Buying Slow-Fashion in a Fast-Fashion World:
The Influence of Social Self-concepts on Slow-Fashion
Purchase Intentions.
Written by Demi Hazelhoff
Buying Slow-Fashion in a Fast-Fashion World:
The Influence of Social Self-concepts on Slow-Fashion Purchase Intentions.
byDemi Hazelhoff
A Master Thesis
Presented to the Department of Marketing University of Groningen
Supervisor: Berger, J.
Student number: S3214311 Phone number: +316 55400292 E-mail: d.hazelhoff@student.rug.nl Author’s Address: Korreweg 84 A, Groningen
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Increasingly, consumers are aware of the consequences of their decisions, behavior, and consumption on the environment. Nevertheless, one of the most polluting industries has not lost its popularity. The Fast-Fashion industry promotes a culture of overconsumption and is known for its fast-paced fashion cycles and low-quality fashion items which are produced in countries with little labor regulations. To minimize the pressure on the environment and to foster better labor regulations, among other reasons, the Slow-Fashion movement emerged. Despite its clear benefits for society, Slow-Fashion sales are still limited. Researchers have attempted to discover the drivers and barriers behind Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. A potential driver that has been overlooked in literature is the social self-concept, specifically: the actual social self-concept and ideal social self-concept.
Therefore, the purpose of the current research is to shed light on the relationship between social self-concepts and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. More specifically, the direct relationship between the ideal social self-concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions is researched. This leads to the following research question: How do social self-images influence an individual’s Slow-Fashion purchase intentions?
Moreover, it was predicted that this relationship is positively moderated by the level of congruence between the actual social self-concept and the ideal social self-concept. Generation was also hypothesized to be a moderating variable. To test the hypotheses, quantitative research was performed in the form of an online survey. A multiple regression revealed that the ideal social self-concept indeed positively influences Slow-Fashion Purchase Intentions. This relationship was not moderated by congruence. Generation partially influenced the relationship between the ideal social self-concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. However, a post-analysis found little to no support for this effect.
PREFACE
I am delighted to present to you the end-version of my Master thesis: ‘Buying Slow-Fashion in a Fast-Fashion world: the influence of social self-concepts on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions.’ This thesis was written as part of the Master Marketing Management program at the University of Groningen. The present research was written over a period of four months, starting from the 8th of September 2020 and ending on the 11th of January 2021.
During this period, life in the Netherlands was heavily influenced by the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. As a consequence, the University moved to online education. I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Berger, for arranging online meetings in this period, which did not fall short of having in-person meetings. I also highly appreciate all the critical feedback I have received during those meetings, which has done nothing but improve the quality of my thesis. The feedback received from the students in my thesis group has also proven to be useful. I also want to express my gratitude towards Sijtje de Leeuw for her crucial role in the back-translation process. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their kind support and motivational words.
Writing this thesis has not been an easy task. I have, however, learned a lot. Not only did the process of writing this thesis teach me more about conducting research, but it has also helped me in understanding what interests me. I have read a great deal of literature related to Slow-Fashion and sustainability in general. This has sparked my interest in sustainability, and I hope to do more around this topic in the future.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 5
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 6
Concepts 8
Ideal Social Self-Concept 10
Congruence 11 Generation 13 RESEARCH DESIGN 15 Data Collection 15 Measures 16 Data Analysis 17 RESULTS 18 Post-analysis 22 CONCLUSIONS 24 Management Recommendations 26
Limitations and Avenues For Future Research 26
INTRODUCTION
One of the most polluting industries in the world is the Fast-Fashion industry. To be specific, this industry accounts for approximately five percent of global carbon emissions (Hibberd 2018). Fast-Fashion is known for having highly fashionable product designs due to short production and distribution lead times (Cachon, Swinney 2011). It stimulates consumers to purchase frequently and to dispose of clothing at a fast rate in order to stay on-trend (Gabrielli, Baghi, Codeluppi 2013). Negative externalities associated with Fast-Fashion consumption include, but are not limited to, increased textile waste owing to poor quality (Joung 2014), overconsumption (Kim, Choo, Yoon 2013), toxic chemical pollution (Anguelov 2015), and consumer dissatisfaction (Kim, Choo, Yoon 2013). As a result, its opposite, Slow-Fashion, emerged to stop overconsumption and establish ethical practices (Magnuson et al. 2017).
Slow-Fashion, in contrast to Fast-Fashion, is characterised by the promotion of sustainability, anti-consumption, pro-environmentalism, and local production (Ro and Kim, 2011) . Even though it is undoubtedly the better alternative, Slow-Fashion purchase intentions are still limited (Mcneill, Moore 2015). Therefore, many researchers have studied consumer characteristics, motivations, and behaviors that potentially influence Slow-Fashion buying behavior. According to McNeill and Moore (2015), individuals who use fashion to create and maintain their self-identity show limited Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. On the contrary, individuals who care about the environment and social well-being show higher purchase intentions. Additionally, Watson and Yan (2013) established that Slow-Fashion consumers value quality over quantity, whereas Fast-Fashion consumers value quantity over quality. A study from Diddi et al. (2019) revealed that limited Slow-Fashion purchase intentions result from a lack of knowledge and skepticism.
contribution to the existing Slow-Fashion literature. As has been highlighted by Legere and Kang (2020), it is crucial to understand the relationship between actual social self, ideal social self, and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Upon that, this paper bridges a gap in the literature. Furthermore, researchers claimed that the possible, moderating, influence of age should be tested (Pookulangara, Shephard 2013). Finally, a literature review confirmed that the majority of existing Slow-Fashion research is based on female-dominated samples (Kim, Choo, Yoon; Mukendi et al. 2019; Watson, Yan 2013). Hence, this research is novel in the sense that a more inclusive sample is used.
Besides the scientific relevance, the managerial and social relevance of this study is also evident. The findings of this study facilitate a better understanding of consumer motivations concerning Slow-Fashion buying intentions, thereby providing managers with the ability to improve their marketing strategies, and consequently boost Slow-Fashion sales. This increase in Slow-Fashion sales, and simultaneously a decrease in Fast-Fashion sales, clearly benefits society as a whole as well. Positive externalities of increased Slow-Fashion consumption include a decrease in textile waste (Bick, Halsey, Ekenga 2018), improved labour circumstances (Joy et al. 2012), and lower water-intensive production (Franco, 2017).
To conclude, this paper aims to investigate the following research question: How do social self-images influence an individual’s Slow-Fashion purchase intentions? More specifically, the direct influence of the ideal social self-concept on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions will be analyzed. Furthermore, the possible moderating effects of congruence and generation on this relationship will be investigated. The remainder of this piece of research starts with an overview of both Slow-Fashion and self-concept literature, accompanied by the conceptual framework and hypotheses. Second, the research design will be elaborated on. Third, the analyses and empirical data discussion are presented. Lastly, the paper will be concluded with the general findings and recommendations, as well as the limitations and future research avenues.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
onwards, consumers became more trend-oriented, and the basic apparel did not suffice anymore (Bhardwaj, Fairhurst 2010). In order to stay on-trend, fashion items need to be replaced at an increased rate. Clothing retailers have responded to this shift in consumer demand by launching new collections more frequently at affordable prices (Christopher, Lowson, Peck 2004). Accordingly, the practical service life of clothes is significantly lower compared to the technical service life. In other words, the time that the clothes are actually worn is considerably shorter than the time that they could have been worn (Zamani, Sandin, Peters 2017).
The phenomenon described above is called Fast-Fashion. McNeill and Moore (2015) define Fast-Fashion as the fast-paced fashion cycles that are needed to deliver quickly on the emerging trends, customer demands, and to increase retailers’ profit margins. It requires optimization of the supply chain to bring catwalk trends to the retail environment as fast and affordable as possible (Yang, Song, Tong 2017). Accordingly, clothes are manufactured in countries with little labor regulations and low environmental awareness (Shen 2014). These, among other factors, result in the unsustainable and unethical practices of Fast-Fashion. First, the lack of labor regulations on production sites contributes to labor exploitation. This becomes evident from the use of child labor, low wages, and long working hours (Clark 2008). Second, Fast-Fashion promotes overconsumption and disposability (Fletcher 2008). 73 Percent of the disposed of clothing is landfilled, which is alarming as synthetic fibers do not degrade naturally. Besides, natural fibers contribute to greenhouse gas emissions as they release carbon dioxide when breaking down (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017). Third, the production of Fast-Fashion items requires enormous amounts of water. Namely, 92 million tonnes of wastewater and an additional 79 trillion liters of consumed water (Niniimäki et al 2020).
and quality. Slow-Fashion clearly benefits society and the environment. Positive externalities include but are not limited to a decrease in textile waste (Bick, Halsey, Ekenga 2018), improved labor circumstances (Joy et al. 2012), and lower water-intensive production (Franco, 2017). Nonetheless, consumers have not embraced Slow-Fashion yet, and sales are falling short.
The limited buying intentions have generated an interesting avenue for research. In general, Slow-Fashion items are more expensive than Fast-Fashion items. This has created a significant barrier for consumers (Jung, Jin 2016; Yang, Song, Tong 2017). However, this effect is less strong for consumers who show positive attitudes toward sustainable products. A positive attitude towards a brand also increases willingness to pay a premium price for Slow-Fashion items (Ha-brookshire, Norum 2011). Furthermore, consumers characterized by a desire for exclusivity show higher Slow-Fashion buying intentions (Jung, Jin 2016). This can be attributed to the fact that Slow-Fashion items are produced in small batches (Clark 2008). Moreover, materialism is negatively affecting purchase intentions as well. A materialist’s life is centered around product ownership, which fosters overconsumption. Consequently, materialists value Fast-Fashion over Slow-Fashion as it is cheaper and better accessible (Manchiraju 2013). According to Barnes, Watson, and Yan (2013), individuals with high compassion for others show increased levels of Slow-Fashion purchase intentions compared to individuals low on compassion. Finally, Legere and Kang (2020) investigated the relationship between self-concepts and Slow-Fashion buying intentions. The results suggest that Slow-Fashion purchase intentions can be stimulated by consumers’ self-enhancement and transformation desire. In their research, Legere and Kang focus on the actual self-concept and ideal self-concept. The effect of social self-concepts on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions is yet to be researched.
Concepts
ideal social self-image were constituted. The social self-concepts take a broader view by not only focusing on the individual’s own perception, but also including the perceptions of others. The final construct, therefore, includes four types of self-perspectives, namely: actual self-image, ideal self-image, actual social self-image, and ideal social self-image (Sirgy 1985).
Astahova, Swimberghe, and Wooldrige (2017) define the actual self-image as how someone sees himself1. The actual social self-image, on the other hand, reflects how an individual feels others see him (Sirgy, Su 2000). An important difference between both concepts can be observed. The first is based on someone’s own beliefs about himself, whereas the latter takes the standpoint of others as it is a reflection of how the individual thinks others perceive him. This also holds true for the ideal self-image and the ideal social self-image. The ideal self-image, as defined by Mandel et al. (2017), refers to how someone wants to see himself. The ideal social self-image, on the contrary, entails how the individual would like to be seen by others (Sirgy, Su 2000). Thus, the first is again based on someone’s own beliefs, whereas the latter is based on the social aspect: how should others see you.
According to fashion consumption theory, consumers use fashion to create a certain identity and to communicate this to others (Crane 2012). In line with this, Legere and Kang (2020) made the first attempt to discover a relationship between the self-concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Their research is constrained to the actual self-image and the ideal self-image. The authors found that Slow-Fashion purchase intentions can be stimulated by the desire for transformation and the creation of self-enhancement benefits. Specifically, the actual self-concept influences consumers’ belief that Slow-Fashion can assist in becoming their ideal self, which consequently influences their Slow-Fashion buying intentions.
This finding only covers one part of the multidimensional self-concept. The influence of the actual self-concept and ideal self-concept is known, while the influence of both the actual social self-concept and ideal social self-concept reflects an uninvestigated area. In line with Legere and Kang (2020), it is proposed that the way you are being perceived by society (actual social self-concept) influences the extent to which you believe that Slow-Fashion can assist in becoming your ideal self according to society (ideal social self-concept). More specifically, this research paper investigates whether the ideal social self-concept influences Slow-Fashion
purchase intentions. It is hypothesized that this effect will be moderated by the congruency between the actual social self-concept and the ideal social self-concept. Furthermore, generation will also be tested as a potential moderating variable. Next, the hypothesized relations are discussed in detail. The proposed relationships are visually displayed in the conceptual framework, which is shown in figure 1.
Ideal Social Self-Concept
The ideal social self can be defined as how the consumer would like to be perceived by others (He, Mukherjee 2007). Rosenberg (1979) established that people put in effort to be seen in a certain way by others. The efforts made can also be extended to consumption behavior. In fact, a significant amount of purchases are made because consumers believe that it can create change (Richins 2013). Ries et al. (2012) add that clothing can be used to express your identity, meaning that it may also act in agreement, or disagreement, with the ideal social self-image. According to self-expansion theory, humans are indeed motivated to create change and, specifically, to improve their self-concept (Aron, Aron, Norman 2001). Kerviler and Rodriguez (2019) suggest that consumers buy a brand not only because they identify themselves with the brand but also because it creates self-expansion opportunities. Self-expansion even creates positive affect and is perceived as pleasurable (Aron, Paris, Aron 1995). Acting in line with the ideal social self may also enhance positive self-regard (Higgins 1987).
Moreover, self-expansion theory proposes that identifying flaws and working toward the ideal-self is largely based on social relationships (Aron, Aron, Norman 2001). It is therefore expected, based on self-expansion theory, that if someone wants to be perceived as a Slow-Fashion consumer by others, this individual will show higher Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. If someone does not want to be perceived as a Slow-Fashion consumer, the purchase intentions will be lower.
the social approval motive (Rege, Telle 2004). Hence, if a consumer’s ideal social self-concept indicates that he wants to be seen by others as a Slow-Fashion consumer, his Slow-Fashion purchase intentions will increase accordingly based on the social approval motive.
Another theory that potentially explains the influence of the ideal social self-concept on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions is the looking-glass self theory. Cooley (1902) established that humans are constantly engaged in managing their impression, acting in correspondence with how they would like to be perceived by others.
All in all, it can be expected that the ideal social self-concept influences Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. On the scale employed in the current research (see Appendix A:II) a high score indicates that the individual would like to be seen as a Slow-Fashion consumer by others. Therefore, based on the discussion above, a higher score on the scale would lead to increasing Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Formally:
H1: An increase on the ideal social self scale results in an increase in Slow-Fashion purchase intentions.
Congruence
The strength of the predicted relationship between the ideal social self-concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions is expected to vary among individuals. Specifically, it is forecasted that this relationship is moderated by the level of congruence between the actual social self-concept and the ideal social self-concept. The actual social self-concept refers to how consumers think others see them (Dolich 1969). This suggests that the actual social self-concept is based on perceptions. It is merely an expectation of how others view the individual (Koolivandi, Lotfizadeh 2015), which does not necessarily reflect how the other person actually sees the individual. It may include abilities, behavioral tendencies, status, beliefs, values, emotional responses, chronic needs and desires (Schlenker 1982). In the present research, a low score on the actual social self-concept implies that the individual believes that he is perceived as more similar to a Fast-Fashion consumer. Vice versa, a high score indicates that the individual believes that he is seen as more similar to a typical Slow-Fashion consumer.
Carver and Scheier (1990) claim that congruence between the actual- and ideal social self-concept generates positive emotions. On the contrary, incongruence results in negative emotions. Thus, an increase in the gap between the actual social self-concept and the ideal social self-concept leads to an increase in negative emotions. According to the negativity bias, humans are more affected by the negatives compared to the positives (Baumeister et al. 2001). Hence, negative emotions have a stronger effect on a person than positive emotions. Relating this to congruence, it can be expected that individuals tend to exert more effort into closing the gap when it is larger compared to when the gap is smaller. Specifically, because more negative emotions are experienced if the gap is larger. Based on this, Slow-Fashion purchase intentions are expected to be higher when the level of incongruence increases.
Moreover, according to Rogers (1980), individuals gain self-esteem from congruence between the actual self-concept and the ideal self-concept. Besides a gain in self-esteem, the sense of self-worth also increases (Rogers, 1959). Both gains are likely to be extended to the social self-concepts as well, since self-esteem and self-worth are partially based on social influence. This suggests that consumers are more likely to show Slow-Fashion purchase intentions when incongruence between the actual social self and ideal social self exists. Purchasing Slow-Fashion can bring them closer to the ideal social self, which increases self-esteem and self-worth. If the gap between both concepts is smaller, smaller gains in self-esteem and self-worth are expected, which lowers the need to purchase Slow-Fashion.
The most common road to self-congruence is altering behavior (Boldero, Francis 2000). Mandel et al. (2017) indeed found that consumers will engage in compensatory purchasing behavior to move closer to self-congruence. This also became evident in a study on travel behavior conducted by Asher (1985). The author found that lower-social classes copied travel behavior from the upper class in order to be perceived that way. In addition, Charlet et al. (2009) note that disadvantaged socioeconomic groups spent proportionally more on conspicuous goods to compensate for their low status. These observations may also expand to Slow-Fashion consumption, particularly because Liljander, Polsa and van Riel (2009) claim that congruence plays an important role in self-expression consumption, which includes clothing.
when the gap between the actual- and ideal social self-concept is larger, based on the earlier mentioned advantages of congruence.
H2: Congruence is expected to positively moderate the relationship between the ideal social self-concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions.
Generation
Bhardwaj and Fairhurst (2010) claim that attitudes towards fashion, in general, differ among generations. Perhaps generation also influences consumer’s Slow-Fashion attitudes. Accordingly, generation is expected to moderate the relationship between ideal social self-image and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Individuals born between 1946 and 1964 belong to the baby boomers. This generation values quality over quantity and therefore would benefit significantly from Slow-Fashion consumption (Bhadwaj, Fairhurst 2010; Littrell et al. 2015). Brands are also evaluated on quality, rather than on image and social profile (Parment 2013). Besides, baby boomers show great awareness of environmental sustainability in terms of consumption (Severo et al. 2018). Purchase decisions are not based on social influences (Parment 2013), meaning that baby boomers do not have a strong desire to be on-trend (Diaz-Meneses 2010). Finally, this generation prefers classical and timeless designs (Parment 2013), which harmonizes with Slow-Fashion.
Generation Y, hereafter referred to as millennials, are born between 1977 and 2000. As has been demonstrated by Lu et al. (2013), millennials are well-educated and environmentally conscious. Because environmentally conscious consumers are more inclined to purchase greener products (Bohlen, Schlegelmilch, Diamantopoulos 1993), millennials should demonstrate higher Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Pasquarelli (2019) supports this by claiming that millennials are more likely to convert their interest in sustainability-related issues to actual sustainable purchases. Moreover, an increase in educational level also increases pro-environmental behavior (Meyer 2015). However, according to Bhardwaj and Fairhust (2010), millennials do prefer quantity over quality, which suggests that Fast-Fashion, instead of Slow-Fashion, best satisfies the needs of this generation. Fast-Fashion also fulfills a millenial’s desire to be seen as fashionable and on-trend (Bakewell, Mitchell, Rothwell 2006). Furthermore, millennials are highly affected by social influence when it comes to making purchase decisions. Social risks are among the main risks for this generation (Parment 2013). Fast-Fashion enables consumers to stay on-trend, which may be attractive for millennials because it minimizes social risks. In addition, millennials can be classified as early adopters. Fast-Fashion knows short lead-times compared to Slow-Fashion (Joy et al. 2012), which enables early adopters to quickly respond to new trends. Finally, millennials often buy on impulse (Ma, Niehm 2006), which is strongly associated with Fast-Fashion and not Slow-Fashion (Cook, Yurchisin 2017).
Solmaz 2017), which may limit Slow-Fashion purchase intentions as it is perceived as more expensive (Pookulangara, Shephard 2013).
Taken together, baby boomers are expected to show the highest Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Therefore, the direct relationship between the ideal social self-concept and
Slow-Fashion purchase intentions will be stronger for baby boomers, compared to other generations. Formally stated:
H3: Generation is expected to moderate the relationship between ideal social self- concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions.
H3a: The relationship between ideal social self-concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions will be the strongest for baby boomers.
RESEARCH DESIGN Data Collection
translated into Dutch. Second, this translation was sent to a bilingual who converted it back to English. Third, the differences were noted down and problem items were discussed with another bilingual person. Based on this, the final Dutch survey was constructed. The overview of this back-translation process can be found in Appendix C. The participants were recruited via convenience sampling. Specifically, the survey was distributed on the following, personal, social media platforms: Instagram, Whatsapp, and Facebook. Furthermore, the survey was also posted in online survey distribution groups. A limitation of convenience sampling is that it may result in a biased sample (Mackey, Gass 2005), hampering generalizability. However, this sampling method is still most adequate considering the limited funds and time-frame available. Also, no specific participant criteria were in place. Important to note, however, is that an essential contribution of this research to the existing Slow-Fashion literature is the more representative, not solely based on female university students, sample. Consequently, the initial participant list was prescreened to ensure that the sample included various age-groups and both female and male participants. For this purpose, the descriptive statistics were analyzed in SPSS.
Measures
The survey consisted of four components, each of which reflected one of the hypotheses. First, participants were asked several demographic questions. The variable generation was measured as a continuous variable. This was done to minimize information loss. The participants were asked to indicate their year of birth instead of their age. The reason for this is that certain ages can fall in different generational categories, whereas birth year always belongs to one specific generation. The following generations, stemming from Armstrong and Kotler (2015), were used in this research: 1946-1964 (baby boomers), 1965-1976 (Generation X), 1977-1999 (Generation Y/millennials), and 2000-now (Generation Z). Furthermore, past research established that females show higher Slow-Fashion purchase intentions compared to males in general (Morgan, Birtwistle 2009; Weigel 1997). Accordingly, gender was included as a control variable.
measure the actual social self-concept and the ideal social self-concept in general. Therefore, the scale was adapted in order to fit the current research: ‘X’ was replaced by Slow-Fashion, whereas ‘Y’ was replaced by Fast-Fashion (Appendix A:II). A 7-point Likert-scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree was used. To ensure that the participants had a clear understanding of the terms Slow- and Fast-Fashion, a brief description of both fashion categories was provided before the questions. Both definitions originate from Jung and Jin’s (2016) research. The definitions were phrased in a neutral tone to minimize the social desirability bias. Besides measuring the ideal and actual social self-concept, the scales were also used to determine the level of congruence between the actual social self-concept and the ideal social self-concept. The most common, and accepted, way to compose a congruence variable is to deduct the ideal social self-score from the actual social self-score (Ekinci, Riley 2003; Hong, Zinkhan 1995). Based upon this, this method was also used in the current study.
The fourth and final component measured the participants’ Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Based on Legere and Kang (2020), Zady was used to represent a Slow-Fashion brand. In a pretest, the authors established that 96.2 percent of the respondents were not at all familiar with the brand. Moreover, another pretest, which showed Zady’s mission statement without mentioning the brand’s name, verified that respondents identified this brand as a Slow-Fashion brand. Zady has, therefore, proven to be a suitable brand to measure Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Similar to Legere and Kang (2020), participants first read Zady’s brand mission statement, which was accompanied by the brand’s product labels. After reading the mission statement, participants were asked to indicate their familiarity with the brand on a nominal scale. Even though the pretest of Legere and Kang (2020) already established that familiarity is low, it was still measured in the current research. It is crucial that participants have no association with the brand, to eliminate effects originating from brand knowledge. Next, participants’s purchase intentions for Slow-Fashion were measured on a 7-point likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The scales were borrowed from Krishnamurthy and Sivaraman (2002) and Castaldo et al. (2009). The final survey is shown in Appendix B.
Data Analysis
represented the independent variables. First, a univariate regression analysis was performed to determine if gender had to be controlled for in the subsequent analysis. Next, a multiple regression was performed. The benefit of this method is that it enables measuring the simultaneous effect of multiple independent variables on the independent variable (Slinker, Glantz 2008). Conducting several univariate regressions may result in overestimation, or underestimation, of a single variable’s effect on the outcome variable (Slinker, Glantz 2008). In the present study, the multiple regression was used to test the direct effect of the ideal social self-concept on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions, and to determine if this relationship was moderated by congruence and generation. All variables were entered simultaneously to ensure that no independent variable received greater priority by entering the variables hierarchically (Roediger et al. 2001).
RESULTS
Furthermore, most participants were female (67.5%) and had the Dutch nationality (90.6%). A summary of the demographic characteristics is provided in Appendix D.
The independent variables actual social self-concept and ideal social self-concept, as well as the dependent variable Slow-Fashion purchase intentions, are measured with multiple questions. To measure the internal consistency of the scales, Cronbach's Alpha was analyzed. For a scale to be reliable, the Cronbach’s Alpha needs to be at least 0.7 (Cortina, 1993). Combining the three questions regarding the actual social self-concept results in a Cronbach’s alpha of α=0.830. Thus, a new variable for actual social self-concept was computed using all three questions. Next, combining questions 7,8, and 9 also proved to create a reliable scale for measuring the ideal social self-concept. The Cronbach’s alpha equaled α=0.895. Therefore, responses to all three questions were combined to reflect the ideal social self-concept. Finally, Slow-Fashion purchase intentions was measured by seven questions. As the number of items to measure one variable increases, the reliability coefficient increases as well (Brown, 2011). Therefore, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to determine the construct validity of Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. The analysis showed that the scale is reliable, as all values are above the threshold of 0.5 (Awang 2014). Consequently, all seven questions were combined to represent Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. A summary of the reliability statistics is presented in Appendix E. Important to note is that for all three above mentioned scales, the new variable was computed by taking the average of the underlying questions. As a result, the 7-point Likert scale was kept intact, which in turn facilitated the interpretation.
Before starting the hypothesis testing, it is necessary to check for multicollinearity issues. Moderate multicollinearity exists if the Variance Inflation Factor exceeds 5 (Ringle et al. 2015). Strong multicollinearity exists if it exceeds 10 (Hair et al. 1995). It can also be detected by looking at the level of tolerance, which should be above 0.1 to rule out multicollinearity (Hair et al. 1995). The results of the multicollinearity tests are displayed in Appendix F. The VIF-scores range between 1.207 and 2.568, indicating that multicollinearity is not a concern in the current dataset. This is also supported by the tolerance levels, which range from 0.389 to 0.960. Thus, the tests indicated that multicollinearity was not a concern for any of the variables. The analysis can safely be continued.
out alternative explanations when testing the hypotheses. For this purpose, gender was transformed into a dummy variable and ‘male’ served as the reference group. To analyze whether or not gender significantly influences Slow-Fashion purchase intentions, a linear regression was performed with gender regressed on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions (Appendix G: I).The regression model was not significant, =0.002, F(1,158) = 0.280, p = 0.597. The effect of gender on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions was also not significant, β = 0.111, t = 0.529, p = 0.597. Consequently, gender does not have to be controlled for in subsequent analysis.
Next, the proposed hypotheses were tested with a multiple regression analysis. A prerequisite of a multiple regression analysis is that no multicollinearity is present (Mansfield, Helms 1982). When all variables needed for the hypothesis testing were added to the regression model simultaneously, all VIF-values and tolerance levels were acceptable. No multicollinearity was present. Therefore, the multiple regression could be safely executed. The following variables were regressed on the dependent variable Slow-Fashion purchase intentions: ideal social self-concept, congruence, the interaction term between the ideal social self-concept and congruence, the three generation dummies, and the interaction terms between the ideal social self-concept and all three dummy variables. Important to note is that only three generational dummies were added to this analysis. Adding all four generations would have led to perfect multicollinearity, and, therefore, baby boomers was used as a reference group. The result of this multiple regression is shown in Appendix G:II. Overall, the model was statistically significant = 0.244, F(9,150) = 5.367, p= 0.000. At first glance, the coefficient of determination seems low. However, a value of 0.20 can already be considered as high in the field of consumer behavior (Hair et al. 2013).
The first hypothesis to be tested was whether the ideal social self-concept positively influences Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. The ideal social self-concept does significantly influence Slow-Fashion purchase intentions, β=0.808, t = 3.367, p = 0.001. A 1-point increase on the ideal social self-concept scale results in a 0.808 scale-point increase in Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Therefore, hypothesis 1 was accepted.
p = 0.745. Besides, the interaction term between congruence and ideal social self-concept was also not significant, β= 0.022, t= 0.390, p= 0.697. Congruence does not moderate the relationship between the ideal social self-concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Hence, hypothesis 2 was rejected.
Post-analysis
Contrary to what is suggested in literature, gender did not significantly influence Slow-Fashion purchase intentions in this study. Although being outside the scope of the current research, it is interesting to test whether gender has a moderating influence. For this purpose, a new variable was constructed to reflect the interaction between the ideal social self-concept and gender. The reference group is male. The results are shown in Appendix H:I. The overall model was significant, =0.231,F(3,156) = 15.582, p = 0.000. The direct influence of gender was not significant, β =0.137, t =0.736, p = 0.463. The interaction term, on the other hand, was significant, β =0.374, t =2.900, p =0.004. Therefore, being female strengthens the effect of the ideal social self-concept with 0.373, from 0.222 to 0.595. A 1-point increase on the ideal social self-concept scale results in a 0.595 scale-point increase in Slow-Fashion purchase intentions for females. Although outside of the purpose of the present research, this analysis showed that gender indeed can be seen as a moderator.
Furthermore, the existing literature indicates that there is no unanimous answer to what the border years are for each generation. Using different border years could have resulted in a different conclusion. Hence, the previous multiple regression was re-run three times, with the different operalizations for generation. For all three multiple regressions there was no multicollinearity, meaning that multiple regression was possible.
Slow-Fashion purchase intentions by 0.488, from 0.806 to 0.318. A 1-point increase on the ideal social self-concept scale results in a 0.318 scale-point increase in Slow-Fashion purchase intentions for Generation Z. Interestingly, the main effect of Generation X and the moderating effect of millennials became non significant, whereas these effects were significant in the initial regression analysis. Using the generation border years specified by Slootweg and Rowson (2018) led to less support for hypothesis 3 and 3a compared to the initial operalization.
Eastman and Liu (2012) investigated the potential impact of generational cohorts on status consumption. For this purpose, the following border years were used: 1946-1964 (baby boomers), 1965-1976 (Generation X), 1977-1987 (millennials), and 1987-now (Generation Z). Applying these border years to the current dataset resulted in the regression output shown in Appendix H:III. The regression model was significant, = 0.234, F(9,150) = 5.078, p = 0.000. The main effect of Generation X was significant, β=0.764, t =1.932, p =0.055. Being from Generation X increased Slow-Fashion purchase intentions by 0.757 scale-point. Generation X does, however, not moderate the relationship between the ideal social self-concept and slow-fashion purchase intentions, β= -0.294, t =-1.007, p =0.316. Secondly, the main effect of millennials was not significant, β=-0.147, t =-0.319, p =0.750. Millennials is also not a significant moderating variable, β= -0.412, t =-1.248, p =0.214. Finally, the main effect of Generation Z was not significant, β= 0.212, t =0.726, p =0.469. The interaction-term, on the other hand, was significant, β=-0.458, t =-1.808, p =0.073. Therefore, being from Generation Z reduces the effect of the ideal social self-concept on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions by 0.458, from 0.807 to 0.349. A 1-point increase on the ideal social self-concept scale results in a 0.349 scale-point increase in Slow-Fashion purchase intentions for Generation Z. These results differ from the initial regression analysis results. The moderating effect of Millennials became not significant when using Eastman and Liu’s (2012) generation operalization. Thus, less support was found for hypothesis 3 and 3a compared to the original operalization.
not significant, β=0.065, t =0.172, p=0.864. Generation X also does not significantly moderate the relationship between ideal social self-concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions, β=-0.013, t =-0.048, p=0.962. Secondly, the main effect of millennials was not significant, β=-0.263, t =-0.800, p=0.425. Millennials also did not significantly moderate the relationship between ideal social self-concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions, β=-0.074,t=-0.296, p= 0.768. Finally, the main effect of Generation Z was not significant, β=-0.047, t=-0.163, p=0.871. Generation Z was also not significant as a moderating variable, β= -0.263, t=-1.102, p=0.272. In conclusion, borrowing the operalization of generation from Lissista and Kol (2019) led to different results compared to the initial operalization. All relationships were not significant. Thus, when using this operalization, hypothesis 3 and 3a would have been rejected.
CONCLUSIONS
This research was conducted with the purpose of determining the influence of social self-concepts on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Even though Slow-Fashion is the better alternative to Fast-Fashion in many aspects, consumers have been reluctant to adopt it. Existing research has, therefore, attempted to find possible causes for this phenomenon. A thorough literature review revealed that the possible influence of social self-concepts on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions had yet to be discovered (Legere, Kang 2020). Upon that, the current research aimed to close an existing gap in literature. Moreover, an important contribution of this study was the inclusion of males in the sample, as past research on Slow-Fashion is dominated by all female-samples. The managerial relevance of the current research is also evident, as Slow-Fashion sales are lacking. Learning how to boost Slow-Fashion sales has striking consequences for the society as well. Slow-Fashion can decrease the pressure that humans currently put on the environment and the earth’s limited resources.
by the feminine-image associated with green-behavior. Affirming masculinity in green branding can overcome this. Those recent efforts in making green behavior less feminine may have closed the gap between female and male Slow-Fashion purchase intentions, which in turn can explain why the direct influence of gender is not significant in the current research, whereas it was in past studies.
The results do suggest that the ideal social self-concept, as hypothesized, does have a significant, direct, and positive effect on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. The more an individual believes that others want to see him as a typical Slow-Fashion consumer, the higher the Slow-Fashion purchase intention levels. This relationship can possibly be attributed to self-expansion theory, the social approval motive, and the looking-glass self theory. The hypothesized positive effect of congruence between the actual social-self concept and the Ideal social-self concept on this relationship was, however, rejected. This suggests that people are motivated by their ideal social self-concept, irrelevant of how far, or close, this is from the actual social self-concept. Perhaps, participants in this study were not sufficiently aware of how their ideal social self-concept was different from their actual social self-concept. Alternatively, Rogers (1951) claims that if people are fully aware of the existing gap between the real self and the ideal self, a denial or defense mechanism may be activated. Potentially, this finding may be extended to the social self-concepts as well. An individual may distort reality instead of working towards closing the gap between the actual- and ideal social self-concept. This possibly explains why the relationship between the ideal social self-concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions is not positively moderated by the level of congruency.
Generation did only partially moderate the relationship between the ideal social self-concept and Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. As predicted, this relationship was less strong for individuals from the millennial or Z Generation, compared to baby boomers. However, this conclusion should be interpreted with caution. This conclusion is largely dependent on the experimental design employed in the current study. The post-analysis revealed that using different border years led to less, or even no, support for the influence of generation. Besides, the baby boomer and X generation had a low number of respondents compared to the other generations, which attributes to reduced statistical power (Memona et al. 2019).
Specifically, the effect of the ideal social self-concept on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions is stronger for females. This appears to be a sound conclusion. As discussed in the theoretical framework, the social approval motive might explain the positive influence of the ideal social self-concept on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Herbert et al. (1997) claim that gender influences the extent to which an individual is affected by the social approval motive. The authors found that females are more driven by the social approval motive, compared to males
Management Recommendations
The Slow-Fashion movement is relatively new and still evolving in the fashion industry. If managers and marketers want to improve the lacking Slow-Fashion sales, a better understanding of Slow-Fashion purchase intentions is necessary. The results confirm that the purchase intentions are indeed driven by the Ideal Social Self-concept. The more an individual believes that others want to see him as a Slow-Fashion consumer, the higher this person’s Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. Consequently, it is recommended that marketers devote resources to strengthening consumers’ awareness of this ideal social self-concept. Especially highlighting that others want to see the consumer as a Slow-Fashion-consumer can stimulate purchase intentions. This strategy may especially yield fruitful results in the purchase intentions of female consumers, as their Slow-Fashion purchase intentions are more affected by the ideal social self-concept. The results showed mixed effects of generation on Slow-Fashion purchase intentions. It is, therefore, advisable to not invest in generational marketing in Slow-Fashion advertising. As the effectiveness is not proven, investing money in generational marketing may become a lost cause.
Limitations and Avenues For Future Research
respondents per generation. Redistribution of the survey did considerably minimize the differences in participants per generation, however not sufficiently. This may have reduced the statistical power of the conclusions drawn.
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APPENDIX A
I: Kim and Hyun’s operational self-concept measures
II: Adaptation of Kim and Hyun’s operational self-concept measures to fit the present research.
Actual Self-Concept
ASC1: People who use X rather than Y are more similar to how I see myself ASC2: People who prefer X to Y are more identifiable with myself at present ASC3: The image of a typical X user is highly consistent with how I see myself
Ideal Self-Concept
ISC1: People who use X rather than Y are more similar to how I would like to see myself ISC2: People who prefer X to Y are more identifiable with my ideal self-image
ISC3: The image of a typical X user is highly consistent with how I would like to see myself
Actual Social Self-Concept
SSC1: People who use X rather than Y are more similar to how I am seen by others SSC2: People who prefer X to Y are more identifiable with myself as I am seen by others SSC3: The image of a typical X user is highly consistent with how I am seen by others
Ideal Social Self-Concept
ISSC1: People who use X rather than Y are more similar to how I would like to be seen by others
ISSC2: People who prefer X to Y are more identifiable with my ideal image as seen by others ISSC3: The image of a typical X user is highly consistent with how I would like to be seen by others
Actual Social Self-Concept
SSC1: People who use Slow-Fashion rather than Fast-Fashion are more similar to how I am seen by others
SSC2: People who prefer Slow-Fashion to Fast-Fashion are more identifiable with myself as I am seen by others
SSC3: The image of a typical Slow-Fashion user is highly consistent with how I am seen by others
Ideal Social Self-Concept
ISSC1: People who use Slow-Fashion rather than Fast-Fashion are more similar to how I would like to be seen by others
ISSC2: People who prefer Slow-Fashion to Fast-Fashion are more identifiable with my ideal image as seen by others
APPENDIX B
I: Final English Survey
Welcome.
Thank you for taking the time to fill out this survey, your input is much appreciated. This survey is carried out to get a better insight into the characteristics of consumers and their behavior. Completing this survey should take approximately 5 to 10 minutes. As a thank you, you will have a chance to win a €10 Bol.com giftcard at the end of the survey. All the information you provide will be treated as confidential.
Demographic Questions
1. What is your gender?
◽Male ◽Female ◽Other, namely:___________ ◽Prefer not to say 2. In what year were you born?
3. What is your nationality?
Actual Social Self-concept Questions
When answering the questions, please take into account the following definitions:
Slow-Fashion consumer: A Slow-Fashion consumer places value on versatility, fit, and quality. Clothing items should be classic and timeless. Slow-Fashion consumers are willing to pay a higher price because they expect clothing to be of high quality, have a long lifespan, and low maintenance.
Fast-Fashion consumer: A Fast-Fashion consumer places value on quantity and affordability. Clothing items should be unique and trendy. Fast-Fashion consumers purchase low quality, affordable, short lifespan clothing in order to easily replace clothing and stay on trend.
1. People who use Slow-Fashion rather than Fast-Fashion are more similar to how I am seen by others.
◽Strongly disagree ◽Disagree ◽Somewhat disagree ◽Neither agree nor disagree ◽Somewhat agree ◽Agree ◽Strongly agree
2. People who prefer Slow-Fashion to Fast-Fashion are more identifiable with myself as seen by others.
◽Strongly disagree ◽Disagree ◽Somewhat disagree ◽Neither agree nor disagree ◽Somewhat agree ◽Agree ◽Strongly agree
3. The image of a typical Slow-Fashion user is highly consistent with how I am seen by others.
