Human-wildlife Interactions in the Western Terai of Nepal

This research is funded by the Netherlands Fellowship Program of NUFFIC (Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooperation). © 2019, Subodh Kumar Upadhyaya

subodh@ku.edu.np; subodhu@gmail.com Cover photos: Sagar Giri

Cover design: Simran Upadhyaya

Photos: Subodh K Upadhyaya/Sagar Giri Layout: Sjoukje Rienks

Human-wildlife Interactions

in the Western Terai of Nepal

An analysis of factors influencing conflicts between

sympatric tigers (Panthera tigris tigris)

and leopards (Panthera pardus fusca) and local communities

around Bardia National Park, Nepal

proefschrift

ter verkrijging van

de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. mr. C.J.J.M. Stolker

volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op dinsdag 16 april 2019

klokke 15.00 uur

door

Subodh Kumar Upadhyaya

Promotor: Prof. dr. G.R. de Snoo Co-promotors: Prof. dr. Ir. H.H. de Iongh

Dr. C.J.M. Musters

Promotiecommissie: Prof. dr. A. Tukker

Prof. dr. P.M. van Bodegom

Prof. dr. H. Leirs, Universiteit Antwerpen, Antwerp   Prof. dr. G.A. Persoon

Table of Contents

1

General Introduction

1.1 Introduction 9

1.1.1 Carnivore conservation worldwide 9

1.1.2 Human-wildlife conflicts 11

1.1.3 Tiger ecology 12

1.1.4 Leopard ecology 16

1.1.5 Tiger-leopard interactions 18

1.2 Research aims and objectives 20

1.2.1 Research aims 20

1.2.2 Objectives 20

1.2.3 Research Questions 20

1.3 Study area 21

1.3.1 Nepal 21

1.3.2 Bardia National Park 22

1.3.3 Geomorphology and climate 23

1.3.4 Flora and fauna of Bardia 24

1.3.5 The buffer zone of Bardia National Park 24

1.4 Structure of the thesis 25

2

Activity patterns of co-existing tigers and leopards

2.1 Introduction 29 2.2 Methods 30 2.2.1 Study Area 30 2.2.2 Study species 32 2.2.3 Data collection 32 2.2.4 Spatial overlap 33 2.2.5 Temporal overlap 33 2.3 Results 34

2.4 Discussion 39

Acknowledgements 41

Appendix 42

3

Diet composition and prey preference of tigers

3.1 Introduction 45

3.2 Methods 46

3.2.1 Study area 46

3.2.2 Sample collection 48

3.2.3 DNA extraction and species and sex identification 48

3.2.4 Diet analysis 49

3.2.5 Data analysis and statistics 49

3.3 Results 50

3.4 Discussion 54

3.5 Implications for Conservation 56

Acknowledgments 57

4

Spatiotemporal patterns of human-wildlife interactions

4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Study area 63 4.3 Methods 65 4.4 Results 66 4.5 Discussion 72 4.6 Management Implications 74 Acknowledgements 75 Supplementary materials 76

5

Defining the risks of attacks by predators around

protected areas

5.1 Introduction 79

5.1.1 Study Area 80

5.2 Methods 81

5.2.1 Data collection 81

5.3 Results 83

5.3.1 Probability of loss 84

5.3.2 Economic loss 85

5.3.3 Attitude towards wildlife 86

5.4 Discussion 87

Acknowledgements 90

Supplementary materials 91

6

Synthesis

6.1 Context 102

6.2 Interactions between tigers and leopards 103 6.3 Diet and prey preference of tigers and leopards 104 6.4 Spatial and temporal conflict patterns 105 6.5 Defining the risk of attacks by predators 105

6.6 Conclusions 106

6.7 Recommendations 108

6.7.1 For wildlife managers 108

6.7.2 For local communities 108