logo (audio logo or sonic logo) is a short distinctive melody or other sequence of sound,
mostly positioned at the beginning or ending of a commercial. Bartholmé and Melewar (2011) argue that “sounds can become as familiar and representative to an audience as their visual brand logo” (p. 95). Furthermore, Killian (2007) claims that “a common trait of all acoustical brand elements is that they affect us emotionally and can increase brand
recognition, oftentimes beyond our awareness and our field of vision” (p.42). This makes that the sound logo could act as a relevant cue to the brand. Krishnan, Kellaris and Aurand, (2012) stated that the sound logo is an important part of sonic branding, that is the strategic use of sound to create auditory identity for a brand, leveraging sound as information. In addition, Bartholmé and Melewar (2009) said that a corporate auditory identity is “an assembly of auditory cues by which an audience can recognize the company and distinguish it from others” (p.164). Following that brand awareness is the ability of consumers to identify and distinguish the brand, the sound logo could be of just as much value as the visual logo.
Musical Fit
Bonde and Hanssen, (2013) pose that for a logo to fulfil branding objectives such as ensuring consistency and continuity in presenting the brand, while being clearly distinctive (Park, Eisengerich, Pol & Park, 2012), it should be linked to a specific brand and has to be suitable (‘fitting’ or ‘congruent’) with regard to the attributes and values of the corporate brand. In the case of a sound logo this would mean that the sound should fit the attributes and values of the brand.
Fit between a brand and sound is something that has mostly been studied in the context of in-store branding. For instance, Beverland, Lim, Morrison and Terziovski (2006) studied the effect of in-store music on consumer-brand relationships. They defined ‘fit’ as “congruency between music and other atmospheric in-store variables and perceptions of the brand” (Beverland et al., 2006, p. 983). By means of interviews, they found that consumers
experienced music as an important signalling cue to the brands position, image and quality. Findings from Baker et al. (1994) support the idea of music as an important signalling cue. They showed that using classical music in combination with soft lighting and multiple
salespersons created a sense of prestige among consumers. In other words, the combination of music, lights and service acted as a signal of a prestige. This shows that in order to uphold a consistent brand image, in-store music must reinforce the desired brand personality (Morrison & Beverland, 2003).
Beverland, et al. (2006) also studied misfit and concluded that a misfit could have two outcomes. Either, a perceived ‘misfit’ could diminish the perceived status of the brand, or it could be used to enable a brand to reposition itself. Therefore, it seems that music and sound can play an important role in communicating a brands identity and consequently enhancing brand awareness. A perceived fit could reinforce the brand’s identity, making it more
distinguishable, whereas a perceived misfit could weaken the brand image and consequently make it harder to recall or recognize. While above mentioned studies claim the importance of musical fit, empirical evidence is rather scarce. Furthermore, it is not entirely clear through what processes musical fit might reinforce the brand’s image.
North, Mackenzie, Law and Hargreaves (2004), who take the neural network approach to human cognition and argue that music primes relevant believes about the brand by
communicating and activating information through associations, give one explanation. They argue that “the mind is comprised out of densely interconnected cognitive units, (Martindale & Moore, 1988) such that a specific piece of music can activate related knowledge structures” (associations) (North et al., 2004, p. 1679). This view of memory as” a multicomponent entity consisting of organized and associated networks of information” is common in psychology (Bagozzi & Silk, 1983, p. 100; Bower 1967). Simply put, music can evoke certain
associations evoked by being exposed to the brand increase; thus reinforcing the brand’s image.
The "dual process hypothesis" supports the idea of North et al. (2004). In this model, recognition is believed to be a process whereby a stimulus piece of information is matched or compared to the information that is already in the memory (Bagozzi & Silk, 1983). When this succeeds then there is recognition. The assumption is that the multitude and the strength of the associations between the stimuli and the brand will positively influence the ability to recognize. In the case of a sound logo, recognition of the brand should be enhanced when it matches the associations of the brand. In other words, when the sound logo generates associations similar to the brand, the strength of the sound logo as a cue will be enhanced, which consequently could lead to an increase in recognition of the brand and its image. Therefore, the following two hypotheses are proposed.
1a) Sound logos fitting the brand values will be associated with higher levels of recognition of the brand name when compared to sound logos that do not fit the brand values.
1b) Sound logos fitting the brand values will be associated with higher levels of
recognition of the brand image when compared to sound logos that do not fit the brand values.
In the dual process hypothesis, recall is the next step after recognition. That is, “a stimulus cue is thought to first generate a set of concepts which are mentally associated with the cue, and next comparisons or matching between the cue and set of concepts are performed until the proper one is "recognized" (Bagozzi & Silk, 1983 p. 101). Simply put, the sound logo
would first generate concepts associated with the sound. Second, in order for recall to happen, the brand should be one of the concepts that is generated through the sound logo and then be recognized as the right association the cue is referring to. Therefore, the sound logo should generate concepts that are similar to associations evoked by the brand. This means that a sound logo which matches a brand’s values might make a brand easier to recall, compared to a sound that would spark associations not linked to the brand. If musical fit does works through activating related knowledge structures, then research must show that it is associated with the increased ability of recall of a certain brand (North et al., 2004). Therefore, the following two hypotheses are proposed:
2a) Sound logos fitting the brand values will be associated with higher levels of brand name recall when compared to sound logos that do not fit the brand values.
2b) Sound logos fitting the brand values will be associated with higher levels of recall of the brand image when compared to sound logos that do not fit the brand values.
Distraction through Music
North et al. (2004) also pose another explanation for how musical fit might influence recall and recognition. They state the possibility that fit might enhance recall and recognition through increasing the amount of attention paid to the brand, while a misfit might lead consumers to be distracted from the primary message (North et al., 2004). However, they do not provide arguments as to why.
Previous studies have found ambiguous answers to whether music and sound have a negative or positive influence on the performance of such complex cognitive tasks as recall and recognition (Furnham & Strbac, 2002). Some found beneficial effects of music, claimed
to be caused through enhancing participants’ moods and so indirectly affecting work
satisfaction and performance. Others found music had a detrimental effect on cognitive tasks and accredited this to annoyance and distraction (Furnham & Strbac, 2002). These findings however, concern the effect of background music being played while performing complex cognitive tasks such as recall and not the effect of music on reinforcing a brand’s image and therefore leading to better performance on recall or recognition of that particular brand.
Other research has made a distinction between the effects of music on learning and on testing and found that background music had a positive effect on learning (Felix, 1993). This could mean that music could also have a positive effect on learning a brands image. However, Jäncke and Sandmann (2010) also tried to provide valuable insight regarding the debate whether background music has a positive or negative influence on learning and did not find any substantial influence of music on learning. In short, it still is the question whether music and or sound might aid or distort the performance on complex cognitive tasks.
It would be interesting to test whether a fitting sound logo has beneficial effects by increasing attention to the brand, whereas a non-fitting logo might negatively effect
consumers from understanding the primary message conveyed in the advertisement because of distraction. A non-fitting sound logo might be surprising and thus deflect attention away from the brand, towards the sound itself. It may spark concepts in the mind which are conflicting with the brands image. Thus, leading to wrong associations with the brand and therefore diminishing the ability to recognize or recall the brand and especially the image it is striving for. This would interfere with the consumers’ ability to focus on the brand and what it stands for. In contrast, a fitting sound logo generates associations related to the brand, and thus aids consumers’ ability to recall or recognize a brand and what it stands for.
Consequently, the relation between musical fit and the ability to recall or recognize the brand image might be mediated by the extent to which consumers perceive the music as annoying
and distracting or as helpful. Degree of distraction might explain the effect of musical fit on both recall and recognition of the brand name as well as the brand image. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed.
3a) The relation between musical fit and recognition of the brand name is mediated by perceived distraction through sound.
3b) The relation between musical fit and recall of the brand name is mediated by perceived distraction through sound.
3c) The relation between musical fit and recognition of the brand image is mediated by perceived distraction through sound.
3d) The relation between musical fit and recall of the brand image is mediated by perceived distraction through sound.
Degree of Exposure
Repetition leads to learning (Cacioppo & Petty, 1979). Increasing exposure to the sound logo will enhance the multitude and the strength of the associations between the cue and the brand. Therefore, positively influencing the ability to recognize the brand (North et al., 2004). This is also known as the ‘Human Associative Memory’ theory (HAM) (Osselaer & Janiszewksi, 2001). Knowledge is represented as a network of concept nodes connected by links that are strengthened each time two events are presented simultaneously (Osselaer & Janiszewksi, 2001). Thus, the more a brand name is presented together with a sound logo, the stronger the link between the brand name and the sound logo. Hence, the higher the degree of exposure to a sound logo combined with the brand, the stronger the associations will become and the better consumers will be able to remember the brand name as well as the image.
Therefore, it is hypothesized that a higher degree of exposure to a brand and its sound logo is associated with an increased ability to recall and recognize the brand name and its image compared to only one exposure.
4a) Repeated exposure will be associated with higher levels of recognition of the brand name compared to singular exposure.
4b) Repeated exposure will be associated with higher levels of recall of the brand name compared to singular exposure.
4c) Repeated exposure will be associated with higher levels of recognition of the brand image compared to singular exposure.
4d) Repeated exposure will be associated with higher levels of recall of the brand image compared to singular exposure.
Since musical fit might work through activating related knowledge structures (North et al., 2004) and the HAM theory predicts a higher degree of exposure may lead to a stronger link between the sound logo and the brand, it would be interesting to see how these two constructs might interact. By repeatedly exposing consumers to a sound logo, they learn to link the sound logo to the brand and thereby strengthening associations elicited by the sound logo. This might cause that less cognitive effort is needed in order to recall or recognize the brand from hearing the sound logo.
However, Lafond, Parmentier, and Tremblay (2010) argue that repetition might also lead to incorrect learning. They are not the first to claim that repetition learning might lead to correct as well as in-correct responses. McClelland (2006) suggested that repeated exposure to a stimulus could strengthen the response, regardless of the correctness of that response.
In the case of a non-fitting sound logo, which contrasts with the correct image of the brand, repeated exposure might lead consumers to perceive a wrong image of the brand.
Thus, making it harder to recall or recognize the correct image. If this would be the case, degree of exposure would not interact with musical fit on brand name level, but it would however, interact with musical fit on a brand image level. The difference between consumers’ ability to recall or recognize the correct image after hearing a fitting logo versus a non-fitting sound logo would increase after multiple exposures.
Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:
5a) Repeated exposure will increase the differences between a fitting sound logo and a non-fitting sound logo regarding recognition of the brand’s image.
5b) Repeated exposure will increase the differences between a fitting sound logo and a non-fitting sound logo regarding recall of the brand’s image.
Method Design
A two by two between-subjects design was used. The independent variables used were ‘musical fit’ and ‘degree of exposure’. Both factors had two levels. Musical fit consisted of ‘fit’ vs. ‘misfit’. Degree of exposure also had two conditions being ‘one-time exposure’ vs. ‘three-times exposure’. Four groups of participants were created. One group saw the stimuli once with fit (condition 1), one group saw the stimuli three times with fit (condition 2), one group saw the stimuli once with misfit (condition 3) and one group saw the stimuli three times with misfit (condition 4). All respondents only saw one version of the advertisement, either fit or misfit; they saw either all brands once or all brands three times. In total, 30
participants saw condition 1; 33 respondents saw condition 2, 30 respondents condition 3; and 31 respondents condition 4.
Materials
Advertising videos were made for four existing, but in Europe relatively unknown Chinese car brands, of which each was intended to portray a particular image. The car brands chosen were Geely, Chery, JAC Motors and BYD. The specific market segments to be advertised were selected according to two criteria: (a) the brands had to be from the same product class to ensure that this would not influence results; and (b) there had to be enough differentiation between the brands in order to be able to manipulate musical fit. All car brands were unknown to make sure brand recognition or brand recall were not influenced by
previous exposure. This was controlled for by asking whether participants had seen any of the brands before. Participants who did, were excluded from the data set. All videos featured the four cars, brand names, slogans that communicated two core values of each brand and a sound logo per brand. The videos contained either sound logos that fitted the car brand’s image or sound logos that did not fit the car brands image.
Pre-test
To ensure that respondents perceived the accompanying sound logo as fit or misfit a pre-test was done. First, the author selected fitting, as well as, non-fitting sound logos for all eight advertisements. Afterwards, respondents (N = 21) rated the fit and misfit of the car brands with the sound logo by answering a combination of 6 semantic five-point Likert scales from Harper and Roem (2011) and Becker-Olson (2003). The scales followed after the
question: I think the fit between the music and the brand is (good –bad, inconsistent –
not make sense). A principal component analysis (PCA) showed that all six items formed a single uni-dimensional scale: only one component had an eigenvalue above 1 (eigenvalue 5.56) and there was a clear point of inflexion after this component in the scree plot. All items correlated positively with the first component, the variable "Perceived Musical Fit" had the strongest association (factor loading was .914). A Cronbach’s alpha showed the scale was reliable, α = .98. Four paired sample T-tests were conducted to compare perceived musical fit when listening to a fitting sound logo and a non-fitting sound logo for each of the four brands.
A paired sample T-test for Geely showed significant differences in the scores for perceived musical fit (M = 3.04, SD = 1.46) and perceived misfit (M = 5.10, SD = 1.32) conditions; t(20) = -5.50, p <.001. A paired sample T-test for Chery showed significant differences in the scores for perceived musical fit (M = 2.71, SD = 1.40) and perceived misfit (M = 5.82, SD = 1.34) conditions; t(20) = -6.87, p <.001. A paired sample T-test for JAC Motors showed significant differences in the scores for perceived musical fit (M = 1.66, SD = .64) and perceived misfit (M = 5.62, SD = 1.04) conditions; t(20) = -15.22, p <0.001. A paired sample T-test for BYD showed significant differences in the scores for perceived musical fit (M = 2.43, SD = 1.57) and perceived misfit (M = 6.43, SD = .91) conditions; t(20) = -9.86, p <.001. These results confirmed that all sound logos were perceived as either fitting or non-fitting in concordance with the conditions.
Subjects
A total of 137 respondents participated in the main experiment. However, after controlling for outliers 13 were excluded from analysis (N=124). Participants were collected with the use of Facebook and e-mail. The majority of the participants was female (n = 65; 52.4 percent) and the rest was male (n = 59). The age ranged from 20 to 72 years (M = 32.5 years, SD = 13.4 years). The majority of the participants was highly educated with 75%
having a university degree, either Bachelors (n = 46), Masters (n= 31), or doctoral (n = 16), followed by people who finished high school (n = 12), higher professional education (HBO; n = 10) and a professional degree (n = 6). The majority of the participants originated from the Netherlands (n = 86), followed by Germany (n =8), Belgium (n = 8) and the United Kingdom (n = 8).
For the control variables age, gender, occupation and education, randomization checks were done. A two-way analysis of variance with Musical fit and Degree of exposure as factors showed no significant main effect of Musical Fit on Age (F (1, 124) = 0.002, p = .96). Degree of Exposure also showed no significant main effect on Age (F (1, 124) = 0.018, p = .90). In addition, the interaction effect between Musical Fit and Degree of Exposure was not
statistically significant (F (1, 124) = 0.040, p = .84). This indicates that found differences cannot be ascribed to the variable age.
Another two-way analysis of variance was done using Education as dependent variable and with again Musical Fit and Degree of Exposure as factors. This analysis did neither show a significant main effect of Musical Fit on Education (F (1, 124) = .085, p = .77) nor a main effect of Degree of Exposure on Education (F (1, 124) = .233, p = .63). Next to this, no significant interaction effect was found (F (1, 124) = .009, p = .93). This implies that there were no differences of education level per condition.
Second, to check the distribution between conditions for gender and occupation, Chi-square tests were conducted. A Chi-Chi-square test showed no significant relation between Musical Fit and Gender (χ2 (1) = 1.18, p = .28) or between Degree of Exposure and Gender (χ2 (1) = 2.15, p = .14. There were also no differences between conditions in Occupation (χ2 (5) = 8.96, p = .11) and (χ2 (5) = 6.43, p = .27).
Instruments
The dependent variables were Brand name recall, Brand name recognition, Brand image recall and Brand image recognition.
Brand name recall was measured by asking the respondents to write down all the brands names they could remember having seen in the video. For every right answer, respondents were given one point. In the end all points were added up to get a brand name recall score per respondent. As there were four brands shown in the video, the maximum awarded amount of points was four.
Brand name recognition was measured through participants having to pick the four targeted brands out of a list of 16 car brands. Again, each correct answer counted as one point. Only four points could be gathered.
Brand image recall was measured by asking respondents to write down the two values/attributed presented in the slogan of each car brand (e.g. Drive passionate. Drive Italian. Drive Ferrari. For this slogan you would write down "Passionate" and "Italian"). Per correct value they could score one point. Consequently, the maximum score was eight.
Brand image recognition was measured through a linking assignment. Each brand had its own box and the respondents had to drag some of the 16 values that were shown in a list into the box of the corresponding brand. They were told that not all values had to be used and that each word could only fit with one brand. Again, each correct answer accounted for one point, with a maximum of eight.
Procedure
The online experiment in the form of a survey was conducted between the 26th of May and the 1st of June 2016. The survey was made with Qualtrics and consisted out of five assignments. Respondents were first informed about the procedure and were told that
participation was completely anonymous, voluntarily and that they could withdraw at any given point. Secondly, respondents saw a short video which acted as a sound check.
Afterwards, respondents were randomly assigned to one of the four manipulated videos. The videos in the one-time exposure conditions lasted approximately 50 seconds, while the videos in the three-times exposure conditions lasted 140 seconds. In the three-times exposure
conditions, the picture of each car differed every time, while the brand names, slogans and sound logo stayed the same. In other words, in the three-times exposure condition respondents saw three different pictures per car while everything else stayed similar. This was done to portray a real world commercial block.
The first assignment acted as a three-minute distraction assignment and involved participants reading a short story named Sir Gawain and the Green Knight before answering two questions about the story. After this, the participants completed the four assignments designed to test their recall and recognition. Once these tests were completed, participants rated whether they perceived the sound logos to fit or not by answering the fit scales from Harper and Roem (2011) and Becker-Olson (2003). In addition, participants were asked to rate to what extent the sound logo distracted them from understanding the image the brand was trying to create by answering two 7 point semantic scales ranging from ‘a great deal’ to ‘not at all’. The scales followed after the questions; the music distracted me from the image; and the music helped me understand the image. Cronbach’s alpha comprised out of two items was sufficient α= .713, meaning that the item was reliable. Lastly, participants had to fill out demographics like age, education, occupation, gender and nationality.
Statistical treatment
This study compared the ability of participants to recall and recognize brand names and the brand image after being exposed to advertisements in different musical fit conditions:
a sound logo that fitted the brand versus a sound logo that did not fit the brand. In addition, the influence of degree of exposure to the advertisements on recall and recognition was compared: one-time exposure versus three-time exposure. Main effects and interaction between musical fit and degree of exposure were tested by conducting four two-way analyses of variance with musical fit and degree of exposure as factors and the before mentioned variables as dependent ones.
Last, using five linear regression analyses, it was tested whether the relationships between musical fit and 1) recall of the brand image or 2) recognition of the brand image were mediated by distraction through music.
Results
A two-way analysis of variance with Musical fit and Degree of exposure as factors showed no main effect of Musical fit on Recognition brand name (F (1, 120) = ,93, p = .34). Degree of exposure was not found to have a significant main effect on Recognition brand name as well (F (1, 120) = 1.61, p = .21). The interaction effect between Musical fit and Degree of exposure was not statistically significant (F (1, 120) = .14, p = .71). These results indicate that both hypothesis 1a and 4a were not supported. This implies that Musical fit as well as degree of exposure do not influence the ability of recognizing the brand name. As expected, there was also no interaction effect between Musical fit and Degree of exposure regarding Recognition of the brand name. Table 1 shows the means and standard deviations of all four conditions regarding recognition of the brand.
Table 1
Recognition of the brand name (N = 124).
Musical Fit : - Fit 3.11 1.02 61 - Misfit 2.95 .97 63 Degree of exposure - 1 time exposure 2.92 1.07 59 - 3 times exposure 3.14 .92 65
Note. 0 = low, 4 = high.
Table 2. shows the results of the two-factor analysis of variance regarding recognition of the brand name.
Table 2
Results of a two-factor analysis of variance (N = 124).
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p η2
Musical Fit .92 1 .92 .93 0.34 0.008 Degree of exposure 1.60 1 1.60 1.61 0.21 0.013 Musical fit * Degree of exposure .14 1 .14 .14 0.71 0.001 Error 119.30 120 .99 Total 1262 124
Note. Significant at the p<0.05 level.
In addition, a two-way analysis of variance with Musical fit and Degree of exposure as factors showed a significant, weak main effect of Musical fit on Recognition of brand image (F (1, 120) = ,18.83, p < .001). Participants who saw the advertisements with a fitting sound logo performed better on the recognition test compared to participants who were exposed to advertisements with a sound logo that did not fit the brand (Mdifference = -1.70, p <.001). Degree
of exposure was also found to have a significant, but weak main effect on Recognition brand image (F (1, 120) = 4.51, p = .036). Participants who were exposed to the advertisements three times scored better on the recognition test compared to people who only saw the brands once (Mdifference = .78, p = .036). There was no significant interaction effect between Musical
fit and Degree of exposure (F (1, 120) = .17, p = .681). These results indicate that hypotheses 1b and 4c were both supported. Musical fit as well as a higher degree of exposure were associated with a better ability to recognize the brand image compared to musical misfit and only one exposure. However, hypothesis 5a was not supported. Degree of exposure did not interact with musical fit and therefore did not enhance the differences between a fitting sound logo and a non-fitting sound logo regarding recognition of the brand’s image. Table 3. below shows the means and standard deviations of all four conditions regarding recognition of the brand image.
Table 3
Recognition of the brand image (N = 124).
Mean Standard Deviation N Musical Fit : - Fit 5.66 2.31 61 - Misfit 4.48 2.65 63 Degree of exposure - 1 time exposure 4.54 2.56 59 - 3 times exposure 5.52 2.47 65
Note. (0 = low, 8 = high).
Table 4 shows the results of the two-factor analysis of variance concerning recognition of the brand image.
Table 4
Results of a two-factor analysis of variance (N = 124).
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p η2
Musical Fit 45.55 1 45.55 7.56 0.01* 0.059
Musical fit * Degree of exposure
.096 1 .096 .016 0.68 0.000
Error 723.31 120 4.69
Total 3969 124
Note. Significant at the p<0.05 level.
A two-way analysis of variance with Musical fit and Degree of exposure as factors showed no main effect of Musical fit on Recall brand name (F (1, 120) = 1.23, p = .27, or for Degree of exposure (F (1, 120) = 2.87, p = .093). The interaction effect between Musical fit and Degree of exposure was not statistically significant (F (1, 120) = .037, p = .848). These results indicate that hypothesis 2a and 4b are not supported. Musical fit and a higher Degree of exposure did not enhance the ability to recall the brand name. As expected, there was also no interaction effect between Musical fit and Degree of exposure regarding recall of the brand name. Table 5. shows the means and standard deviations of all four conditions regarding recall of the brand name.
Table 5
Recall of the brand name (N=124).
Mean Standard Deviation N Musical Fit : - Fit 1.54 1.34 61 - Misfit 1.30 1.21 63 Degree of exposure - 1 time exposure 1.22 1.26 59 - 3 times exposure 1.60 1.27 65
Note. (0 = low, 4 = high).
Table 6. shows the results of a two-factor analysis of variance concerning recall of the brand name.
Table 6
Results of a two-factor analysis of variance (N = 124).
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p η2
Musical Fit 1.99 1 1.99 1.23 .27 0.010 Degree of exposure 4.63 1 4.63 2.87 .09 0.023 Musical fit * Degree of exposure .060 1 .060 .037 .85 0.000 Error 193.72 120 1.61 Total 450.0 124
Note. Significant at the p<0.05 level.
A two-way analysis of variance with Musical fit and Degree of exposure as factors showed a significant, weak main effect of Musical fit on Recall of brand image (F (1, 120) = ,18.83, p < .001). Participants who saw the advertisements with a fitting sound logo performed better on the recall test compared to participants who were exposed to advertisements with a sound logo that did not fit the brand (Mdifference = -1.70, p <.001). Degree of exposure was also found
to have a significant, weak main effect on Recall brand image (F (1, 120) = 4.51, p = .036). Participants who were exposed to the same advertisements three times scored significantly better on the recall test compared to people who only saw the brands once (Mdifference = .78, p = .036). The interaction effect between Musical fit and Degree of exposure was not
statistically significant (F (1, 120) = .17, p = .681).
These results indicate that hypotheses 2b and 4d are both supported. Musical fit as well as a higher Degree of exposure were associated with a better ability to recall the brand image compared to musical misfit and only one exposure. However, hypothesis 5b was not supported. A higher Degree of exposure did not enhance the differences between a fitting sound logo and a non-fitting sound logo. Table 7. displays the means and standard deviations for each of the four conditions regarding recall of the brand image.
Table 7
Recall of the brand image (N = 124).
Mean Standard Deviation N Musical Fit : - Fit 3.67 2.33 61 - Misfit 2.02 2.05 63 Degree of exposure - 1 time exposure 2.42 2.23 59 - 3 times exposure 3.20 2.38 65
Note. (0 = low, 8 = high).
Table 8 shows the results of a two-factor analysis of variance regarding recall of the brand image.
Table 8
Results of a two-factor analysis of variance (N = 124).
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p η2
Musical Fit 88.23 1 88.23 18.83 0.00* 0.136 Degree of exposure 21.14 1 21.14 4.51 0.04* 0.036 Musical fit * Degree of exposure .78 1 .78 .17 0.68 0.001 Error 562.38 120 4.69 Total 1663.0 124
Note. Significant at the p<0.05 level.
In order to test whether distraction through music acted as a mediator between Musical fit and Recall of the brand image three linear regression analyses were performed after
did not differ between fit and misfit. Consequently, there is no difference that can be explained by Distraction through music1.Hypothesis 3a and 3b are therefore rejected.
Figure 1. depicts the standard regression coefficients of the proposed mediation.
*.22 ns.
*.40
Figure 1: Unstandardized regression coefficients for the relationship between musical fit and recall of brand image as mediated by distraction through music.
*p <.05.
First, the relation between the independent variable Musical fit and the dependent variable Recall of brand image was tested using linear regression analysis. This relation was significant, F(1, 122) = 17.39, p < .001. The regression model can therefore be used to predict recall of brand image, but the strength of the prediction is moderate: 40 percent of the
variation in distraction through music can be explained by musical fit (R2 = .40). Musical fit, b* = 1.66, t = 4.17, p < .001, 95% CI [.870 -2.443].
Second, the relation between musical fit and the proposed mediator distraction through music was tested using a linear regression analysis. This relation was also significant, F(1, 121) = 134.37, p < .001. The regression model can therefore be used to predict distraction
1 Using process in spss, mediation of Distraction through music was tested for dependent variables Recall and Recognition of the brand name. No mediations were found.
Musical fit Recall of image
Distraction through music
through music, but the strength of the prediction is weak: 22 percent of the variation in distraction through music can be explained by musical fit (R2 = .22). Musical fit, b* = 2.60, t = 11.59, p < .001, 95% CI [2.16 - 3.044].
Third, the relation between the proposed mediator distraction through music and the dependent variable Recall of brand image was tested using a linear regression analysis. The regression model was not significant, F(2, 121) = 9.77, p < .168. These results imply that the relationship between musical fit and recall of the brand image was not mediated by distraction through music. So, hypothesis 3c is rejected. The effect of Musical fit on Recall of the brand image, can not be explained by Distraction through music.
In order to test whether distraction through music acted as a mediator between Musical fit and recognition of the brand image two linear regression analyses were performed. Figure 2 illustrates the standard regression coefficients of the proposed mediation.
*.22 ns.
*.45
Figure 2: Unstandardized regression coefficients for the relationship between musical fit and recognition of brand image as mediated by distraction through music.
*p <.05.
First, the relation between the independent variable Musical fit and the dependent variable Recognition of brand image was tested using a linear regression analysis, which was significant, F(1, 122) = 6.99, p < .001. The regression model can therefore be used to predict
Musical fit Recognition of image
Distraction through music
recognition of brand image, but the strength of the prediction is moderate: 45 per cent of the variation in distraction by music can be predicted on the basis of musical fit (R2 = .45). Musical fit, b* = 1.18, t = 2.62, p < .001, 95% CI [.289, 2.07].
The model between musical fit and the proposed mediator distraction by music had already been tested and was significant (F(1, 122) = 134,37, p < .001).
Second, the relation between the proposed mediator distraction by music and
dependent variable recognition of brand image was tested using a linear regression analysis. The regression model was not significant, F(2, 121) = 4.14, p < .290. The model can therefore not be used to predict recognition of brand image. These results imply that the relationship between musical fit and recognition of the brand image was not mediated by distraction by music. Therefore, hypothesis 3d was rejected. Distraction through music does not account for the variance Musical fit causes in recognition of the brand image.
Conclusion and Discussion
This experiment set out to answer the main research question: To what extent does musical fit between a sound logo and a brand’s values enhance brand awareness and what is the role of degree of exposure in this process?
Results illustrated that brand awareness is only partially enhanced through ensuring musical fit between the sound logo and the brand’s values. Only consumers’ ability to recall and recognize the brand’s image, and not the brand’s name, were proven to be enhanced when exposed to a fitting sound logo compared to a non-fitting sound logo. In other words,
consumers are better aware what the brand stands for when exposed to a brand that has a sound logo that matches its values, but the consumers’ ability to remember the brand name does not seem influenced by musical fit. In addition, exposing consumers repeatedly to a brand will increase their ability to recall and recognize the brand image, but not the brand
name. Finally, musical fit and degree of exposure were found to work independently, and so degree of exposure does not play a role in the relation between the musical fit of a sound logo and increasing brand awareness.
The findings of this experiment provide empirical evidence that musical fit leads to a reinforcement of the brand image and can therefore be of importance to brands (Bode & Hanssen, 2013; Beverland et al., 2006; North, et al., 2004; Baker, 1994).
One explanation for why consumers’ ability to recognize or recall the brand’s image was higher when they were exposed to a fitting sound logo is the neural-network-based approach from North et al. (2004). They argue that music can prime relevant believes about the brand through activating related knowledge structures (North et al., 2004). The results of this experiment imply that through matching these evoked associations with the values of the brand, the ability of consumers to recall and recognize that brand’s image can be enhanced.
Even though no effect of musical fit was measured on recognition or recall of the brand name, the above explanation could still hold true. In the experiment the sound logo was matched with the values presented in the slogan of each brand. As the brands were unknown, there would be no predefined image of the brand related to the brand name. Consequently, participants might not have linked the values to the brand name. Therefore, the sound logo mostly activated associations with the presented values in the slogan and to a lesser extent with the brand name. This could explain why musical fit lead to a better ability to recall or recognize the values, but not the name. Follow-up research could shine a light on whether it is true that associations sparked by music which match the image people have of a brand,
positively impacts recall and recognition of that brand. One method could be by first asking what associations people have with certain sounds or music as well as with certain brands. Then, on the base of their answers connect each sound to either a matching brand or a
non-matching brand and see whether this effects the performance on cognitive tasks such as recall and recognition.
This study also looked at whether the level of distraction caused by the music could explain the effect of musical fit on either recall or recognition of the brand image. No relation was found between the level of distraction through music and either recall or recognition of the brand image. Therefore, it can be assumed that the effect of musical fit on recall and recognition of the brand image was not caused by the extent of perceived distraction. This provides some information regarding the question posed by North et al. (2004) whether fit might work through enhancing attention or causing distraction. The positive and negative effects of music and sound might not be caused through the fittingness of the music or sound, but maybe by other variables such as the presence or volume or even preference of the
consumers.
Degree of exposure was found to only influence the ability to recall or recognize the brand’s image. Participants who saw the advertisement with the sound logo three times performed better on both the recall as the recognition task compared to participants who only saw the stimuli once. This is in line with the HAM theory. The sound logo was linked with the values and these were remembered better after multiple exposures. The results do seem to imply that the brand’s image was reinforced through strengthening the link between the values of the brand and the sound logo.
Concerning the brand name this was not the case. All respondents scored similar when asked what brand names they could recall or recognized from the list, no matter how many times they were exposed to the sound logo. This was not expected as previous research has shown that repetition leads to learning (Cacioppo & Petty, 1979). It was expected that performance on cognitive tasks would be enhanced no matter what was being asked in the recall and recognition tasks. The brand name however, might not have been clearly linked
enough to the sound logo in order to meet the requirements for the HAM theory to be
applied.Another reason could be that it is easier to remember only the brand name compared to two values of that brand. Therefore, differences between the one time exposure and the three times exposure might have been too small in the brand name recall and recognition tests. A larger sample of brands could be used in future research to test whether this holds true.
Lastly, no interaction effects between Musical fit and Degree of exposure were found. Differences between the effects of being exposed to a fitting sound logo compared to a non-fitting sound logo on the consumer’s ability to recall or recognize the brand, were not influenced by the degree of exposure or vice versa.Following McClelland (2006), it was argued that degree of exposure would increase the differences between a fitting and a non-fitting sound logo concerning recall and recognition. However, these results do not provide evidence that McClelland’s (2006) assumption of repetition leading to both correct and incorrect recall also applies to musical fit and reinforcing a brand’s image.
Limitations and Future Research
This experiment was subject to some limitations. Due to time restraints it was only possible to measure short term recall and recognition, instead of having the participants partake multiple times in the experiment with intervals of a few days or even a week. This would have been more in line with real life experiences.
In addition, the participants in this experiment were mostly highly educated, and not representative of most European society. This could have influenced the results of the cognitive tasks. Less educated people might react differently to impulses such as sound and therefore education level might influence the results. In order to generalise these results further research should seek out whether participants with lower education levels produce similar results.
Furthermore, the use of unknown brands might have interacted with activating related knowledge structures. Participants did not have any knowledge about the brands beforehand influencing ability to recall or recognize the brand name as they. It would also be interesting to see whether the findings regarding musical fit in a sound logo are generalizable to other product segments then the car industry.
Managerial Implications
This study has provided managers with empirical evidence that musical fit should not only be ensured in a retail setting, but also with branding. Especially when sound or music is used to communicate the image of the brand, the associations music can evoke should be top priority. Before a sound logo is taken into use, managers should first have a clear vision of what their organisation stands for and what associations the sound logo evokes. Accordingly, only when the sound logo evokes associations that can be easily linked to the brand, it can be of value in generating brand awareness. This study also showed that consumers should be exposed to the sound logo repeatedly to increase brand awareness. Therefore, managers should find ways to include the sound logo in all of their communication. Examples could be in commercials, the on-hold tune of the telephone, the website, and all other communication channels that have the ability to play sound.
In general, sound can be a strong and useful tool for branding ends, but only when selected with thought.
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