University of Groningen A Dynamical Approach to Psychological Resilience Hill, Yannick

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A Dynamical Approach to Psychological Resilience

Hill, Yannick

DOI:

10.33612/diss.144252644

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Hill, Y. (2020). A Dynamical Approach to Psychological Resilience. University of Groningen. https://doi.org/10.33612/diss.144252644

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Nederlandse Samenvatting

(Dutch Summary)

References

Acknowledgements

Curriculum Vitae

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Summary in Dutch

Sporters komen onvermijdelijk in aanraking met tegenslagen en andere uitdagende omstandigheden (stressoren). Het is belangrijk dat zij in staat zijn om hier goed mee om te gaan. Het proces waarbij sporters “terugveren” naar hun vorige prestatieniveau na een stressor, wordt veerkracht genoemd. Het concept veerkracht is al tientallen jaren bestudeerd in het domein van de psychologie. Ondanks de groeiende consensus dat veerkracht het beste kan worden opgevat als een proces, ontbreekt momenteel een coherent theoretisch kader. Er bestaat dus nog geen perspectief dat bestaande bevindingen over veerkracht integreert en onderzoekers specifieke instrumenten aanreikt om dit proces te bestuderen (Hoofdstuk 1).

In dit proefschrift wordt een dynamische systeembenadering voorgesteld als theoretisch kader (Hoofdstuk 2). Volgens de dynamische systeemtheorie komt veerkracht voort uit de dynamische interacties tussen de persoon en de omgeving. Deze dynamiek kan in kaart worden gebracht door variabelen te analyseren over de tijd, die kenmerkend zijn voor het functioneren van een persoon. Op basis van deze benadering hebben wij een artikel gepubliceerd, dat de basis vormde voor een academische discussie met verschillende experts op het gebied van veerkracht. In Hoofdstuk 2 is deze discussie beschreven, waarbij wij concreet zijn ingegaan op theoretische en methodologische mogelijkheden van de dynamische systeembenadering van veerkracht. Gebaseerd op deze mogelijkheden worden verschillende methoden en technieken om veerkracht te bestuderen geïmplementeerd in de Hoofdstukken 3-6.

Hoofdstuk 3 – Het Individuele Proces van Veerkracht

De meeste literatuur over veerkracht in sport bekijkt welke psychologische factoren de sporter kunnen beschermen tegen stressoren. Bijvoorbeeld, sporters met een positieve persoonlijkheid en veel vertrouwen kunnen gemakkelijker klappen opvangen dan sporters die lager op deze factoren scoren. Inzichten in veerkracht en beschermende factoren zijn tot nu toe vooral verkregen op groepsniveau. In Hoofdstuk 3 wordt echter beschreven dat inzichten in beschermende factoren op groepsniveau niet zomaar kunnen worden gegeneraliseerd naar de individuen binnen de groep. Wij hebben daarom een studie gedraaid met een groep sporters, die gedurende 21 dagen online vragen hebben ingevuld over verschillende beschermende factoren en hun veerkracht. Uit de analyse van de gegevens bleek dat de beschermende factoren, en hun relatie met veerkracht, er op individueel niveau inderdaad anders uitzien dan op groepsniveau.

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Hoofdstuk 4 – Het Meten van de Veerkracht-Dynamiek

In onderzoek buiten de psychologie, bijvoorbeeld in de ecologie, is gevonden dat een systeem veerkracht verliest bij herhaaldelijke blootstelling aan stressoren. Het verlies van veerkracht kan worden opgemerkt door zogenoemde waarschuwingssignalen. Deze signalen zijn bijvoorbeeld een toenemende gevoeligheid voor stressoren en een steeds langere hersteltijd naar het vorige niveau van functioneren. In Hoofdstuk 4 is getracht om dit soort signalen in menselijke prestaties te definiëren. De proefpersonen namen deel aan een bewegingstaak, waarbij zij een cursor zo snel en nauwkeurig mogelijk heen en weer moesten bewegen tussen twee vierkanten op een scherm. Tijdens de taak werden zij blootgesteld aan herhaalde stressoren in de vorm van veranderingen in de gevoeligheid van de cursor, of visuele occlusie (tijdelijk geen beeld). Vervolgens hebben wij de veerkracht van de proefpersonen geanalyseerd op basis van de impact van de stressor, in combinatie met de hersteltijd naar het vorige prestatieniveau. Deze maat vormt het gebied onder de curve (area under the curve). Het gebied onder de curve neemt toe naarmate de impact van een stressor of de hersteltijd toeneemt, wat wijst op een afname in veerkracht. In tegenstelling tot onze verwachting verbeterde de veerkracht echter na herhaalde stressoren. Dit betekent dus dat herhaalde stressoren niet noodzakelijkerwijs de veerkracht in menselijke prestaties verminderen.

Hoofdstuk 5 – Complexiteit als Vroegtijdig Waarschuwingssignaal

In Hoofdstuk 5 zijn vroege waarschuwingssignalen onderzocht bij teams die een gezamenlijke prestatie moesten leveren. Concreet hebben wij bekeken wat er gebeurt als dyades veerkracht verliezen tijdens een competitieve motorische taak. De dyades kregen de opdracht hun bewegingen te coördineren in een tegenovergesteld bewegingspatroon (antifase). Door dit zo snel en accuraat mogelijk te doen, konden zij punten winnen. Wij waren specifiek geïnteresseerd in periodes waarin de dyades veerkracht verloren en slechter gingen presteren. Op dat soort periodes is ingezoomd om mogelijke waarschuwingssignalen te detecteren, waaronder de complexiteit van het bewegingspatroon. In eerder onderzoek is namelijk gebleken dat complexe systemen zich flexibel kunnen aanpassen, terwijl een lage complexiteit kenmerkend is voor maladaptief gedrag. In lijn met deze bevindingen ontdekten wij dat teams met fluctuaties in complexiteit relatief vaak en snel veerkracht verliezen. Complexiteit kan dus een goede indicator zijn voor veerkracht. Daarnaast vonden wij dat, omgekeerd, een stabiele complexiteit vaak voorafging aan een positieve verandering in prestaties van de dyades.

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Hoofdstuk 6 – Groeien door Stress

Omdat de vorige studies lieten zien dat stressoren ook positieve effecten kunnen hebben op prestaties, hebben wij in Hoofdstuk 6 concreet gekeken naar groei als gevolg van stressoren. In eerder onderzoek op het gebied van toxicologie en evolutionaire biologie is al aangetoond dat kleine doseringen stress gunstige reacties kunnen veroorzaken, terwijl grote doseringen toxische effecten kunnen hebben. Vaccinaties werken bijvoorbeeld door het immuunsysteem bloot te stellen aan een relatief kleine dosering van een potentieel infectieus agens (stressfactor). Hierdoor worden adaptieve reacties geactiveerd, die een persoon beschermen tegen grotere doseringen van de stressfactor in de toekomst. Als de dosering van de vaccinatie echter te groot is, kan het toxische effecten veroorzaken doordat het systeem de noodzakelijke structurele en gedragsveranderingen niet kan ontwikkelen. In een empirisch onderzoek naar de prestaties van klimmers, hebben wij vastgesteld dat toenemende stressbelastingen (moeilijkheidsgraad van de beklimmingen) inderdaad positieve effecten op de prestaties kunnen hebben. Echter, vergelijkbaar met het unieke karakter van de veerkracht van sporters (zie bevindingen van Hoofdstuk 3), bleek de optimale belasting te verschillen voor sporters die hetzelfde prestatieniveau bereiken.

Implicaties en Conclusie

Op basis van de bevindingen in dit proefschrift wordt in Hoofdstuk 7 besproken hoe toekomstig onderzoek de bevindingen uit dit proefschrift kan uitbreiden en toepassen. Zo zijn de beschreven onderzoeken veelal gebaseerd op motorische taken in een labora-toriumsetting. De toepassing van de dynamische systeembenadering van veerkracht, en concreet het vinden van waarschuwingssignalen, moet nog worden getest in de daadwerkelijke context waarin sporters presteren. Daarnaast, het idee dat optimale stressbelastingen kunnen leiden tot prestatieverbeteringen bij individuele sporters, kan ook naar teams vertaald worden. Tot slot kunnen andere domeinen binnen de psychologie gebruik maken van de analyses die in dit proefschrift zijn toegepast. Bijvoorbeeld, klinisch psychologen kunnen geïnteresseerd zijn in waarschuwingssignalen die een voorbode zijn van een depressie, of een psychose.

Concluderend, de dynamische systeembenadering biedt een integratief kader dat onderzoekers in staat stelt om het proces van veerkracht te bestuderen met specifieke methoden (Hoofdstuk 2). Belangrijk hierbij is om het individu serieus te nemen als niveau van analyse (Hoofdstuk 3). Doormiddel van het bestuderen van prestaties over de tijd, kan gedetecteerd worden wanneer een persoon veerkracht verliest, waardoor prestaties verslechteren (Hoofdstuk 4 en 5). Aan de andere kant kunnen stressoren ook positieve effecten hebben op prestaties. De optimale stressbelasting voor een bepaald

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individu kan empirisch worden bepaald (Hoofdstuk 6). Ten slotte biedt de dynamische systeembenadering van veerkracht niet alleen nieuwe mogelijkheden voor onderzoek op het gebied van sportpsychologie, maar ook andere domeinen binnen en buiten de psychologie.

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Acknowledgements

Like all academic work, this dissertation “stands on the shoulders of giants”. Thus, I would like to thank everyone who supported me for the past four years in order to make this dissertation possible.

First of all, I want to thank my supervisors Ruud, Nico, Rob, and Peter for their outstanding support. It was surely a pleasure to work with such an enthusiastic and productive team that kept pushing me to do my best, while giving me clear directions and instructions whenever I needed. To sum up the collaboration and support in this team in one word, let me quote my first Dutch email I ever sent to you: “Lekker!” However, not only collectively, but also individually each and every one of you has played a major role in my progress over the past years. Ruud, I think nothing of this would have ever been possible without you. I remember how back in 2015, I was searching for a master thesis supervisor because in the “Free Choice” program everything had to be organized by the students themselves. Because I wanted to do something with sports, Mark suggested to get in touch with you. From the first meeting, we just had a click and I am still grateful that you decided to supervise my thesis even though you actually had no spots available anymore. This tremendous support continued when we tried to make a PhD project possible and has not faded in the slightest until today. Your support is also not limited to our work, but extends beyond that. For this thesis particularly, I benefited the most from your theoretical insights, help with study designs, guidance on what training courses would help me advance my research, and, of course, the lightning fast feedback at literally any time of the day. I am very much looking forward to continue working with you for the years to come and see what we can still accomplish together.

Nico, I have to thank you for providing me with the necessary structure that helped me to stay on track and focus on the overarching goal of the past for years. Whenever I was drifting off on a tangent with all the interesting things that are out there to explore, you made sure that I maintained a clear focus throughout my research projects to make this thesis what it is today. Furthermore, I appreciate the different opportunities you provided me with. For example, teaching Competence and Motivation together with you helped me greatly to develop my lecturing and presentational skills, while presenting for the VSPN reminded me how important bridging the gap between science and practice is. Your quick and precise feedback on various aspects of my performances enabled me to continuously improve on all levels. Moving forward with the most important lesson I have learned from you, I will always strive to “control the controllable” in the future. Rob, for all the papers we worked on together, your approval was always the most challenging for me to get. And rightfully so! Your feedback always served as a mirror

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depicting how other scholars may interpret and understand my work. Or as in the case of one manuscript draft: not at all. “Yannick, voor mij is dit een sort geheimtaal” is still my favorite quote from you. It reminds me how important precise and straightforward communication is in order to produce scientific progress. Because the central aim of this thesis is to introduce new ideas on how to study resilience in psychology, it is essential to make sure that we portray our message in a way that everybody can understand. Without you, it surely would not have been as successful as it is.

Peter, although your new position did not allow you to stay on the project for the entire time, I am still very grateful for your contributions, especially at the beginning of the project. Thus, I want to thank you for the support during the development of the theoretical approach that serves as the cornerstone for my research. Nevertheless, even when you were not my formal supervisor anymore, you were always happy to help and support me in whatever I needed.

I would also like to offer my thanks to Christophe, Koen, and Casper, the members of reading committee, for making the time to read and evaluate this thesis.

A very special ‘thank you’ goes to Adam and Paula. First, your commentary to our paper has sparked much enthusiasm for exploring hormesis and antifragility in connection with my own research. This intriguing academic exchange continued when you hosted me in Cincinnati with your unrivaled hospitality. In just a few days, we developed ideas for potential studies and I gained great insight into your work as well as what might be possible for future research. The research projects we have worked on together so far make me very excited for any future collaborations in the years to come.

Although I could probably make an seemingly endless list thanking colleagues from the Talent Development group or the Developmental Psychology department, I would like to emphasize four of my colleagues/collaborators in particular. Ralf, thank you for the numerous exchanges on theory, methodology, and data analysis tools. Whenever I was stuck with a particular problem you seemed to have a solution at hand. Thank you also for the opportunity to present my work in your courses and for making a great team coordinating the research practicum last year. Anne Margit, one my longest-running office mates over the past four years. It was truly a pleasure sharing the office with you. We always had a great atmosphere at work and were able to share everything that was on our minds. I am very happy that you support me all the way to the finish line of this PhD project. Nick, there is never a dull moment when you are around. Our collaborations were, of course, not only limited to the office, but extended on to the soccer field (where you brought me back to after I actually thought I had quit for good) and into the Uurwerker afterwards. I am also very grateful for helping me with the Dutch parts of

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this thesis, which you know too well has its flaws (as our favorite referee loves to point out). Laura, after meeting you for the first time thousands of miles away from our actual work place, I enjoyed our regular exchange of ideas and finally starting to work on some joint projects. I hope that the master thesis project we supervised together was just the beginning and I am looking forward to teaching some courses together with you in the coming year.

During the past four years, I was also very lucky to supervise many students, who were directly involved in conducting the studies that are included in different chapters. Thanks to my Master students Ann-Marie (Chapter 4), Alexandra (Chapter 5), and Nina (Chapter 6) who invested countless hours into the data collections and initial data analysis of the respective chapters. And, of course, I have to emphasize my honors students Simon, Giorgos, and Boris for their remarkable work on Chapter 3. You three were absolutely brilliant. I am very thankful to have been able to work with you.

I also want to thank my family for all of their support. Zunächst gilt natürlich ein riesiger Dank meiner Mama. Du hast uns nicht nur beigebracht immer alles zu geben, sondern uns auch sämtliche Türen geöffnet, um uns optimal entwickeln zu können. Ob es ein Auslandsjahr während der Schulzeit war oder ein Studium im Ausland, du hast es alles unterstützt und möglich gemacht. Dafür werde ich dir immer dankbar sein. Ohne diesen Antrieb wäre ich nie so weit gekommen. Auch meinen Brüdern Dominik und Benedikt bin ich zu großem Dank verpflichtet. Resilienz ist natürlich absolut wertvoll als jüngster Bruder und ihr habt es nie vergessen, mich das zu lehren. Aber auch akademisch konnte ich stets enorm von euch profitieren. Die nahe Anlehnung meiner Forschung an die Physik habe ich auch euch zu verdanken. Dominik, du hast mir damals im Abi schon geholfen, mich intensiv mit diesem Thema zu beschäftigen. Benedikt, deine Kenntnis über die Details der Materialwissenschaften haben mir sehr dabei geholfen ein umfassendes theoretisches Konzept zu erstellen. Darum habt auch ihr einen Grundstein für meine Arbeit gelegt. Einen weiteren, ganz besonderen Unterstützer darf ich nicht vergessen: Opa Heinz. Seine große Liebe zum Sport hat ganz klar auf mich abgefärbt und findet sich auch in dieser Arbeit wieder. Egal, ob wir im tiefsten Winter um 5:00 morgens zu einem Turnier mussten, Opa Heinz war immer da, um mich zu begleiten und anzufeuern. Und auch bis zum letzten Tag wollte er immer wissen: „Wie habt ihr am Wochenende gespielt?“ Einfach einmalig.

However, in my case, family also extends to the US. Mom and Dad, it has been 11 years since you, Nick, and Brian have decided to share your home with me and I will always be grateful for the unbelievable experience it has been. This high school year paved the way for my passion for learning, which is a key ingredient to my academic work. Your support and trust in me throughout these years means so much to me. But my idea of family also