Does Drinking Alcohol Benefit Creativity?
The Effects of Moderate Alcohol Consumption, Alcohol Consumption Priming, and its Interaction Effect, on Creativity
Master thesis, MscMarketing, specialization Marketing Management University of Groningen, Faculty of Business and Administration
June 25, 2015 Simon Kamstra Student number: 2598493 Poststraat 7H 9712ER Groningen tel.: +31 (6) 48149896 e-mail: s.b.kamstra@student.rug.nl Supervisor/ university Prof. Dr. B.M. Fennis 2nd Supervisor/university Dr. Y. Joye Words: 6772
Does Drinking Alcohol Benefit Creativity?
The Effects of Alcohol Consumption, Alcohol Consumption Priming, and its Interaction Effect, on Creativity
ABSTRACT
There is a lack of research that focused on the effects of alcohol consumption on creativity or on the effects of exposure to alcohol consumption primes on creativity. The present study tested both the effects of a moderate dosage of alcohol consumption and alcohol consumption priming on creativity by presenting participants with a common creative problem solving task, the Remote Associates Test (RAT). Furthermore, the present study examined whether alcohol consumption and alcohol consumption priming interact to influence performance on the RAT. A two (alcohol consumption dosage: moderate vs low) x two (priming stimulus: alcohol consumption vs neutral) between group experiment was conducted among football players in their football canteen (N=100).
Results indicate that participants in the moderate dosage alcohol condition and in the alcohol consumption priming condition solved more RAT items. Time of completing the RAT items proved to be an invalid measure for creativity in this experiment due to the fact that data concerning time of completion was not normally distributed and was negatively influenced by external factors during the experiment. Results indicated that there was no interaction effect between alcohol consumption and alcohol consumption priming.
INTRODUCTION ‘Creativity is a drug I cannot live without’ (Cecil B. Demille) But how do drugs influence creativity?
The trend of mass customization, personalization and involvement of consumers in the innovation and development process of businesses makes creativity a vital aspect of consumer research. Creativity is found to be crucial in nowadays business settings due to the fundamental role it plays in solving common problems and meeting human needs (Hirschman 1980) . Creativity is identified as one of the key survival conditions in today’s business environment (Oldham & Silva 2015). Early psychological research paid considerable attention to the effect of individual traits (e.g. characteristics, personality) on creativity (Aguilar-Alonso 1996; Hirschman 1980), whereas more recent studies focus on external influences on an individual’s creativity (Eisenberg & Rhoades 2001; George & Zhou 2002). A large body of studies have explored the factors that are able to affect the creative ability and performance of consumers, including external factors (Moreau & Wahl 2005), analogical thinking (Dahl & Moreau 2002), life experiences (Maddux & Galinsky 2009) and systematic training (Goldenberg, Mazursky, & Solomon 1999). However, considerably less work has been done on the effects of drugs, and in particular alcohol, on creativity. The existing literature, that focused on the influence of alcohol on creativity (Jarosz, Colfles, & Wiley 2012; Norlander 1999), were mostly case studies or correlational studies, which lack demonstration of the connection between alcohol consumption and creativity empirically (Norlander 1999; Plucker, McNeely, & Morgan 2009). The focus of this study is to provide empirical evidence for the effects of alcohol consumption on creativity through experimental research. Since two billion people in the world consume alcohol, with an average of five liters of pure alcohol per year (Greenfacts 2015), and taken into consideration the growing importance of consumer creativity, this research answers the need for more empirical data about the effects of alcohol on creativity.
related stimuli are very much present in today’s society (e.g. beer commercials or advertisements). Results of this experiment do not only expand current knowledge concerning predictors of creativity, it might also allow firms to use alcohol consumption priming within their customer engagement strategies.
First, the current study aims to prove the positive effect of moderate alcohol consumption on creativity by involving participants with low or moderate dosage of alcohol consumption in an experiment that measures creativity. Second, this study aims to find the positive effect of alcohol consumption priming on creativity. The effect of alcohol consumption priming on creativity will be measured by presenting half of the participants in the current experiment with an alcohol consumption priming task and the other half of the participants with a neutral priming task before completing the creativity task. Third, the current study intends to prove the positive interaction effect of alcohol consumption priming on alcohol consumption which even enlarges the positive effect on creativity. The hypotheses will be controlled for intrinsic creativity (openness to experience), usual alcohol consumption, alcohol expectancy, alcohol need state, gender and age.
The theoretical framework is structured as follows. First, the possible effects of alcohol consumption on creativity are defined from literature. Second, the method of priming is briefly discussed followed by the expected effect of alcohol consumption priming on creativity. Third, the moderating role of alcohol priming on the relationship between alcohol consumption and creativity is discussed. Finally, the hypotheses are defined based on the theoretic framework.
THEORETIC FRAMEWORK Creativity
Alcohol Consumption and Creativity
A large body of research has focused on the effects of alcohol consumption on mental and physical wellbeing. Common known effect of alcohol consumption is that it slows brain activity as well as one’s thought, speech and movements (DiSalvo 2012). People might do things under the influence that they would not have done without alcohol consumption (Nathan, Marlatt, & Loberg 1978)) and might cause out-of-character and exaggerated behavior (Brown 2008;
MacAndrew 1977) This behavior is caused by the fact that alcohol depresses the higher centers of the brain that controls for the functions of civilized behaviors and subsequentely might result in agression, violence, impulsive and antisocial behavior (Critchlow, 1986). This is paired with the decrease of state of self-consciousness, self-judgement, self –awareness and other deep feelings (Ouspensky 1971). Although Flaherty (2011) assumes creativity to decrease as a result of these known effect of alcohol consumption, study by Jarosz et al. (2012) found evidence for the supporting role of a moderate amount (three to four alcoholic beverages or 0.75 promille) of alcohol consumption on creative ohutput.
Jarosz et al. (2012) found that the loss of attentional control, caused by alcohol consumption, is the main factor that influences the increased creative output. While opposing studies found that the increased ability to focus contributes to creative thinking (Fenske 2011), most evidence supports the theory of Jarosz et al. by stating that a too narrow focus inhibits creativity (Freeman 1995) and that creative people show a wide breadth of attention (Kasof 1997). The wide breadth of attention and focus is known to be a common effect of alcohol consumption (Dougherty, Marsh, Moeller, Chokshi & Rosen 2000). Thus, it is expected that the decrease of attentional control and the increase in the breath of attention, caused by alcohol consumption, leads to an increase in creativity.
Behavioral changes are often the most visible effects of alcohol consumption. Alcohol consumption results in out-of-character and exaggerated behavior (MacAndrew 1977; Brown 2008) caused by the decrease of state of self-consciousness and self –awareness (Ouspensky 1971) but increase in self-confidence and self-esteem (Clarkson 2005). These characteristics are identified by Feist (1998) as predictors for creative people. It can, therefore, be assumed that due to the increase in self-confidence and self-esteem, alcohol consumption has a positive effect on creativity. As demonstrated by
emotion creates mood-altering effects such as tension reduction and mood-enhancement (Cox & Klinger, 1988), In addition, alcohol can reduce the level of anxiety and might cause a calm, warm and relaxing emotional state (Brown 2008). This emotional state of being relaxed, positive and comfortable is linked directly to factors that increase creativity (Perkins 2013). Thus, it is anticipated for this experiment that, due to the effect of alcohol consumption on one’s emotional state, alcohol consumption leads to an increase in creativity.
The way alcohol might reduce tension and cause a relaxed emotional state is by increasing one’s distractibility. An increase in distractibility makes one less aware of a stress factor or anxiety factor (Hull 1981). Carson et al. (2003) found that this distractibility is positive related to creative output since being distracted stimulates free association and mind wandering, which are critical components of creative thinking. Based on these findings, it is expected that the increase in distractibility, caused by alcohol consumption, leads to tension reduction and in turn increases creativity.
Some studies suggest that creativity diminishes due to alcohol consumption caused by decreased attention span, lack of focus and a decrease in early phases of creative thinking
(Norlander 1999). Nonetheless, several studies have found effects of alcohol consumption that
are positively related to creativity. Based on the findings that a moderate amount of alcohol consumption leads to less attentional control (Cox & Klinger 1988), increased distractibility (Jarosz et al. 2012), an increased state of relaxation (Birs, 2013) and an increase in self-confidence and self-esteem (Clarkson 2005), this study proposes that alcohol consumption leads to an increase in creativity. Thus, this study agrees with prior findings of Jarosz et al. (2012) that consumption of alcohol leads to increased creative output.
The first hypothesis is defined as follows;
Hypothesis 1: A moderate dosage of alcohol consumption results in a higher score on creativity than a low dosage of alcohol consumption.
Alcohol Consumption Priming and creativity
without being aware of it (Goldman, Brown, & Christiansen 1987). It has been shown that alcohol expectancies can be primed and activated through exposure to alcohol-related stimuli (Kramer & Goldman 2003) such as alcohol related words (e.g. beer, vodka) and alcohol outcome stimuli (e.g. excited, happy, dancing) (Roehrich & Goldman 1995). Furthermore, recent study has found that exposure to alcohol primes can activate representations of alcohol expectancies, which in turn stimulates expectancy-consistent behavior and emotional state (Goldman 1999; Freeman et al. 2010).
The stimulation of expectancy-consistent behavior could result in tension reduction (Goldman, Brown, & Christiansen 1987) and impairment of cognitive functioning such as loss of attentional control (Fillmore & Vogel-Sprott 1995; Grafman et al. 2002), two factors shown to be positively related to creativity (Flaherty 2011). Besides tension reduction, the alcohol priming effects on behavior can result in the activation of semantic constructs in memory related to carefree, relaxed and laid-back behavior (Freeman et al. 2010). This behavior is found to positively influence creativity (Flaherty 2011). Additionally, the expectancy-consistent behavior of alcohol consumption may lead to impulsive behavior (Fromme, Katz, & D'Amico 1997) and increased self-confidence (Bègue, Bushman, Zerhouni, Subra & Ourabah 2013). Impulsive behavior and self-confidence are two characteristics that are attributed to creative individuals (Feist 1998). Thus is it expected that the increase of these characteristics leads to increased creativity.
Considering that alcohol consumption priming brings out the expected behavior of alcohol consumption and for the reason that the possible effects of alcohol consumption priming, such as relaxed behavior, impulsivity and less attentional control are positively related to creativity, it is expected in this study that alcohol consumption priming has a positive effect on creativity. The hypothesis is defined as follows;
Hypothesis 2: Participants presented with an alcohol consumption priming task prior to the experiment show a higher score on creativity than participants presented with a neutral priming task.
Eastwood & Child 2008; Wiers, van Woerden, Smulders & De Jong 2002). Furthermore, Field and Cox (2008) found that alcohol-related cues are more able to grab the attention of heavy drinkers compared to light drinkers. With regard to acute alcohol effects, studies found that the ability of alcohol priming to grab ones attention increased among participants who consumed around three alcoholic beverages (Duka & Townshend 2004; Schoenmakers & Wiers 2010). Thus, it is assumed that consumption of a moderate dosage of alcohol most likely results in a better interpretation of the alcohol priming stimuli (Stacy 1997). This means that participants who consumed a moderate dosage of alcohol will be more affected by the alcohol prime and therefore show a higher creativity score than participants in the low alcohol consumption dosage condition.
In addition, more recent experience with a substance can facilitate the activation of expectancy associations (Goldman 1999). This indicates that individuals who have recently consumed alcohol are more affected by the alcohol prime since their expectancies are based on recent experience. In other words, this study assumes that individuals who have consumed alcohol are more affected by alcohol related cues and therefore perform better on creative tasks. Hence, this study expects that the moderating effect of priming on actual alcohol consumption will increase the effect of alcohol consumption on creativity for those who have been primed with alcohol consumption.
The hypothesis is defined as follows.
METHOD
In this section, the research design is discussed. First, the data collection and research design will be explained. Next, the research procedure is defined. Following that, the measurement scales are described, including the level of creativity, intrinsic creativity (openness to experience), usual alcohol consumption, alcohol dosage, alcohol craving and alcohol consumption impact expectancy. Finally, the plan of analysis will be elaborated on.
Data Collection and Design
Hundred football players (M = 28.39 years, SD = 7.94, r = 46 ), recruited at the football canteen of Amicitia V.M.C, participated voluntarily in the experiment over the course of three weeks on consecutive Friday evenings and Saturday and Sunday afternoons. The participants were all part of football teams. Participants consisted of men (75 percent) and women (25 percent) aged between eighteen and sixty-four. All participants were native to the Netherlands. Of the participants 99 percent reported themselves to be moderate/heavy social drinkers, with an average of 25 (M = 25.4, SD =13.94) alcoholic consumptions per week.
The study used a 2 (alcohol consumption dosage: moderate vs low) by 2 (priming stimulus: alcohol consumption vs neutral) factorial design where twenty-five participants were randomly assigned within each condition. The participants were tested individually in a 15 to 20 minute experiment, in which they worked through two paper-and-pencil-type tests and four questions. Research Procedure
Participants were told that the study investigated the relationship between language and reasoning as indicated by the RAT and the openness to experience test. Participants were informed that the RAT would be followed by the openness to experience test. No mentioning was made about the priming task at the beginning of experiment nor was there a mention of the control questions at the end of the experiment to avoid unintentional alcohol priming before the RAT and openness to experience test.
before their practice or game). This time limit was not mentioned to the participants before the test in order to avoid inaccurate responses since research found that time pressure negatively predicts creative cognitive processing (Teresa et al. 2002).
Next, the participants answered ten statements on a 5-point Likert scale to measure openness to experience, which relates to intrinsic creativity. Without previous mentioning, the participants were then asked about their usual weekly alcohol consumption, amount of alcoholic consumptions they had that day, their alcohol craving at that moment and the alcohol consumption impact expectancy on puzzle tasks. Gender and age were noted at the end of the experiment. The nature of the experiment was kept hidden though participants could fill out their contact information to receive a debriefing of the experiment.
Alcohol consumption
Considering the presumption that most football players do not consume alcohol prior to their practice or match, the fifty participants randomly approached before practice or a match belonged to the low alcohol dosage condition. After the (Friday-evening) practice or (Saturday/ Sunday) match many football players do consume alcohol. Fifty football players were randomly approached after their practice or match and subsequently belonged to the moderate alcohol dosage condition. The football players in the moderate alcohol dosage conditions were approached 30 to 90 minutes after the end of the practice or match to ensure they had enough time to consume multiple alcoholic beverages. Actual alcohol consumption was measured at the end of the experiment. Participants filled out the total amount of alcoholic beverages they consumed that day. To exclude possible bias results, caused by different effects of alcoholic beverages, this study focused merely participants who consumed alcohol in the form of beer. Alcohol Consumption Priming
presented with a neutral priming task where they had to write, in detail, a situation in their life when they took the bus.
Creativity
The RAT is a validated test for measuring creative thinking. The RAT consists of 22 items, from which each item contains three words. The participants are asked to find the fourth word that is related to all three of the given words (e.g. lijm-man-ster, solution to this problem is ‘super’). Creativity is required here to find the valid fourth word since the obvious solution is often not the correct one (Chermahini, Hickendorff, & Hommel 2010). The higher the amount of correct solutions indicates a higher score of creativity whereas lower amount of correct answers indicates a lower score of creativity. The RAT used for the current study has been developed in Dutch (Chermahini, Hickendorff, & Hommel 2010). Content and construct validity has been established for this test. For explorative reasons, the time participants spent on completing the RAT was noted for an extra measurement of creativity.
Control variables
Openness to experience, to control for the intrinsic creativity of the participants, was measured by a shortened version of the Dutch Translation of the Big Five Inventory (BFI) constructed by Denissen et al (2008). The scale consisted of ten statements measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = completely disagree; 5 = completely agree). The openness to experience scale appeared to have a questionable level of internal consistency (Gliem & Gliem 2003) as determined by a Cronbach alpha of 0.679 where a value of 0.7 is often used in literature as the cut-off point between scales with poor or good internal consistencies. The greatest increase in alpha would come from removing item seven, though this would only mean an increase of alpha with merely 0.004. However, for the sake of this study and considering the fact that the scale has a questionable, though not an unacceptable, internally consistency (Gliem & Gliem 2003), the scale was still used in this study as a measurement for openness to experience.
The participants’ craving for beer was measured on a 7-point Likert scale (How much do you want a glass of beer now: 1= not at all; 7 = desperately need a beer). Alcohol consumption impact expectancy was measured on a 9-point scale after presenting the participant with the following question; ‘If I drink two glasses of beer in 1 hour, my puzzle problem-solving skills will become’ (1 = a lot worse; 5= no influence; 9= a lot better)).
Plan of analysis
The full analysis set included all hundred participants taken from the four conditions. Descriptive statistics were computed for the whole data set as well as for each condition to report for skewed continuous variables. Descriptive statistics and 90% confidence intervals will be used to summarize the differences between groups based on age, gender, alcohol consumption, alcohol expectancy, need state and usual alcoholic consumption. The primary outcome of the RAT was assessed with the Two-Way ANOVA, which made it possible to show to main effect of both alcohol consumption and alcohol priming on creativity as well as the interaction effect of both variables. Given that the current study consisted of a field experiment where data often contains errors or may contain subjective, and therefore variable, judgments, hypothesis tests used a significance level of 0.10. Furthermore, ANCOVA tests were performed to determine whether there were any significant differences between the means of two independent (unrelated) groups (moderate versus low dosage of alcohol and primed with alcohol consumption yes or no) statistically controlled for the background variables (gender, age, openness to experience, alcohol expectancy, alcohol need state and usual alcohol consumption).
RESULTS
To test the hypotheses that a moderate alcohol dosage and alcohol priming stimuli influence creativity, a factorial two way ANOVA was conducted. Participants in the moderate alcohol dosage condition drank an average of 3.72 (SD=1.25) beers which in the scientific community is defined as a moderate consumption of alcohol (Hester, 2015). Participants in the low alcohol dosage condition did not consume any beers, except from one participant who consumed one beer, which still can be considered a low dosage.
Alcohol consumption, alcohol consumption priming and creativity
consumption vs neutral) between-subjects ANOVA, showed that measures of creativity provide clear support for hypothesis 1 and 2. That is, the results showed a significant main effect of alcohol consumption on creativity, F(1, 96)= 24.66, p= .00 (Mmoderatedosage= 9.84 SD= 2.93,
Mlowdosage= 7.26 SD= 2.22), which is consistent with prior research that a moderate amount
of alcohol consumption positively influences creative output (Jarosz, Colfles, & Wiley, 2012). This means that people who have consumed a moderate amount of alcohol have a higher score on the RAT than people who did not consume alcohol.
The main effect of alcohol consumption priming on creativity also showed a significant result
F(1, 96) = 2.75, p = .10 (Malcoholprime= 8.98 SD= 3.17 Mneutralprime= 8.12 SD= 2.56). This
indicates that participants that have been primed with alcohol consumption show a higher score on the RAT. Results did not show support for hypothesis 3. There was no statistically significant interaction between the effects of alcohol consumption and alcohol consumption priming on creativity (F(1, 96)= 0.121, p= 0.73). This means that the effect of alcohol consumption on creativity does not depend on whether someone is primed with alcohol consumption.
Time of completion
For explorative reasoning, time of completion of the creativity task was noted as a second measure of creativity. Results showed that data regarding time of completion significantly deviates from a normal distribution for three of the four conditions. Data in the condition with participants with moderate alcohol consumption and who were primed with alcohol consumption was normally distributed (p=0.072). Data of the other three condition was not normally distributed as all p-values were less than 0.05. Regardless, results of the effect of alcohol consumption and alcohol consumption priming on time of completion were still noted. Results analyzed using a 2 (alcohol consumption dosage: moderate vs low) x 2 (priming stimulus: alcohol consumption vs neutral) between-subjects ANOVA showed that neither the alcohol consumption condition, F(1,96)= 0.030, p= 0.86 nor the priming condition, F(1,96)= 1.573, p= 0.21 have a significant effect on time of completion. The interaction effect of alcohol consumption and alcohol consumption priming also showed to be non-significant, F(1,96)= 0.009, p= 0.92.
predict time of completion, = 0.22, F=(1,99) = 4.94, p = 0.03, in such a way that people who
reported themselves as open to experience reported slower completion times of the RAT. Covariates
Additional ANCOVA test was performed to test whether there is statistically significant difference of the creativity result between the priming conditions (priming stimulus: alcohol consumption vs neutral) and alcohol consumption dosage (moderate vs low) adjusted for the control variables. Results showed a statistically significant difference in creativity between alcohol dosage (moderate vs low) once their means had been adjusted for the covariates, F(1,90) = 21.75, p = .00. The priming condition did not show to result in a significant effect on creativity when it was controlled for the covariates, F(1,90 = 2.25, p = 0.14. Though priming did show up non-significant after controlling for the covariates, none of the covariates had a significant direct effect on creativity. While it is still possible to predict creativity from the alcohol consumption priming, the effects of alcohol consumption priming alone are no longer significant.
CONCLUSION
Although many studies have look at the effect of alcohol consumption in consumer behavior, little empirical evidence exists for the assumed effect of alcohol consumption on creativity. In this study it was explored whether alcohol consumption and presenting alcohol consumption stimuli affects creativity. This study argued that a moderate dosage of alcohol consumption and presenting participants with an alcohol consumption priming task does positively affect creativity. Furthermore, it was expected that the interaction effect of alcohol consumption priming on alcohol consumption even enlarges the direct effect of alcohol consumption on creativity.
to experience measure, completed the creativity tasks in a significant slower time than those who scored lower on the openness to experience measure.
Theoretical contribution
Alcohol consumption and creativity. This study adds to existing literature in that it found
benefits of moderate alcohol consumption on creativity. Where Caswell, Morgan and Duka (2013) suggest that effects of alcohol are to a larger extend caused by the expectancies that people have on regarding alcohol consumption, this study found that alcohol consumption itself had a larger effect on creativity than alcohol consumption priming. This study acknowledges prior research by Jarosz et al. (2012) who found that men show higher level of creativity after consumption of a moderate amount of alcohol due to the loss of attentional control and a less but more broad focus of their attention. Despite the fact that research by Jarosz et al. (2012) was performed in a closed lab session, their study and the current study showed the same main results when looking at amount of correct answers on the creativity task. This can be called surprising since the participants of the current study were exposed to much outside noise and distractions from others around them compared to the participants in the closed lab experiment of Jarosz et al. This raises the question to what extend certain conditions (e.g. noise, music, people walking around) influence people when exhibiting creative behavior. Various studies support the reasoning that exposure to noise and distraction can indeed benefit creative output (Allport 1920; Huckman & Pisano 2006). However, contrary studies found that unexpected interruption, high density areas (Aiello et al. 1977), a lack of space and presence of noise all contribute to a decrease in creativity (Alencar & Faria 1997). Considering the high level of noise, interruptions and distractions in the current studies’ experiment it is expected that the creative output of this study’s participants is lower compared to participants in the closed lab experiment of Jarosz et al.
Alcohol consumption priming and creativity. This study was able to add to current literature
through exposure to alcohol related stimuli. The results can be explained by Goldman (1999) who found that exposure to an alcohol consumption priming stimulus stimulates the expectancy-consistent behavior (Goldman 1999), which in this study is creativity. Another possible explanation for the positive effect of alcohol consumption priming on creativity can be found when looking at the average weekly alcohol consumption of the participants of this study. 99% of the participants reported themselves to be moderate or heavy drinkers. As discussed earlier in this paper, heavy drinkers are more sensitive to alcohol primes. It can be assumed that the participants in this study were affected to a higher degree by the alcohol consumption prime and, therefore, scored better on the RAT.
Though results showed a positive direct effect of alcohol consumption priming on creativity, alcohol consumption priming is not significant when adjusted for the control variables. This indicates that alcohol consumption priming alone is not enough to explain the effects on creativity. This means that the effect of alcohol consumption priming on creativity partially depends on other variables, such as characteristics (e.g. intrinsic motivation, alcohol expectancy etc.), one’s current situation (e.g. age), and other unknown factors.
Time of completion. A mayor difference between the current study and study by Jarosz et al.,
distribution of time of completion and the negative effect of the noisy and distracting conditions during the experiments, time of completion of the RAT was considered as an inappropriate measurement for creativity in the current study. Though an interesting finding of this study is that participants, who reported themselves to be open to experience (creative), completed the RAT significantly slower than the participants who reported themselves to be less open to experience. This result can be explained by findings from Jung (Geddes 2010 ) who found that creativity benefits from slow brain processing. This entails that creative people are slower due to the slower brain processing of, in this case, a creativity task. In addition, Bradley (2013) states that creativity is about ‘taking your time’, which explains the result of this study that participants who reported themselves to be open to experience were slower in completing the RAT.
Practical Implications
From a managerial point of view, the results of this study bring some implications. This study indicates the importance of alcohol consumption and alcohol consumption priming as a consumer behavior tool for companies to consider when it comes to creative thinking. This might prove to be important information for companies since consumers are confronted with creative decision making in their day-to-day life.
Practical implications of this study can be found in the area of customer engagement. Companies nowadays involve their customers more than ever in the innovation, idea generation and development phases of their products and services (MarketingCharts 2012). As an example, managers can choose to include consumers in the idea generation phase of product development during situations where consumers have consumed alcoholic beverages (e.g. ask consumers to come up with new ideas at a festival, or on at a Friday evening when many people have had some alcoholic drinks). The risk here is that companies have to be aware not to push consumers to consume alcohol since this might harm consumers as well as reflect badly on the company. Merely recognizing when consumers consume alcohol in their daily life would create the best means to benefit from consumers’ increased creativity.
alcohol related prime before the ad (Youjae 1991). This indicates that consumers who have consumed alcohol or have been primed with alcohol consumption will most likely be processing the ad information in a more creative way. This is crucial information for marketers since creative consumers show more compulsive and impulsive buying behavior (Shahjehan, Qureshi, Zeb & Saifullah. 2012).
This results of this study propose another and more controlled way of increasing creativity of consumers (or employees) by presenting consumers with alcohol priming stimuli. Priming itself is not a new phenomenon in marketing. All advertising associated with television, radio or Internet already contains stimuli that influence consumer behavior (Marshall 2012). The present study suggests marketers to use alcohol consumption primes to increase the creativity of consumers. This increased creativity, in turn, leads to impulsive buying behavior and increase performance output on creative tasks. Depending on the intention of the marketing effort, alcohol consumption can be used for a creative consumer input ( e.g. by presenting alcohol related cues before asking consumers about new or other ideas for certain products) or for increased impulsive buying (e.g. radio ads of beer commercials in supermarkets or beer commercials on TV show-model’s in consumer electronic stores).
Limitations and future studies
Despite that the main findings of this study have supported the hypotheses that alcohol consumption and alcohol consumption priming result in higher creativity, this study holds some limitations.
First, the data was gathered in a noisy and busy football canteen. While some distractions and noise can benefit creativity, participants in the current study were distracted a lot and experienced a much noise. This might have influenced the amount of correct answers on the RAT and the time of completing the RAT. Future studies should examine the differences between the effect of alcohol consumption and alcohol consumption priming in a lab and in a busier environment to control for the effect of environmental factors on creativity.
future research could focus on the effect of actual alcohol consumption on the creativity of heavy compared to light drinkers.
Third, participants showed different levels of motivation to perform well on the RAT. Where some participants took full advantage of the time and showed high levels of concentration to get as many correct answers as possible, others gave up after a few minutes into the RAT. Intrinsic motivation to perform could explain differences in creativity scores for this study. A future study into the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creative performance would provide this outcome.
Fourth, participants react in a different manner to the priming tasks. This could have been caused by age (Laver & Burke 1993) or a multiple other factors which can explain differences in performance on the RAT. Though this study did not look at the effect of consumer characteristics or consumer behavior on alcohol consumption priming, this would be an interesting perspective for future research. Defining what internal and external factors influence reactions to priming tasks could provide valuable information for marketers to identify the best conditions to prime consumers.
Notwithstanding these limitations, the results of this study suggest the importance of alcohol consumptions in creative consumer behavior. The positive influence of alcohol consumption on creativity and the positive effect of alcohol consumption priming on creativity show the impact that alcohol and alcohol related cues can have on creativity.
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APPENDIX A
Research Procedure
Potential participants were approached randomly at a football canteen. Researchers asked the participants whether they wanted to join an experiment which would last for around 15 minutes. It was mentioned that all necessary information regarding the experiment could be found on the papers with the test and questions, though participants could always ask the researcher for additional information. The experiment was mostly self-regulatory, though participants were asked to inform the research when they finished or stopped with the RAT to allow the researcher to note the time of completion. If participants spend 10 minutes on the RAT, they were stopped and instructed to move on to the next page. Instructions for the other questions were clear and easy to understand.
Questionnaire 1 – Alcohol Priming
The first part is to be filled out by the researcher. This information contains the date of the experiment (Dag), the exact time of the experiment (Tijd), whether the experiment is been held before (V) or after (N) football practice and the time of completion of the RAT (Tijd RAT).
In te vullen door de onderzoeker: Dag: Tijd: V/N: Tijd RAT:
---
This introduction part contains a thank you word for participation, explains the reason for this research, and mentions that participants will remain anonymous.
Beste deelnemer
Bedankt dat u wilt deelnemen aan dit experiment. Het onderzoek bestaat uit enkele on-gerelateerde deelstudies naar taal en redeneren
Uw resultaten zullen met vertrouwen worden behandeld en uw identiteit blijft anoniem. We verzoeken uw daarom zo eerlijk mogelijk antwoord te geven op hieronder gestelde vragen. Ga pas verder naar de volgende pagina wanneer dat wordt aangegeven.
This task is filled out by the participants. It is used to prime the participants of a situation in their life where they have consumed a few beers in a short time by describing when this happened, what exactly happened and how they felt.
Beschrijf hieronder in enkele zinnen een situatie uit je eigen leven waarin je in korte tijd meerdere glazen bier hebt gedronken.
Beschrijf hieronder wat er precies gebeurde in die situatie waarin je in korte tijd meerdere glazen bier hebt gedronken:
Beschrijf hieronder welke gedachten en gevoelens er door je heen gingen toen je in korte tijd meerdere glazen bier hebt gedronken:
The next test to be filled out by the participants is the RAT, which measures creative output. Participants have to find the missing word associated with the set of three items before.
Hieronder vind u een lijst met 22 sets van 3 begrippen. Steeds 1 woord verbindt de drie woorden met elkaar. Het is uw taak om dit ‘verbindingswoord’ te vinden. Voorbeeld: Hut/ Familie / Palm. Het verbindingswoord is hier; Boom (BoomHut / FamilieBoom / PalmBoom) U hoeft niet in een bepaalde volgorde te werken en mag ook een set overslaan om door te gaan naar een andere set van drie woorden. U kunt uw antwoord in de lege ruimte naast de sets met begrippen noteren. Als u het gevoel heeft dat u niet meer oplossingen kan vinden mag u stoppen met dit onderdeel en dit melden aan de onderzoeker. Probeer zo veel mogelijk verbindingswoorden te vinden. Succes.
Wat verbindt (associeert) deze begrippen?
Antwoord: Bar / jurk / glas
Kaas / land/ huis Vlokken / ketting / pet Val / meloen / lelie Vis / mijn / geel Achter / kruk / mat Worm / kast / legger Water / schoorsteen / lucht Trommel / beleg / mes Hond / druk / band
Controle / plaats / gewicht Goot / kool/ bak
Kolen/ land/ schacht Schommel / klap / rol Kamer / masker / explosie Nacht / vet / licht
Arm / veld / stil Olie / pak/ meester School / ontbijt / spel Deur / werk / kamer Strijkijzer / schip / trein Man / lijm / ster
The next statements to be answered by the participants measure openness to experience which is closely related to intrinsic creativity. Statements are answered on a 5-point scale from totally disagree (1) to totally agree (5)
De volgende stellingen hebben betrekking op uw opvatting over uzelf in verschillende situaties. Het is aan u om aan te geven in hoeverre u het eens bent met elke stelling, waarbij u gebruik maakt van een schaal waarop 1 helemaal mee oneens betekent, 5 helemaal mee eens betekent, en 2, 3 en 4 zijn beoordelingen daartussenin.
Er zijn geen "goede" of "foute" antwoorden, dus selecteer bij elke stelling het getal dat zo goed mogelijk bij u past. Neem de tijd denk goed na over elk antwoord.
Ik zie mezelf als
iemand die…
Helemaal
mee oneens Oneens
Eens noch oneens Eens Helemaal mee eens …graag nadenkt,
met ideeën speelt …vindingrijk is …waarde hecht aan kunstzinnige
ervaringen
…origineel is, met nieuwe ideeën komt …scherpzinnig, een denker is …een levendige fantasie heeft …benieuwd is naar veel verschillende dingen
…het fijne weet van kunst, muziek or literatuur
The last set of questions are regarding the remaining control variables. First, participants answer the average amount of alcohol consumption they consume on every day of the week. Second, the total amount of beers the participant has consumed that day is asked. Third, participants fill out how much they want a beer at the moment to measure their need state (7-point scale). Fourth, the alcohol consumption expectancy effect on puzzle tasks is measured (9-point scale; 1 = a lot worse, 9 = a lot better). Finally, gender and age is asked.
Tot slot willen wij u nog enkele vragen stellen. Uw antwoorden zullen met vertrouwen worden behandeld, dus we verzoeken uw daarom nogmaals zo eerlijk mogelijk antwoord te geven op hieronder gestelde vragen. Mocht u geen antwoord willen geven, dan kunt u de vraag (vragen) overslaan.
Wilt u hieronder aangeven hoeveel glazen alcohol (dat mag alles zijn: bier, wijn, sterke drank, mix drank etc.) u normaalgesproken drinkt op elk van de onderstaande dagen van
de week
Aantal alcohol consumpties:
Maandag ………… Dinsdag ………… Woensdag ………… Donderdag ………… Vrijdag ………… Zaterdag ………… Zondag …………
Hoeveel glazen bier heeft u vandaag gehad?
Noteer ook het tijdstip dat u uw laatste biertje heeft gedronken (Als u op dit moment een biertje drinkt, vul dan het huidige tijdstip in)
Aantal glazen ………
Wanneer heeft u uw laatste biertje
gedronken?
……….
Op een schaal van 1 tot 7, hoe graag zou u op dit moment een biertje willen?
(1= helemaal niet, 7 = heel erg graag)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Op een schaal van 1 tot 9, als ik 2 glazen bier drink in 1 uur wordt mijn vaardigheid in het oplossen van puzzeltaakjes:
(1 = Veel slechter; 5= Geen invloed; 9= Veel beter)
In this section, the participant is thanked for his participation and asked not to share the content of the research with others. Participants have the opportunity to fill out their email address to receive information regarding the true purposes of the study and the research results.
U bent nu aan het eind van dit onderzoek gekomen. Bedankt voor uw deelname. Ik zou u willen vragen in verband met de vertrouwelijkheid niet over het onderzoek met anderen te praten. Mocht u op de hoogte gehouden willen worden van de achtergronden en de resultaten van dit onderzoek kunt u uw email adres hieronder noteren. Uw krijgt dan binnen acht weken bericht van ons. Uw email adres zal voor geen ander doeleinde worden gebruikt.
Emailadres: ____________________
Dank.
Geslacht
M V
Questionnaire 2 – Neutral Priming
The first part is to be filled out by the researcher. This information contains the date of the experiment (Dag), the exact time of the experiment (Tijd), whether the experiment is been held before (V) or after (N) football practice and the time of completion of the RAT (Tijd RAT)
In te vullen door de onderzoeker: Dag: Tijd: V/N: Tijd RAT:
---
This introduction part contains a thank you word for participation, explains the reason for this research, and mentions that participants will remain anonymous.
Beste deelnemer
Bedankt dat u wilt deelnemen aan dit experiment. Het onderzoek bestaat uit enkele on-gerelateerde deelstudies naar taal en rederneren
Uw resultaten zullen met vertrouwen worden behandeld en uw identiteit blijft anoniem. We verzoeken uw daarom zo eerlijk mogelijk antwoord te geven op hieronder gestelde vragen. Ga pas verder naar de volgende pagina wanneer dat wordt aangegeven.
This task is filled out by the participants. It is used to prime the participants of a situation in their life where they have consumed a few beers in a short time by describing when this happened, what exactly happened and how they felt.
Beschrijf hieronder in enkele zinnen de laatste keer dat je de bus hebt genomen
Beschrijf hieronder wat er precies gebeurde in die situatie waarin je de bus hebt genomen:
Beschrijf hieronder welke gedachten en gevoelens er door je heen gingen terwijl je de bus nam:
The next test to be filled out by the participants is the RAT, which measures creative output. Participants have to find the missing word associated with the set of three items before.
Hieronder vind u een lijst met 22 sets van 3 begrippen. Steeds 1 woord verbindt de drie woorden met elkaar. Het is uw taak om dit ‘verbindingswoord’ te vinden. Voorbeeld: Hut/ Familie / Palm. Het verbindingswoord is hier; Boom (BoomHut / FamilieBoom / PalmBoom) U hoeft niet in een bepaalde volgorde te werken en mag ook een set overslaan om door te gaan naar een andere set van drie woorden. U kunt uw antwoord in de lege ruimte naast de sets met begrippen noteren. Als u het gevoel heeft dat u niet meer oplossingen kan vinden mag u stoppen met dit onderdeel en dit melden aan de onderzoeker. Probeer zo veel mogelijk verbindingswoorden te vinden. Succes.
Wat verbindt (associeert) deze begrippen?
Antwoord: Bar / jurk / glas
Kaas / land/ huis Vlokken / ketting / pet Val / meloen / lelie Vis / mijn / geel Achter / kruk / mat Worm / kast / legger Water / schoorsteen / lucht Trommel / beleg / mes Hond / druk / band
Controle / plaats / gewicht Goot / kool/ bak
Kolen/ land/ schacht Schommel / klap / rol Kamer / masker / explosie Nacht / vet / licht
Arm / veld / stil Olie / pak/ meester School / ontbijt / spel Deur / werk / kamer Strijkijzer / schip / trein Man / lijm / ster
The next statements to be answered by the participants measure openness to experience which is closely related to intrinsic creativity. Statements are answered on a 5-point scale from totally disagree (1) to totally agree (5)
De volgende stellingen hebben betrekking op uw opvatting over uzelf in verschillende situaties. Het is aan u om aan te geven in hoeverre u het eens bent met elke stelling, waarbij u gebruik maakt van een schaal waarop 1 helemaal mee oneens betekent, 5 helemaal mee eens betekent, en 2, 3 en 4 zijn beoordelingen daartussenin.
Er zijn geen "goede" of "foute" antwoorden, dus selecteer bij elke stelling het getal dat zo goed mogelijk bij u past. Neem de tijd denk goed na over elk antwoord.
Ik zie mezelf als
iemand die…
Helemaal
mee oneens Oneens
Eens noch oneens Eens Helemaal mee eens …graag nadenkt,
met ideeën speelt …vindingrijk is …waarde hecht aan kunstzinnige
ervaringen
…origineel is, met nieuwe ideeën komt …scherpzinnig, een denker is …een levendige fantasie heeft …benieuwd is naar veel verschillende dingen
…het fijne weet van kunst, muziek or literatuur
The last set of questions are regarding the remaining control variables. First, participants answer the average amount of alcohol consumption they consume on every day of the week. Second, the total amount of beers the participant has consumed that day is asked. Third, participants fill out how much they want a beer at the moment to measure their need state (7-point scale). Fourth, the alcohol consumption expectancy effect on puzzle tasks is measured (9-point scale; 1 = a lot worse, 9 = a lot better). Finally, gender and age is asked.
Tot slot willen wij u nog enkele vragen stellen. Uw antwoorden zullen met vertrouwen worden behandeld, dus we verzoeken uw daarom nogmaals zo eerlijk mogelijk antwoord te geven op hieronder gestelde vragen. Mocht u geen antwoord willen geven, dan kunt u de vraag (vragen) overslaan.
Wilt u hieronder aangeven hoeveel glazen alcohol (dat mag alles zijn: bier, wijn, sterke drank, mix drank etc.) u normaalgesproken drinkt op elk van de onderstaande dagen van
de week
Aantal alcohol consumpties:
Maandag ………… Dinsdag ………… Woensdag ………… Donderdag ………… Vrijdag ………… Zaterdag ………… Zondag …………
Hoeveel glazen bier heeft u vandaag gehad?
Noteer ook het tijdstip dat u uw laatste biertje heeft gedronken (Als u op dit moment een biertje drinkt, vul dan het huidige tijdstip in)
Aantal glazen ………
Wanneer heeft u uw laatste biertje
gedronken?
……….
Op een schaal van 1 tot 7, hoe graag zou u op dit moment een biertje willen?
(1= helemaal niet, 7 = heel erg graag)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Op een schaal van 1 tot 9, als ik 2 glazen bier drink in 1 uur wordt mijn vaardigheid in het oplossen van puzzeltaakjes:
(1 = Veel slechter; 5= Geen invloed; 9= Veel beter)
In the next section, the participant is thanked for his participation and asked not to share the content of the research with others. Participants have the opportunity to fill out their email address to receive information regarding the true purposes of the study and the research results.
U bent nu aan het eind van dit onderzoek gekomen. Bedankt voor uw deelname. Ik zou u willen vragen in verband met de vertrouwelijkheid niet over het onderzoek met anderen te praten. Mocht u op de hoogte gehouden willen worden van de achtergronden en de resultaten van dit onderzoek kunt u uw email adres hieronder noteren. Uw krijgt dan binnen acht weken bericht van ons. Uw email adres zal voor geen ander doeleinde worden gebruikt.
Emailadres: ____________________
Dank.
Geslacht
M V
APPENDIX B Big Five Inventory (Shortened Version)
Instructies:
De volgende stellingen hebben betrekking op uw opvatting over uzelf in verschillende
situaties. Het is aan u om aan te geven in hoeverre u het eens bent met elke stelling, waarbij u gebruik maakt van een schaal waarop 1 helemaal oneens betekent, 5 helemaal eens betekent, en 2, 3 en 4 zijn beoordelingen daartussenin. Klik achter elke stelling een getal aan in de vakjes op de volgende schaal:
1 Helemaal oneens 2 Oneens
3 Eens noch oneens 4 Eens
5 Helemaal eens
Er zijn geen 'goede' of 'foute' antwoorden, dus selecteer bij elke stelling het getal dat zo goed mogelijk bij u past. Neem de tijd denk goed na over elk antwoord. Klik op 'Verder' onder aan de pagina wanneer u klaar bent met het beantwoorden van alle vragen
Ik zie mezelf als iemand die...
... Origineel is, met nieuwe ideeën komt. 1 2 3 4 5
... Benieuwd is naar veel verschillende dingen. 1 2 3 4 5
... Scherpzinnig, een denker is. 1 2 3 4 5
... Een levendige fantasie heeft. 1 2 3 4 5
... Vindingrijk is. 1 2 3 4 5
... Waarde hecht aan kunstzinnige ervaringen. 1 2 3 4 5
... Een voorkeur heeft voor werk dat routine is. 1 2 3 4 5
... Graag nadenkt, met ideeën speelt. 1 2 3 4 5
... Weinig interesse voor kunst heeft. 1 2 3 4 5
... Het fijne weet van kunst, muziek, of literatuur. 1 2 3 4 5
Denissen, J.J.A., Geenen, R., & van Aken, M. A. G., Gosling, S. D., & Potter, J. (2008). Development and validation of a Dutch translation of the Big Five Inventory (BFI). Journal
