Master Arts and Culture Studies

Master Arts and Culture Studies

Programme of Arts, Culture & Media

“European Capitals of Culture: an institutional invasion on local

cultural identity, or a valuable asset to European culture?”

Student: Marlies van der Hilst

Number: 1931148

E-mail: m.van.der.hilst@student.rug.nl

Date: 21/06/2016

European Capitals of Culture: an institutional invasion on local cultural

identity, or a valuable asset to European culture?

What is the influence of the ECoC-event on European culture?

Student: Marlies van der Hilst Number: 1931148

E-mail: m.van.der.hilst@student.rug.nl Telephone: +31616193678

Specialisation: Arts, Politics and Management

Courses followed: Arts Policy, Arts Marketing, Art Sociology Arts discipline: Visual Arts

Date: 21/06/2016

Keywords: European Capital of Culture, Values, Sociology, Identity Thesis supervisors:

‘Most attempts to create a European cultural identity are pathetic

exercises in cultural engineering: the Eurovision Song Contest,

Preface

In 2007, I graduated from the Hanze University of Applied Sciences (Hanze UAS). With a Bachelor in Business Administration I decided to discover the world of event management and started my first job as an event organiser. In organising many business-related events, I soon realised that there was a cultural component missing in my life. Therefore, in 2009 I decided to study Arts, Culture and Media and with a thesis on the values challenging cultural entrepreneurship, I graduated two years later. Again, the work field started to appeal. I became a project coordinator at the cultural department of the Hanze UAS, a floor manager at the Groninger Museum and I started my own event management company.

Working in an educational environment soon sparked my interest in teaching, which is how I ended up at the department of Facility Management at the Hanze UAS, where I currently coach and teach students in the areas of hospitality and events. In order to become a lecturer, a Master’s degree was required. My choice was easily made; a study including events, entrepreneurship, art and culture. I got excepted to the programme of Cultural Economics and Entrepreneurship of the Erasmus University in Rotterdam and successfully rounded off two courses on cultural organisations and cultural economics. Unfortunately, combining a full-time master in Rotterdam whilst juggling three jobs in Groningen took its toll, and a period of rest was required. After that, I decided to seek my Master’s degree closer to home and I returned to the department of Arts, Culture and Media, at the University of Groningen, for its Master programme in September 2015. Choosing a thesis topic surrounding the values of events was only logical to me, as it has been the common thread of my career and interest so far. Writing this preface does not only mean rounding off my thesis, but it also means closure for an insecure and turbulent period of my life. One that caused me to doubt myself, my interests and my abilities, but also one that taught me a great deal and showed me that where I am, is exactly where I want to be.

situation in Linz2009, which was part of my research analysis. Sjoerd Bootsma, producer Lab LWD at Leeuwarden2018, who not only welcomed me for a meeting at their head office, but who also put me into contact with Mattijs Maussen, strategic European entrepreneur and ECoC-consultant, and Jelle Burggraaff, head of European Affairs at Leeuwarden2018, who both shared their views with me on the European dimension of the event. Graziella Vella, research coordinator for Valetta2018, to whom I spoke not only about her experience and the current developments in Valetta, but who also further connected me to others. A word of thanks also goes out to Michal Hladký, former member of the ECoC-team for Košice2013 and current director of the organisation Creative Industry Košice, for sharing his stories and experiences from 2013 with me. I would like to thank all of the above for speaking so openly with me about their passion for the ECoC. Their contributions, whether from a European, or from a more local perspective (or both), have really made this thesis come to life. The first connection to all these stories was kindly facilitated by my thesis supervisor Pascal Gielen, who connected me to the ECF and provided me with his support and motivational advice during this period. I would like to thank not only Pascal, but also my second reviewer Quirijn van den Hoogen for their valuable guidance. Last, but certainly not least, a word of thanks goes out to all my friends, family and in particular the love of my life, Jacob de Jong, who put up with all my confusing “thesis-talk” and who was my number one supporter throughout the process.

Index Preface 4 Index 6 1. Introduction 8 §1.1 Research question 11 §1.2 Relevance 13 2. Methodology 15

3. A European view on ECoCs 22

§3.1 Resolution 85/C 153/02 22

§3.2 Decision 1419/1999/EC 23

§3.3 Decision 1622/2006/EC 25

§3.4 European guidelines for participation 27

§3.5 Selection questionnaire for ECoC-applications 30

§3.6 Comparison of European documentation 32

4. City analysis 35

§4.1 Sibiu2007 35

§4.1.1 Bid book 35

§4.1.2 Programming 38

§4.1.3 Overall value perspective of Sibiu2007 41

§4.2 Linz2009 42

§4.2.1 Bid book 42

§4.2.2 Programming 44

§4.2.3 Overall value perspective of Linz2009 46

§4.3 Košice2013 47

§4.3.1 Bid book 47

§4.3.2 Programming 51

§4.3.3 Overall value perspective of Košice2013 52

§4.4 Umeå2014 53

§4.4.1 Bid book 53

§4.4.2 Programming 56

§4.4.3 Overall value perspective of Umeå2014 57

§4.5 Leeuwarden2018 59

§4.5.1 Bid book 59

§4.6.1 Comparison of bid book value orientation 63

§4.6.2 Comparison of programme value orientation 65

§4.7 Conclusion on city value orientation 69

5. Conclusion 70

§5.1 Research results 70

§5.2 Reflection on research methods 72

§5.3 Recommendations 73

Epilogue 77

Literature list 78

List of figures 82

Appendix 1: Overview ECoC information availability 83

Appendix 2: Questions for the ECoC-conversations with city-representatives 86

Appendix 3: Questions for the ECoC-conversations with EU-representatives 87

Appendix 4: Sibiu2007 Programme value overview 88

Appendix 5: Linz2009 Programme value overview 96

Appendix 6: Košice2013 Programme value overview 103

1. Introduction

This thesis takes a sociological value analysis approach towards the phenomenon of the European Capital of Culture (hereinafter referred to as ECoC); a yearly European event created by the European Commission to celebrate European culture amongst citizens and to nurture the contribution that culture can have on a local level in the development of cities (European Commission, Creative Europe programme, 2015). In 1985, Athens was the first European city to be named ECoC. Now, 31 years later, the event has professionalised and every year two or three cities are chosen by the European Commission to carry the title. The ECoC was initially designed to emphasise the diversity and wealth of culture in Europe, to celebrate common cultural features amongst Europeans, to enhance a sense of cultural commonality amongst citizens and to nurture the contribution that culture can have in city-development. Experience with the event over the years added urban regeneration to the event’s benefits, next to branding cities on an international level, enhancing city image amongst locals and boosting city culture and tourism (ibid.). Before details on the event and the values that it considers are discussed, first the importance of culture for the European Union is deliberated.

As can be seen from its historical overview, the foundation of the European Union lies foremost in economic and political practicalities. Although both the economic and political environments are important in society, it is “culture” however, that functions as its cornerstone (Gielen, 2015, pp. 20-22). Sociologist Rudi Laermans (2002) stated that “culture is a socially shared reservoir or repertoire of signs”, whereby the actual assigning of meaning as “sense”, is what gives people and societies direction (ibid.). Culture is about how society values life and how we perceive the world. Assigning meaning can be seen as a practice that needs repetition and is therefore shaped by the actions of the members of that society. Furthermore, the term “socially shared” is important, considering the fact that culture can only exist if the signs are collectively supported through shared meanings; a “common” or “communality” (ibid.). In the book No Europe, No Culture, the possibility for a European “common” is described as follows:

‘Within a cultural community, customs and traditions are preserved and it is only because of this that there can be shared meanings and therefore communication and mutual understanding as well. Or, again, only because of this a European common is possible.’ (Gielen, 2015, p. 21).

2015, p. 22). In the mission statement of the European Union, several values can be found as well. It reads:

‘To maintain and build on the peace established between its member states, to bring European countries together in practical cooperation, to ensure that European citizens can live in security, to promote economic and social solidarity; to preserve European identity and diversity in a globalized world; to promulgate the values that Europeans share.’ (European Union, 2004, p. 4).

In its current mission, both a social and cultural notion can be identified and the European Union addresses several terms which are relevant for this thesis, being; “European identity and diversity in a globalized world” and “values that Europeans share”. The first term is explained as follows:

‘In the long run, all EU countries benefit. Sixty years of European integration has shown that the EU as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. It has much more economic, social, technological, commercial and political clout than if its member states had to act individually. There is added value in acting together and speaking with a single voice.’ (European Union, 2004, p. 7).

“European identity and diversity in a globalized world” seems to be explained by many different terms, with the exception of cultural values. The second cultural aspect, on “values that Europeans share”, is described as follows:

‘So the EU stands for a view of humanity and a model of society that the great majority of its citizens support. Europeans cherish their rich heritage of values, which includes a belief in human rights, social solidarity, free enterprise, a fair distribution of the fruits of economic growth, the right to a protected environment, respect for cultural, linguistic and religious diversity and a harmonious blend of tradition and progress.’ (European Union, 2004, p. 9).

The concepts of culture and identity are closely interwoven. In his article on Culture in EU external relations; an idea whose time has come, professor Raj Isar looks at European culture from a cultural diplomacy perspective and examines the role of culture in external relations. He uses the definition for cultural diplomacy coined by Cummings in 2003; “the exchange of ideas, information, art and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples in order to foster mutual understanding” (Raj Isar, 2015, p.495). According to Isar, the domain has become an important element of the so called European “narrative” which is explained by means of Homi-Bhabha’s distinction between performative functions of national strategic narratives, causing a performance of “European-ness” that takes place in the present, and pedagogical functions causing an immemorial and timeless representation of this “European-ness” (ibid.). Raj Isar mentioned two researchers who looked into the agenda setting of the European Union, Cris Shore and Monica Sassatelli. Shore (2000), stated that identity formation is a dualistic process in which boundaries are manipulated and differences are mobilised as such that strategies of both inclusion and exclusion can be veiled. He takes the following stance on European culture:

‘[…] the politicisation of culture in the EU arises from the attempt by European elites to solve the EU’s chronic problem of legitimacy.’ (Shore, 2000, p.3)

Sassatelli (2000), examined the discourse and practice of European organisations and said the following about European culture:

‘European cultural space […] is about a combination of concepts of culture and identity (and place) that neither sacrifices nor celebrates diversity per se, struggling (because it has not totally freed itself from the previous model) to redefine those concepts and focusing on the creation of a unity as a project of social construction.’(Sassatelli, 2000, p.194)

A question that arises from this, is how the ECoC can aid in this discussion. The lack of European identity is becoming more and more a pressing issue, with current developments in for instance the refugee crisis and the possible “Brexit” of the United Kingdom. Moreover, it is remarkable that despite the EU’s view on the event as being a vital European effort to strengthen European culture, the European Union only contributes a minimum amount to the total of necessary financial resources for the project, causing local authorities to account for the ball part of financial investments, when hosting the ECoC. This leads to a bias in the event itself, as Europe requires contestants to acknowledge and stress the European character of the event on the one hand, but neglects to contribute a substantial amount of financial resources on the other. Furthermore, there are no general guidelines set by the European Union to measure the effect and success of ECoCs, as each city can currently determine these guidelines themselves, leaving the interpretation of “success” open for debate. Consequently, there are no sanctions put into place when cities fail to meet their objectives as put forth in their bid book. Even though the financial parameters surrounding the event are not the main topic of this research, it is important to note that the ECoC has to contend with this discrepancy as well.

§1.1 Research question

In their decision to establish a Community action for the ECoC for the period of 2007-2019, the European Commission stated that the long-term effect on the cultural development of participating cities and their surrounding regions still needed to be improved (European Union, 2006, p.1). Furthermore, it was recommended that the application proposals be monitored to enhance their “European dimension” (ibid.). Given the fact that the application period for ECoCs covers a period of six years and the Community action was planned for the application period of 2007-2019, the explicit focus on the European dimension would have bearing for the ECoCs of 2013-2025. In the guidelines for ECoC-participation, the European dimension is explained as follows:

the interest of a broad European and international public.’ (European Commission, 2014, p.9)

The notion of the European dimension is an interesting one, given that it answers to a sense of identity. Cities need not only express their local identity and display its diversity in the event of the ECoC, but also stress the commonalities that make their city European, thus stressing European culture. The request for strengthening the European dimension, is clearly represented throughout the rest of the European Commission’s report on the decision for a Community action, accentuating “European identity” as the foundation for the event even further and focusing on the “European added value” of the event. As mentioned earlier in this introduction, this leads to a bias in the event, as European culture needs to be brought to the fore, while European funding remains in the background. Moreover, as culture consists of a socially shared reservoir of signs and symbols, the question remains whether or not the imposition of rules, regulations or in this case criteria for ECoC-participation in the form of a European dimension and complementary rules and regulations, will lead to a common ground which is socially shared by Europeans.

This thesis attempts to uncover the relationship between the values surrounding the ECoC-event, as communicated by both European institutions and ECoC-hosts, and shows how these values influence a sense of European identity and culture. By comparing the values communicated through publications of the European Union on the ECoC and in the application bid books and programme books by several European Capitals from the period before, during, and after 2013, the year that the European dimension was focused upon for the first time, relationships between the event and its influence on European added value can be discovered, creating an overall value perspective on the ECoC-event. This research consists of a policy discourse analysis and answers the following research question:

Research question:

What is the influence of the ECoC-event on European culture?

Sub questions:

A. What value perspective of Europe is projected by the ECoC-event, before and as of 2013, on a European level (in the European Decisions, guidelines and selection criteria for ECoCs)?

It is important to note that the analysis merely represents a depiction of communicated value and thus shows how the influence of the ECoC on European culture is perceived in the documents that were used for analysis. In order to measure the actual impact of the event on European culture, further research would be necessary.

Throughout this research, the European Capitals of Culture Initiative, as it is officially called, is referred to as the “ECoC-event” or the “ECoC-initiative” or simply as “the ECoC” or “the event”. All of these terms refer to the European Capital of Culture Initiative, yet different terms were used to improve the readability of this report.

§1.2 Relevance

A lot of research on the ECoC has been done (e.g. Garcia, Melville and Cox, n.d.; Evans and Foord, 1999; European Commission, 2009, 2013, 2015; Aiello and Thurlow, 2010; Connolly, 2013). Albeit the information base on ECoC-analysis is massive, it does not include an analysis of the event from a value sociology perspective, which might be considered unusual, as values are at the basis of both culture and identity. By analysing the ECoC-phenomenon from both a European and a local perspective, through the application of value sociology theory, this research provides insight in the values behind the event and its influence on European culture and identity.

From a scientific perspective, this thesis contributes to the wider research available on the ECoC. For ECoCs, it provides insight as to how the event can influence the creation of value on a local, national and European scale. The research also adds to the theoretical knowledge on city branding and provides a value analysis framework that can be used for city branding activities in a practical sense, in particular by future and prospective ECoCs. For Europe, and its organisations concerned with the development of European culture, this thesis provides an overview of the influence of the added focus of the European dimension on the event and on European culture, as seen from a value perspective. Because the approach chosen in this research has not been applied before, this thesis might also provide a first step in developing a framework for the assessment of events, and in particular the ECoC, from a sociological value perspective and can therefore possibly be applied to other art festivals and mega cultural events as well. Furthermore, this thesis serves as a reflection to those who are concerned with the development and future of the ECoC-event.

concluded that a shift from competition-based marketing of local identity, to a universal value discourse might just be the first step to enhancing the European dimension in application bid books and ECoC-programming. Practical insight is provided for cities and their cultural policy officials, as well as city marketing managers and ECoC-organisation teams, who strive to become the next ECoC and want to learn how certain values are communicated and how this can influence European culture.

2. Methodology

This thesis is divided into two parts. The first part of the thesis will answer sub question A and will look at what value-view of Europe is projected by the ECoC-event from a European perspective. This sub question will focus on the Decisions for a Community action regarding the event, as well as guidelines and selection criteria put forth by the European Commission. The second part of the research focuses on the value orientation of the event from a more local point of view and answers sub question B on the value perspective of Europe that is projected by the ECoC-event by the ECoC-hosts. For this question, the bid books and programme descriptions of ECoCs have been analysed. Moreover, several cities were able to contribute with their first-hand knowledge and experience in the event, by means of informal Skype or face-to-face conversations that aided the interpretation of the analysis (hereinafter referred to as the ECoC-conversations). In total, seven conversations were held with representatives who either consulted several ECoCs from the past and/or future, or were/are involved in the programming as directors or members of the management team of that particular ECoC. The list of interlocutors, included the following individuals: Robert Palmer, independent ECoC-consultant, researcher and former director of Culture and Cultural & Natural Heritage at the Council of Europe, Ulrich Fuchs, panel member of the European Commission selecting and monitoring the ECoC, and former project manager and programme director of several ECoCs, Sjoerd Bootsma, producer Lab LWD at Leeuwarden2018, Mattijs Maussen, strategic European entrepreneur and ECoC-consultant, Jelle Burggraaff, head of European Affairs at Leeuwarden2018, Graziella Vella, research coordinator for Valetta2018, and Michal Hladký, former member of the ECoC-team for Košice2013 and current director of the organisation Creative Industry Košice. The questions that were asked during the ECoC-conversations can be found in appendix 2 and 3 and were intended to uncover the value orientation of the event from the experience of several ECoC-representatives, who provided practical insight on the value orientation from both a European perspective as well as a local perspective. Several of their comments have been inserted in the text, wherever applicable, to better interpret the analysed documents.

as well as rational approach, in assessing the strengths of interactions in communications (p. 212). In this case, the ECoC is seen as a communication tool whose strength is being determined from a value perspective. The theory was first coined by Walter Fisher in 1984, and can be used to examine narrative coherence, values and fidelity between advertisements and actual experiences (ibid., p. 213). In narrative paradigm theory, two evaluative concepts are central; “narrative probability”, which focuses on logics and assesses the audience’s evaluation on the coherence of a story, and “narrative fidelity” which focuses on the symbolic value and assesses the truthfulness of a story (ibid., p. 215). This thesis has taken a “narrative probability” approach and looked at values narrated on the event through the European Decisions and guidelines, and how these were interpreted in the application bid books and ECoC-programming, to assess the coherence of the ECoC-story and its European dimension. In order to answer the research question and uncover any signs of European identity, the “narrative fidelity” approach has been taken, by comparing the results of the cities that have been researched and asking the question whether or not the story adds up to other stories of the same type, and whether it meets the test of value-laden reasoning, thus assessing the truthfulness of the story. It is important to stress at this point that this research covers an analysis of the discourse of ECoC-policy by looking at communicated value through EU-documentation, bid books and programme descriptions. In order to measure the actual impact of the event, including the actual values that were perceived during the ECoC-year, further research would be necessary. However, this research does provide a first step in developing a framework by which the value of the event could be assessed.

financial profit and increasing tourism (ibid., pp. 196-199). The industrial world is about the optimisation of business operations and infrastructure, causing an increase in efficiency (ibid., p. 203). The six value regimes were complemented by Thévenot, Moody and Lafaye (2000) with a green polity, concerned with sustainability and the environment. Boltanski, Chiapello and Elliott (2005) later added the polity of the project city, where networking and flexibility are key. By using the eight value regimes, a value analysis of the ECoC-documents can display possible conflicts and compromises surrounding the event and will lay bare the values that indicate a sense of European identity and culture.

For this thesis, qualitative analysis takes in an important position. The eight value regimes described above have been applied in a systematic manner by means of a thorough analysis of the texts from the selected documents. In applying the value analysis, a combination is made with Sachs Olson’s model (2013), used to discover the rationales in cultural policy, behind the reasoning for participating in art festivals. Sachs Olson discusses the imbalanced conceptualisations that art festivals can have in the economic, social and political domains and states that, from a policy perspective, art festivals are mainly considered as a tool to boost economic development and tourism, moving away from the initial cultural goals created in local cultural policy. This statement also holds true for the ECoC, since one of the main challenges of the event is described as ensuring that cultural agendas are not instrumentalized to meet economic goals (European Parliament, 2013, p. 14). Sachs Olson’s model is a combination of Skot-Hansen’s model (2005), of the four E’s, including: Enlightment, Economic impact, Entertainment and Empowerment, and Raymond William’s distinction (1984) between cultural policy “proper” (C1) and cultural policy as display (C2). In the following paragraphs, both models will be briefly discussed.

to be empowered by culture. Within this policy rationale, not only high art, but all forms of culture can be used as a means to achieve goals regarding local identity and social inclusion. In the Economic impact rationale, areas such as tourism and city image are most prominent and economic priorities in cultural policy take the lead (ibid.). The fourth “E” focuses on Entertainment and is not identified as a cultural policy rationale, however the entertainment value of culture is winning ground in city’s culture policies. When applied by cities, entertainment value becomes apparent when play and fun are valued over learning experiences (ibid.). Skot-Hansen’s model is relevant for this research, as the ECoC is often seen as a tool for urban regeneration.

Williams (1984), made a distinction between two different types of cultural policy; “cultural policy proper” (C1) and “cultural policy as display” (C2). C1 is defined as the ideal role of the government in which it helps the democratic practices of arts, culture and media. He distinguished between three different types of cultural policy proper. The first focuses on public patronage of the arts, deployed as a means to protect the fine arts from market failure. The second is geared towards media regulation protecting public broadcasting and censorship. The third type transcends the nation state and concentrates on the negotiated construction of cultural identity, covering the problematics between nationalism and the multinational states that have been created through globalization (McGuigan, 2004, pp. 62-64). This third type also relates to the legitimisation problem with European culture, discussed earlier in the introduction of this thesis. According to Sachs Olson, C1 represents cultural policy that is explicitly rationalised on nation-state grounds, protecting the arts from market failure through subsidies allocated by art councils. This type of cultural policy is meant to stimulate artistic freedom and sustain cultural identity on a national level (Sachs Olson, 2013, pp. 485-468). As said by Williams, C2, cultural policy as display, is considered to be “the ritual symbolization of nationhood and state power” and is meant to aggrandise the predominant social order. Cultural policy as display is categorised into two sub categories, including national aggrandisement, which is expressed through spectacle or ceremony, and economic reductionism. The latter rationalises public policy investment as a means of leverage for economic growth and business opportunities (McGuigan, 2004, pp. 62-64). Sachs Olson describes C2 as a type of cultural policy that enhances the national and metropolitan reputation, where public investment on culture is rationalised implicitly by means of industrial and economic values and usually consists of large scale events (Sachs Olson, 2013, pp. 485-468).

festivals in cities. For this research, her model has been specified even further, by adding the eight value regimes previously discussed. This leads to the following preliminary figure:

Figure 1: Value orientation framework for ECoC-analysis

Figure 1 shows an overview of values important in each of the two parts of the research. The model has been used as a preliminary guideline for this research, but has also allowed modifications along the way. It has been applied in the following manner: for each official European publication and each city’s bid book, phrases and sentences inherent to the eight value regimes have been identified, summarised and placed in order of importance. As a result, figures have been constructed indicating the overall presence of the values regimes in the ECoC-documents, in order of importance, as can be seen from the example in figure 2.

Value regime: Overall presence in communication type: Sachs Olson’s policy rationale:

Inspired Domestic Civic Market Industrial Fame Project city Green

Figure 2: Value analysis framework of ECoCs

By comparing the results from figure 2, for all the documents analysed, the ECoC can be placed in either category C1 or C2. Moreover, its underlying value perspective on both a European as well as a local level could be displayed.

item contained any signs of a specific European direction, based upon the definition of the European dimension, as was stated in the introduction of this thesis on page 11-12. This analysis led to a series of comprehensive tables (to be found in appendix 4-7), summarised in pie charts that reveal the value orientation and the European orientation of the programming, as was communicated by the programme descriptions. By carefully reading all descriptions of the items in the programming, one, or in some cases, more than one value regime was ascribed to the programme item, which described the orientation of that item at its best. It is important to note that the value orientation of the analysed ECoC-programmes merely relied on the descriptions that were provided. It could be possible that the projects mentioned in the programming fulfilled different values in the end, than intended in the first place. However, as it is impossible to have visited all projects because they took place in the past, the programme descriptions served as a proper starting point. It is imperative to also mention, that albeit a qualitative analysis was chosen, the analysis also remains interpretative. It should also be noted that some values are more difficult to express in words, especially with regard to the inspired regime which is often measured using values from the industrial regime. In the analysis of all documents, detailed information was given to explain the allocation of the value regimes and to therefore allow as much transparency as possible.

3. A European view on ECoCs

This chapter contains an analysis of several European publications on the ECoC, from the starting point in 1985, when the initiative was first created, to the most current guidelines for participation for the years 2020-2033. After an analysis of all selected documents, a comparative table is presented to indicate the value orientation of the event from a European perspective and how this has changed over the years. Five European publications have been analysed and compared to each other in order to answer sub question A of this thesis: What value perspective of Europe is projected by the ECoC-event, before and as of 2013, on a European level?

§3.1 Resolution 85/C 153/02

In June 1985, the European Commission published their first Resolution concerning the then called “European City of Culture”. As the particular document merely consists of half a page, this document has not been systematically analysed by means described in the methodology. Due to its brief contents with only three short paragraphs, the value regimes could be detected more easily. The first paragraph “Aims and content” speaks of the goal of the initiative and mentions that the event should represent the expression of a culture characterised by both diversity as well as common elements. The main reason for creating the event is said to bring the citizens of European Member States closer together. Both the goal and the reason behind the event refer to civic values, signifying a place in the Enlightment and the Empowerment rationale. Domestic values are also an important part of the aim of the event, as local culture, whether it concerns a city, region or nation, should be opened up to the European public. The project city can be discovered in the suggestion that activities with other Member States are possible, but should be directed towards the benefit of local inhabitants, thus referring to the domestic regime once more. The second paragraph “Selection criteria” consists of very few and simple rules concerning the rotation of the event, stating that one city should be chosen each year to carry the title and each Member State should have its turn. Assigning a city with the title should happen two years prior to the event to allow for preparations, and all Member States should follow each other in alphabetical order. Other than that, no other guidelines are set, which is a vast difference with the guidelines that are presented nowadays, as can be seen in §3.4 of this thesis. Due to its brief and simple nature, no specific values regimes could be detected in this paragraph.

though this paragraph does not mention specific value regimes, the last two paragraphs do offer hints of the industrial regime, presenting rules and regulations. The document ends with the statement that the Member States should do everything possible to widely promote the event, therefore relating also slightly to the fame polity. Although a tad of both the industrial and fame regime can be found, the Resolution of 1985 primarily focuses on civic and domestic values in both the Enlightment and the Empowerment rationale. These rationales both belong to the C1 category of “cultural policy proper” and thus indicate an emphasis on the role of the event in supporting the democratic practices of arts, culture and media, to make sure that knowledge and development of the arts in society are promoted and that society feels empowered by culture. Even though the European dimension, which is widely known with ECoCs nowadays, was not explicitly mentioned back then, it has always been important. During the ECoC-conversations, Palmer mentioned that:

‘The European dimension has always been included in the Decision, even going right back to 1985. They don’t call it the European dimension, that is a new term, but the European-ness of the event has been very significant from the very beginning. Many cities didn’t focus specifically on the European connections, but instead focused more on issues concerning city development. The European dimension became more explicit and is now one of the most important criteria for the jury. The delivery of the project, which is now more European, has been the big change.’ (ECoC-conversations, Palmer, March 2016).

Reading the Decision, a sense of European-ness does indeed come forward in the sense that citizens of Member States should be brought closer together and both diversity and common elements need to be stressed. The following sub paragraph shows how this sense of European-ness applies for the Decision that was published four years later.

§3.2 Decision 1419/1999/EC

Value regime

Presence in: “Decision 1419/1999/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 May 1999 establishing a Community action for the European Capital of Culture event for the years 2005-2019.”

Sachs Olson’s rationale

Civic Civic values appear all throughout the report and take the shape of phrases including a focus on diversity, acceptance and acquaintance with other cultures. Involving people, ensuring mobilisation, participation and promoting dialogue are important criteria for a nomination as ECoC, according to the European Parliament.

C1-Enlightment; diversity and acceptance are values geared more towards Enlightment than Empowerment in this case, as these values intend to widen people’s horizons.

Inspired Inspired values are found in the criteria for the development and support of creative work and artistic movements. Improvement of the arts suggests a sense of quality management and is also mentioned as an evaluation topic.

C1-Enlightment; development of artistic quality is central in this case, indicating inspired values, thus this rationale fits best. Domestic Local history and local culture of the participating cities

needs to be highlighted during the ECoC-year. Quality of life in the city needs to be placed high on the agenda, together with the city’s own historical and cultural heritage.

C1-Enlightment; the domestic values here, are more geared towards showcasing the history of local culture and heritage. Even though quality of life in the city (empowerment) is mentioned, the overall notion leans more towards the Enlightment category.

Fame The positive impact on media resonance and the

development of tourism are mentioned, together with the great symbolic importance of the event and its potential for future enlargement of the Union.

C2-Economic impact; the fame values in this document are more concerned with increasing tourism and enlarging the Union, therefore this rationale fits best.

Industrial Industrial values merely appear in agreements upon the evaluation of the event, although criteria for these evaluations remains vague.

C2- Economic impact; although hardly mentioned, the industrial values refer to the Economic impact rationale in this case. Market The event is said to contribute to the economic development

of a city/region, other than that, market value is left aside.

C2-Economic impact; even though the market values are barely touched upon, the market value refers to Economic impact in this case, because economic developments are key.

Green Besides a brief mentioning of urban development, the green polity is not pointed out in the document and no signs of sustainable improvements are revealed.

Not applicable, due to absence of the value regime in the document. Project city The project city is not so much mentioned in the document,

as it is an official EU publication, focusing more on the criteria and goals behind the event and less on the actual execution of its organisation including organisational practicalities. It is therefore only logical that project city values hardly reach the surface.

Not applicable, due to absence of the value regime in the document.

Figure 3: Value orientation of Decision 1419/1999/EC

document, criteria for bid book submissions are mentioned. Four out of seven of these criteria denote civic values, two conditions refer to inspired values and one is focused on domestic value. Industrial values are briefly mentioned at the end of the document in “Article 5”, referring to planning and evaluation criteria, whereas fame values carefully surface here and there, but not with much signification. Only in “Annex II”, including a list with the planning and evaluation criteria, market value is mentioned in the sense that the event should contribute to the development of economic activity. Both the project city and the green polity are not touched upon. It is important to note here that policy documents, such as the document analysed in figure 3, do not provide an actual image of reality, but merely show what the priorities are in theory and how this should be executed. Therefore, albeit the project city was not touched upon in this case, it does not mean that networking was not an important aspect in reality. This also applies for the other documents that were used for analysis in this thesis.

Given the fact that civic, inspired and domestic values take the lead and other values are hardly pointed out, the document is oriented towards the Enlightment rationale, meaning a strong focus on democratic development in society through knowledge on art, culture and heritage in the year 1999.

§3.3 Decision 1622/2006/EC

Value regime

Presence in: “Decision 1622/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 2006 establishing a Community action for the European Capital of Culture event for the years 2007-2019.”

Sachs Olson’s rationale

Industrial In order to monitor the newly stressed competition elements of the event, this Decision calls for a selection procedure incorporating both national and European guidelines, thus increasing the industrial value surrounding the event; everything needs to be supervised and checked whether or not the event complies to the European dimension. The preparation phase becomes more important and much more institutionalised than before, including regular checks, assistance and expert advice. European value needs to be ensured through careful monitoring, yet the term “European value” itself, still awaits an explanation. The document is largely made up of industrial values, including many pages on selection procedures, restrictions and monitoring goals.

C2-Economic impact; industrial values refer to Economic impact, in this document. The presence of the industrial regime is

overwhelming, causing a strong orientation towards economic gain by focusing on means for measuring, monitoring and other ways to improve the event from an organisational perspective focusing on efficiency and mostly: control.

Project city The project city also plays an important role in this document. Networks need to be set up, both in digital and physical form, in order to ensure the successful

dissemination of best practices. Although the terms “success” and “best practice” remain unexplained, the project city regime does hint to economic success in this case.

C2-Economic impact; the project city also focuses on the Economic impact rationale, due to the fact that networking is used for sharing best practices, increasing the success of the event. Fame Fame values are mentioned early on in the document.

Together with an enhancement of the European dimension, competition between cities needs to be improved, which directly contradicts the values from Decision 1419/1999/EC, in that competition often does not include acceptance of diversity, but instead uses diversity between European countries to appear superior to one another.

C2-Economic impact; the fame values mentioned in the document do not focus much on

entertainment, but more on a competition aspect between cities and enlargement of the EU, therefore the Economic impact rationale fits best.

Civic The value of the event receives the same explanation as in the previous decision for a Community action and is therefore again focused on civic values. However, what is peculiar about this document, is that there are evident tensions between the fame and civic regime, in that

competition between cities should be fuelled, whereas at the same time understanding and acceptance of diversity and shared values, are described to be the main goal of the event. The richness of diversity and shared values for Europeans make up the biggest part of the criteria for the cultural programme.

C1-Enlightment; even though hardly focused upon, the civic regime corresponds here to the Enlightment category, as acceptance of diversity is key.

Domestic Domestic values appear briefly in the criteria for the newly mentioned “City and Citizens” category that each bid book should comply with. Participation of locals is mentioned, but local history and culture remain in the background.

C1-Enlightment; enlightening the local population in the form of participation in the event is briefly mentioned.

Inspired Quality of the programme is said to be awarded with a prize, however, quality is described in terms containing mere practical guidelines and a focus on “European value”, instead of focusing on the quality of an artistic programme. Even in the criteria for the cultural programme, where one might expect inspired values to appear, the regime is left

unsaid and values from the project city and civic regime take the lead.

Market The value regime of the market is not touched upon in this document.

Not applicable, due to absence of the value regime in the document. Green The green polity is not touched upon in this document. Not applicable, due to absence of

the value regime in the document. Figure 4: Value orientation of Decision 1622/2006/EC

As can be seen from the results of the analysis in figure 4, the Decision of 2006 reveals an orientation towards to the C2-Economic impact rationale in the first place, followed by the C1-Enlightment rationale with civic and domestic values. Industrial, project city and fame values take the lead and the event seems to have become more institutionalised with many rules and regulations restricting cities on what to do and what not to do. What might seem peculiar in this document, is that inspired values are not included and that fame values of competition, contradict with the more civic values of acceptance and diversity. The Decision therefore gives the impression that economic priorities are valued over cultural and societal issues in the ECoC. In the following sub paragraph, the analysis of the European guidelines for participation are displayed.

§3.4 European guidelines for participation

In order to see what cities need to do to become an ECoC, the guidelines put forth by the European Commission in their Guide for cities preparing to bid, was analysed as well. Unfortunately it was not possible to retrieve the guidelines that were created for the years before 2013 and for the period directly after. However, in a conversation with Robert Palmer, the guidelines did come forth as an important factor for the ECoC and the determination of the European dimension. For that reason, the guidelines for the ECoCs from 2020-2033 were used for this analysis. Figure 5 shows the value orientation of this document, ranking from most to least important.

Value regime

Presence in: “European Capitals of Culture 2020-2033. Guide for cities preparing to bid.”

Sachs Olson’s rationale Industrial The industrial regime surfaces all throughout the guidelines

and is most prominently present. Cultural strategies need to be in place already at the start of the bidding process. Furthermore, the objectives of the city should be clear, in which the planning process and the management of the ECoC-year are considered important. Careful monitoring of this process should be organised and evaluations should be prepared based on the objectives in order to be able to measure them in an effective manner. Political support and commitment from local authorities is imperative and procedures for the appointment of staff must be made clear.

C2-Economic impact; Although it is not illogical that guidelines for participation include a certain degree of industrial values, especially with regard to

Inspired The guidelines stress that the focus of the event should be on: ‘[…] citizens, artists and cultural operators and those who use their creative skills in many sectors of society’ (European Commission, 2014, p. 7), making it clear that the inspired regime takes up a large part of the ECoC’s aim. In the section on cultural and artistic content, innovation is important in that current local traditions should be combined with more experimental cultural expressions in order to create new things. Without laying bare the criteria for the word “quality”, the guidelines do stress that the programme should be of high artistic and cultural quality. Ways to develop the local artistic and creative community should be included in the bid books.

C1-Enlightment; the inspired regime takes up a large part of the ECoC’s aim, however, it is subordinate to the industrial value regime, which takes in an even more important position. The inspired regime here, is used to enlighten the local population.

Domestic Although the guidelines mention that the event is specifically for the citizens of a city, increased pride amongst them is merely seen as a positive side effect of the event and not a goal in itself, which might appear

contradictory. Even though the description of the European dimension is aimed at the citizens of a city to increase awareness of diversity and stress commonalities between cultures (more civic aims), the European dimension is said to be put into place to ensure that the ECoC is not a domestic event, but has a European vision. However, involvement of local citizens in the cultural programme, both active and passive, is an important criteria.

C1-Enlightment; The Enlightment category fits best in this case, as the domestic regime is used to enlighten the current citizens and make sure they learn more about issues concerning inspired values. Empowerment in the sense of pride is not a direct aim.

Market The European guidelines emphasise the fact that the ECoC is not a tourist-led project and that the focus should be on the citizens. Because many cities from past ECoC-experiences reported success in the economic field and in the attraction of tourists, the guidelines specifically stress that this is not the goal of the event. Yet developing long-term links between cultural, economic and social sectors is an important criteria for participation, as well as describing the long-term development in these areas including links with tourism, indicating that there should be in fact an economic strategy in place. Moreover, the ECoC-programme must be of enough “quality” to attract tourist from all over the world and candidates must make their objectives for increased tourism clear.

C2-Economic impact; Even though the guidelines describe that this is not a direct aim of the ECoC, it does become clear that boosting tourism and economical gain are indeed criteria for participation. Therefore the market regime falls under the Economic impact rationale.

Civic The programme should enable a wide range of citizens to participate, including, if not stressing, minority groups in society. Moreover, a direct link with education should be made and it is said that the success of an ECoC can be measured by the sum of active local participants. Although the civic regime is important in the “outreach” section of the guidelines, it hardly surfaces in other places of the report.

C1-Enlightment/ Empowerment; the civic regime is not clearly placed in either one of these rationales specifically and can therefore take the shape of both rationales.

Project city ECoCs are encouraged to co-operate with their partner-ECoCs from current, former and future years. In the criteria on cultural and artistic content, the project city also surfaces in that the involvement of different stakeholders is key.

Fame Besides being able to attract an international audience, the fame polity does not frequently surfaces in the guidelines. However, whereas marketing and communication strategies are concerned, cities are obligated to always state that the programme is a Union action, giving credits for success directly to the EU.

C2-Entertainment; although hardly mentioned in the

guidelines, the fame polity in this case is more oriented towards the Entertainment rationale, as cities need to be able to attract a large audience.

Green The green polity does not surface in the guidelines for participation, which might be considered peculiar due to the fact that environmental issues and the institutional

responsibility and influence on sustainability is becoming more and important.

Not applicable, due to the fact that this value regime is not present in the guidelines.

Figure 5: Value orientation of European guidelines for ECoC-participation

As can be seen from figure 5, the European guidelines seem to lie mostly in both the Economic impact rationale, as well as the Enlightment rationale. What is peculiar about the guidelines, is that several contradictory statements can be found, with regard to the influence of the ECoC on tourism development, indicating that the guidelines try to appear inspired and enlightened, but in reality also value economic impact on an almost equal, if not larger level. The value orientation is in contrast with one of Palmer’s remarks during the ECoC-conversations. He mentioned:

‘First and foremost there are cultural objectives, this isn’t a European Capital of the Economy, it’s the European Capital of Culture, so culture is always dominant and has to be first, but there are also profound economic objectives […] there are social objectives, […] and then finally there are environmental objectives, that are equally important […]. It’s an interrelationship between these four, with the cultural objectives always being dominant. They really need to have the priority.’ (ECoC-conversations, Palmer, March 2006).

whether or not culture and identity can blossom in a competition where rivalling countries are asked to create a cultural vibrancy out of their usual comfort zone. In fact, one might wonder if it is not exactly their comfort zone where cultural identity and commonness between countries lie? However, as Palmer mentioned, the cultural component to the competition is vital. Although not focused upon in the guidelines as such, it does take in an important position for creating the content of the programming, after the title has been awarded.

A sense of European-ness is also explicitly underlined in the document. The overall vision must be European and the programme needs to have an international or at least a European appeal, according to the guidelines. Economic impact takes the lead, referring to the importance of tourism and city image. The Enlightment rationale takes in a second position and focuses on both inspired and domestic values. The guidelines for participation deviate from the Decision of 2006, in that inspired values return to the priorities for ECoCs, yet industrial values seem to remain most important on paper.

§3.5 Selection questionnaire for ECoC-applications

Other documents that are considered a required read when applying for the title, are the latest version of the Decision on establishing a Community action and the selection questionnaire. When following the link from the guidebook to the Decision that is being referred to, the document unfortunately seemed to be non-existent. Therefore the latest Decision could not be taken into account in this research, which is in itself not a problem, as the research focuses on cities that used the Decision from 2006, which was already included and analysed in paragraph §3.3. The selection questionnaire was available however and focused on six different areas; a contribution to long term strategy, the European dimension, the cultural and artistic content, capacity to deliver, outreach, and management consisting the categories of finance, organisational structure, contingency planning, marketing and communications. Figure 6 offers an overview of the value orientation of this questionnaire.

Value regime

Presence in: “Selection questionnaire for ECoC-applications”

Sachs Olson’s rationale Industrial Right away in the questions considering the contribution to

the long-term strategy, the industrial regime surfaces, as the cities are asked to explain their cultural strategy and their city’s plans for monitoring and evaluating. Moreover in the section on capacity to deliver, applicant cities are asked to fill in all kinds of information on their city’s infrastructure, accommodation capacity and travelling options, proving that the city has what it takes to host the event from an industrial perspective including availability of facilities and services. Again in the questions on the organisational structure of the

event, the industrial regime surfaces in risk assessments, cooperation structures with authorities and contingency planning.

Civic The section on the European dimension is mostly oriented towards the civic regime, including terms such as diversity, mutual understanding and integration. Also in the questions on the outreach of the programme, civic values take in a prominent place in the activation of social minority groups. Moreover, links with education need to be established.

C1-Enlightment/ Empowerment; a clear distinction between the Enlightment rationale

(understanding of diversity) and the Empowerment rationale (involving social minority groups) is not given, therefore both rationales are suitable. Fame Cities are obliged to explain their plans for attracting an

international public, as part of the European dimension, referring to fame values. The question is asked whether their artistic programme can be summed up by a slogan,

indicating promotional goals. Measures for ensuring media goals are important and need to be put into place. Moreover, cities need to explain how they will communicate this event as an action of the European Union. In the closing questions, cities need to explain what makes their application so special in comparison to other applications, indicating a sense of competition and superiority.

C2-Entertainment; promoting the event and attracting a large and international audience hint towards the rationale of Entertainment.

Project city The project city takes the form of transnational partnerships and cooperations with other European Member States and other ECoCs in the section on the European dimension. In questions on the cultural and artistic content, the project city also takes in an important position, as cities should name places, dates and names of artists with whom cooperations are aspired.

C1-Empowerment; although the project city logically fits best in the Economic impact rationale, the project city in this case is directed towards cooperations with other cities, to empower the city’s cultural programme. Market Long term links with the economic sectors in the city,

should be explained in the application. Questions on the financing of the event are naturally focused on the economic worth of the event for the city, including questions on budgets, partnerships with the public sector and fundraising strategies.

C2-Economic impact; the market values from the questionnaire all refer to the economic impact of the event on the city.

Inspired Cities are asked for their artistic vision and strategy for the cultural programme of their ECoC-year and how they intend to combine local existing art forms with new, innovative cultural expressions. Other than those remarks, the section on cultural and artistic content focuses more on values from the project city than the inspired polity.

C1-Enlightment; albeit the inspired values refer to the Enlightment rationale, the values are not prominently present.

Domestic In questions concerning the outreach of the ECoC-programme, cities are asked to develop plans to actively involve local citizens (connecting to civic values) and plans for mobilising the local population as communicators of the event (relating also to fame values). Other than that, the domestic polity remains untouched in the selection questionnaire.

C1-Empowerment; the domestic values refer to the empowerment rationale in this case, but are not a main priority in the questionnaire.

Green The green polity is not touched upon in this document. Not applicable, given the fact that this value regime is not present in the guidelines.

As can be seen from the analysis in figure 6, the selection questionnaire for ECoC-applications mostly focuses on the industrial regime, following the guide for participation which was analysed in paragraph §3.4. Domestic values are less important and fame values seem more prominent. In comparison to the guidelines, inspired value is much less important and questions on the artistic content remain minimal. What is peculiar about the questionnaire, is that all rationales in both C1 and C2 seem to surface. The spotlight however is on the C2-Economic impact rationale, as its corresponding value regimes appear most often and are more obviously present than the rationales from the C1-category, indicating that economic viability of the event seems most important in this document.

§3.6 Comparison of European documentation

In the previous paragraphs, a total of five European documents were analysed on the presence of value regimes. Comparing these documents, changes between value regimes and orientations towards different rationales were found. Whereas in 1985 and in 1999 the event was mostly focused on enlightening local and European citizens and civic values were the main ingredient for the event, the publication from 2006 and the guidelines and selection questionnaire created in 2014, offer a more industrial view on the event, with added attention for economic development. Figure 7 shows a comparative overview of these transitions between value regimes.

Documents before the European dimension was specifically focused upon (indicated by year):

Documents after the European dimension was added as a specific criteria for the ECoC-event (indicated by year):

1985 1999 2006 2014 (EU

guidelines)

2014 (Selection questionnaire)

Civic Civic Industrial Industrial Industrial

Domestic Inspired Project city Inspired Civic

Industrial Domestic Fame Domestic Fame

Fame Fame Civic Market Project city

- Industrial Domestic Civic Market

- Market - Project city Inspired

In the introduction of this thesis, the sub question was posed as to what value perspective of Europe is projected by the ECoC-event, before and as of 2013 on a European level (in the European Decisions, guidelines and selection criteria for ECoCs). By comparing five official European publications before and after the European dimension was added, a shift in the value orientation of the ECoC from a European perspective could be discovered, as can be seen in figure 7. From an initiative that started out with civic and inspired intentions, focusing on the enlightment and the empowerment of European citizens, the event increasingly proved its viability as a tool for economic growth and promotion of the European Union. Moreover, the event seems to have become highly institutionalised which might make it difficult for the event, if not impossible, to reach its goals with regard to creating a common European culture. The comparative table in figure 7 reveals a vast difference between the Decisions from 1999 and 2006. What is most striking, is that instead of promoting a bottom-up approach, which seems to be the case in 1999, a controlled top-down approach obviously surfaces in 2006, when the industrial regime became most important.

Given the fact that culture is not something that can be forced upon citizens from a top-down approach, as was already briefly mentioned in paragraph §3.4, the Decision of 2006 might be considered a turning point for the event, in which culture is no longer created by citizens themselves from a bottom-up perspective, including civic aims for Enlightment and Empowerment, but is instead structured by European institutions using an industrial top-down approach and strengthening their institutional control over the event, which as of 2006 seems to be leaning more towards the Economic impact rationale. The 2006 Decision speaks more of rules, regulations and practicalities to which the event should comply, rather than describing the actual goal of the event. Whereas in 1999 the stance of the European Parliament was more concentrated on civic, inspired and domestic values, the 2006 Decision brings forward mostly industrial, project city and fame values, causing an entirely different orientation than that of the Community action of 1999.

yet from a European perspective, but by specifically adding this dimension to the guidelines for the event, the European Commission does make it more clear for participants. Yet, the main reason for participation on a city level, and the most important strength of the event, was considered to be the fact that the event may serve as a trigger for development in an economic, social and cultural setting, referring more to development on a local level, than to a contribution to European cultural identity, despite the criteria for the European dimension that were put into place.

4. City analysis

In order to recognise and underpin possible value shifts in the event, as indicated in the previous chapter, the bid books and programme descriptions of several ECoCs were analysed. In compiling a selection of bid books for the analysis, availability played an important role. From the cities that still had available documentation in the form of both their bid book and their programme descriptions, five cities were chosen for analysis, including two cities before the year 2013, the transition year 2013 itself, and two cities from after 2013, one of which is still in the preparation phase of the event. From all bid books, the sections on mission, vision and European dimension were included. For the programme books, all programme items were included in the analysis and analysed according to the ways set out in the methodology. The following paragraphs lay bare the results of the analysis per city, followed up by a comparison of the five cities that have been analysed, in order to answer sub question B: What value perspective of Europe is projected by the ECoC-event, before and as of 2013, on a local level (in the application bid books and ECoC-programming)?

§4.1 Sibiu2007

The city of Sibiu in Romania was ECoC in the year 2007. Both their application bid book as well as their programming (with the exception of the descriptions of a few programme items), were still available online and could therefore be taken into account in this research. The following two paragraphs show the analysis of their bid book and the programme descriptions that were available.

§4.1.1 Bid book

During this ECoC-year, there was no specific notion of a European dimension for the event from a European perspective yet. Figure 8 shows the analysis of the bid book of Sibiu2007, also referred to as Sibiu/Hermannstadt2007.

Value regime

Presence in: “Sibiu2007 bid book” Sachs Olson’s rationale Civic “Unity in diversity” is part of the slogan for the Sibiu bid

book. Bringing Eastern and Western Europe together is seen as a cornerstone for European integration. European institutions are quoted on the importance of education, together with promoting a cultural identity based on cultural diversity. The ECoC-year aims to open up gates through which the city can share its culture with that of Europe (indicating at the same time that these are two different