University of Groningen
Disaster Governance
Bakema, Melanie
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Bakema, M. (2019). Disaster Governance: Analyzing inconvenient realities and chances for resilience and sustainability. Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.
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Disaster Governance
Analyzing inconvenient realities and chances forresilience and sustainability
ISBN 978-94-034-1549-9 (printed) ISBN 978-94-034-1548-2 (digital)
Layout cover: Catharina Bakema-Kamstra
Layout inside: Proefschrift Maken | www.proefschriftmaken.nl Printed by: Proefschrift Maken | www.proefschriftmaken.nl © Melanie Bakema
All rights are reserved. No parts of this thesis may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission of the author.
Disaster Governance
Analyzing inconvenient realities and chances forresilience and sustainability PhD thesis
to obtain the degree of PhD at the University of Groningen
on the authority of the Rector Magnifi cus prof. E. Sterken
and in accordance with the decision by the College of Deans
and
to obtain the degree of Doctor of Science: Geography (PhD) of the Faculty of Science, KU Leuven
on the authority of the Rector Prof. L. Sels and in accordance with
the decision by the Examination Committee and the Arenberg Doctoral School. Double PhD degree
This thesis will be defended in public on Thursday 28 March 2019 at 12.45 hours
by
Melanie Martijntje Bakema
born on 17 March 1989Supervisors
Prof. P. McCann (University of Groningen) Prof. Dr. C.A. Parra Novoa (KU Leuven)
Assessment Committee
Prof. E.J.M.M. Arts Prof. C. Kesteloot Prof. S. Davoudi Prof. A. Faggian
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction: Disaster governance
1.1 Shaky societies in a world full of threats 1.2 Understanding disaster governance 1.2.1 Positioning disasters
1.2.2 The double-edged sword of governance
1.2.3 Governance of social-ecological systems in the face of disasters 1.2.4 International practice on disasters
1.3 Scope of this research
1.4 Framework on the PhD research 1.5 Research approach
1.5.1 Research aims 1.5.2 Research questions
1.5.3 A qualitative case-study approach 1.5.4 Methodology
1.6 Structure of the thesis References
Chapter 2 Governance in shaky societies: Experiences and lessons from Christchurch after the earthquakes
Abstract 2.1 Introduction
2.2 Theoretical debates: Governance of social-ecological systems in the face of disasters
2.2.1 Social-ecological systems and disasters 2.2.2 Governance in times of disaster
2.2.3 The multi-level nature of hybrid disaster governance 2.3 Methodology
2.4 Findings
2.4.1 Setting the scene: ‘Shaky’ Christchurch
2.4.2 Governance among governments: Public institutions in the recovery process
2.4.3 Governance beyond governments: The role of private institutions and the civil society
2.5 Discussion: A critical reflection on post-disaster governance in Christchurch
2.6 Conclusion: The way towards resilience and sustainability for Christchurch References
Appendix 2.A. Participant organizations of the research project
13 16 18 18 19 21 23 25 28 29 29 30 30 38 42 46 51 52 53 55 55 56 57 58 59 59 61 62 65 67 69 72
Chapter 3 Learning from the rubble: The case of Christchurch, New Zealand, after the 2010 and 2011 earthquakes
Abstract
3.1 Introduction: Learning and resilience in disaster recovery 3.2 Learning in disaster debates
3.2.1 Resilience in disaster recovery 3.2.2 Conceptualizing learning
3.2.3 Learning in disaster governance for more resilient and sustainable societies
3.3 Methodology and post-earthquake responses to enable learning 3.4 Findings: Diversity of learning in Christchurch after the earthquakes 3.4.1 The state actors that hinder capacity building in the civil society 3.4.2 Civil society responses nurture the ground for learning 3.4.3 Learning of the society as a whole
3.5 Discussion: Linking bottom-up and top-down responses for learning 3.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 The fragile resilience of the salmon industry in Chile unmasked by the ISA disaster
Abstract 4.1 Introduction
4.2 Governance of social-ecological systems and disasters 4.2.1 The value of social-ecological systems approaches 4.2.2 A focus on the governance of social-ecological systems 4.2.3 Resilience in the governance of social-ecological systems
affected by disasters 4.3 Methodology
4.4 Findings: The ISA disaster in Chile
4.4.1 The rise of the salmon industry in Chile
4.4.2 Overexploitation and lax regulations causing the ISA disaster 4.4.3 Learning from the ISA disaster: New regulations and institutions 4.4.4 Adaptation and transformation: Towards improved governance
for sustainability?
4.5 Discussion: When resilience turns into resistance and inflexibility 4.6 Conclusions
References
Appendix 4.A. List of interview respondents
75 76 77 79 80 82 83 85 87 88 90 95 96 97 100 105 106 107 110 110 110 111 113 113 113 114 115 116 117 119 121 124
Chapter 5 Analyzing the social-lead up to a human-induced disaster: The gas extraction-earthquakes nexus in Groningen, the Netherlands
Abstract
5.1 Introduction: Becoming a disaster
5.2 Theory: Disentangling socially-created disasters
5.2.1 Mechanisms intervening in the social creation of disasters 5.2.2 The growth of human-induced disasters
5.2.3 Governance for trust, resilience and sustainability 5.3 Methods
5.4 Four G’s: Gas, ground and governance in Groningen 5.4.1 Setting the scene: Gas in Groningen
5.4.2 Governance of the ground movements 5.4.3 Public-private relationships and societal trust 5.5 Discussion: A disaster in “slow motion”?
5.6 Conclusions References
Appendix 5.A. List of interview respondents
Chapter 6 Discussion: What disasters can tell us about governance for resilience and sustainability. A confluence of case-studies from New Zealand, Chile and the Netherlands
Abstract 6.1 Introduction
6.2 Analyzing disaster governance for resilience and sustainability 6.2.1 Multi-level, inclusive and innovative governance
6.2.2 The role of risk awareness and risk acceptance in governance 6.2.3 The influence of politics in disaster governance
6.3 Methodology
6.4 Results: Change and lock-in for resilience and sustainability in three disaster cases
6.4.1 Post-earthquake governance in Christchurch
6.4.2 Governance of the ISA-disaster in the salmon industry in Chiloé 6.4.3 Governance of gas-quakes in Groningen
6.5 Discussion: Multi-level and multi-actor disaster governance 6.6 Conclusions: What disasters can tell us about governance for
resilience and sustainability References
Appendix 6.A. List of interview respondents A.I Christchurch case-study
A.II Chiloé case-study A.III Groningen case-study
127 128 129 131 131 133 136 138 138 138 141 145 148 149 153 158 161 162 163 165 165 167 168 169 170 170 171 173 174 176 178 182 182 183 184
Chapter 7 Conclusions: Inconvenient realities and chances for resilience and sustainability
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The power of disasters to uncover inconvenient realities… 7.2.1 The heterogeneity of disasters
7.2.2 Disaster governance: Hybrid, multilevel and political 7.3 ..but also the trigger of chances for resilience and sustainability 7.3.1 When resilience turns into inflexibility and rigidity 7.3.2 Institutionally embedding initiatives for resilience and
sustainability
7.4 Reflection and suggestions for further research 7.4.1 Reflection on research approach
7.4.2 Theoretical reflection and further research 7.5 Policy recommendations
References
Addendum
Appendix A. In-depth interviews A.1 Christchurch case-study A.2 Chiloé case-study A.3 Groningen case-study English summary
Nederlandse samenvatting About the author
Overview of academic and professional publications Acknowledgements 187 189 191 191 193 195 195 197 199 199 199 202 206 209 211 211 219 229 239 249 259 261 265
List of figures and tables
Figure 1.1: Governance as a central element of social-ecological systems Figure 1.2: The layer of stress that disasters bring to the governance of
social-ecological systems
Figure 1.3: Visual presentation of the PhD research Figure 1.4: Map of Christchurch, New Zealand Figure 1.5: Map of Chiloé, Chile
Figure 1.6: Map of Groningen, the Netherlands
Figure 2.1: Selected disaster governance arrangements for the Christchurch earthquakes
Figure 3.1: Pallet pavilion Figure 3.2: Re:Start Mall Figure 4.1: Map of Chiloé, Chile
Figure 5.1: The volume of gas extraction and number of earthquakes in Groningen
Figure 5.2: The magnitude and number of earthquakes in Groningen Figure 7.1: Styles of governance of disasters
Table 1.1: The elements in society that influence the creation of disasters Table 1.2: The elements in the three case-studies that influenced the creation
of the disasters
Table 1.3: Contribution of chapters to research questions and domains Table 3.1: Domains of learning and channels for multi-actor engagement Table 3.2: Schematic timeline of the establishment of selected actors and
institutions since September 2010
Table 5.1: The dimensions of the social creation of disasters Table 5.2: The growth of a human-induced, technological disaster
20 22 29 32 34 36 60 92 94 108 140 141 203 37 38 44 86 87 133 135
Overview of chapters
Four chapters included in this thesis are reprints of publications or manuscripts:
Chapter 2 has been published as:
Bakema, M.M., Parra, C., McCann, P., Dalziel, P. and Saunders, C. (2017). Governance in shaky societies: Experiences and lessons from Christchurch after the earthquakes. Environmental Policy and Governance, 27(4), 365-377.
Chapter 3 has been published as:
Bakema, M.M., Parra, C., and McCann, P. (2018). Learning from the rubble: The case of Christchurch, New Zealand, after the 2010 and 2011 earthquakes. Disasters, DOI:10.1111/ disa.12322.
Chapter 4 is under review with an international peer-reviewed journal:
Bakema, M.M., Parra, C. and McCann, P. The fragile resilience of the salmon industry in Chile unmasked by the ISA disaster.
Chapter 5 has been published as:
Bakema, M.M., Parra, C. and McCann, P. (2018). Analyzing the social-lead up to a human-induced disaster: The gas extraction-earthquakes nexus in Groningen, the Netherlands, Sustainability 10(10), 3621.
