T i j d s c h r i f t D i d a c t i e k 8-wetenschappen 4 (1986) nr.3
Research on Science Teaching: summary and implications
Wayne W.Welch
U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a
D u r i n g t h e f a l l o f 1982, I conducted a f a i r l y e x t e n s i v e needs assessment o f r e s e a r c h i n s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n f o r the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f E d u c a t i o n (Welch, 1983). My t a s k was t o examine the c u r r e n t s t a t e o f r e s e a r c h knowledge as p o r t r a y e d i n s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h r e v i e w s and m e t a - a n a l y s e s and t o i d e n t i f y those a r e a s which seemed most p r o m i s i n g
f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h .
A p o r t i o n o f my needs assessment i n c l u d e d r e s e a r c h on t o p i c s r e l e v a n t t o t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n : t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g , t e a c h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t e a c h e r b e h a v i o r s and i n s t r u c t i o n a l systems. In the r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s p a p e r , I p r e s e n t r e s u l t s o f my i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h e s e a r e a s and d e s c r i b e s e v e r a l p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the f i n d i n g s . Teacher T r a i n i n g
As p a r t o f the m e t a - a n a l y s e s c a r r i e d out a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o (Anderson, 1982), S w e i t z e r (1982) examined the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of p r e s e r v i c e and i n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s on t e a c h e r s . Some examples o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d e methods c o u r s e s , modeling s t r a t e g i e s , and q u e s t i o n i n g a n a l y s i s .
M e t a - a n a l y s i s i s a q u a n t i t a t i v e p r o c e d u r e f o r s y n t h e s i z i n g the r e s u l t s from a number o f s i m i l a r r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s ( G l a s s and S m i t h , 1979). Mean c o r r e l a t i o n s and average e f f e c t s i z e s a r e used as the s y n t h e s i z i n g s t a t i s t i c . E f f e c t s i z e s a r e d i f f e r e n c e s between e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o m p a r i s o n groups e x p r e s s e d i n s t a n d a r d d e v a t i o n u n i t s . For example, suppose t h a t t r e a t m e n t A y i e l d s a mean s c o r e o f 48 w h i l e a c o m p a r i s o n group a c h i e v e s a mean o f 42 and the p o o l e d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i s 12. The e f f e c t s i z e i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s +0.50 (è48-42| : 12). Mean e f f e c t s i z e i s the average f o r those s t u d i e s devoted to s p e c i f i c t o p i c s , e.g. t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g .
When u s i n g v a r i o u s t e a c h e r outcome c r i t e r i a as the dependent measures S w e i t z e r (1982) noted a mean e f f e c t s i z e o f 0.77 f o r 153 d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s t h a t he found i n h i s l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w . These r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Table 1.
179 S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g
Mean e f f e c t s i z e Number o f s t u d i e s Treatment Type
F i e l d - b a s e program 0.35 8
Workshop 0.73 16
Methods c o u r s e 0.79 22
Teachers s c i e n c e c o u r s e 0.97 9
I n q u i r y i n s t r u c t i o n 0.63 9
Use o f l a b o r a t o r y 0.75 20
Student s e l f - d i r e c t e d s t u d y 0.81 44
Q u e s t i o n i n g a n a l y s i s 1.38 8
T o t a l 0.77 153
Time o f Treatment
P r e s e r v i c e 0.78 122
I n s e r v c e 0.72 31
Outcome C r i t e r i a (examples)
S c i e n c e knowledge 0.52 7
S c i e n c e p r o c e s s 1.08 33
I n d i r e c t e d v e r b a l b e h a v i o r 0.72 18
Q u e s t i o n i n g l e v e l 0.70 7
A t t i t u d e toward s c i e n c e 0.39 10
Table 1 E f f e c t s o f t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g
Teachers who r e c e i v e d the v a r i o u s t r a i n i n g programs tended t o o u t p e r f o r m the c o m p a r i s o n groups on measures o f s c i e n c e knowledge, p r o c e s s , a t t i t u d e , and d e s i r e d t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r s , e.g. g u e s t i o n i n g . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p r e s e r v i c e and i n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g on t e a c h e r s was n e a r l y the same. There was some v a r i a t i o n on the dependent measures used. The g r e a t e s t e f f e c t was n o t e d on s c i e n c e p r o c e s s c r i t e r i a
(+1.08) w h i l e a t t i t u d e c r i t e r i a showed the l e a s t e f f e c t (+0.39).
I t i s p o s s i b l e t o p r o v i d e some b a s i s f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g the magnitude o f t h e s e r e s u l t s by knowing t h a t the mean e f f e c t s i z e f o r s c i e n c e c u r r i c u l u m m a t e r i a l s i s about 0.35 (Shymansky, K y l e and A l p o r t , 1982;
W e i n s t e i n , B o u l a n g e r and W a l b e r g , 1982). The mean e f f e c t s i z e f o r t e a c h i n g t r a i n i n g e f f o r t s i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w i c e t h i s v a l u e . (Cohen
'1969' c o n s i d e r s an e f f e c t s i z e o f 0.20 s m a l l , a v a l u e o f 0.50 medium, and a v a l u e o f 0.80 l a r g e . ) Thus, i t would appear t h a t t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n e f f o r t s a r e q u i t e e f f e c t i v e , a t l e a s t s h o r t - t e r m , f o r
180 i n f l u e n c i n g t e a c h e r performance. Whether t h i s change i s permanent and i n t u r n a f f e c t s s t u d e n t performance i s unknown a t p r e s e n t . L i t t l e r e s e a r c h was found on t h i s t o p i c . C e r t a i n l y , t h i s i s an i m p o r t a n t a r e a f o r f u t u r e work i n t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n .
Teacher C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
An i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t e a c h e r e d u c a t o r s would seem t o be the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , e.g. age, gender and p e r s o n a l i t y , o f t h o s e p e o p l e who choose s c i e n c e t e a c h i n g as a c a r e e r . Knowledge o f t h e s e t r a i t s and the way t h e y i n f l u e n c e s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g c o u l d be used f o r t e a c h e r s e l e c t i o n , p r o f e s s i o n a l development, and t o p r o v i d e c l u e s on a n t i c i p a t e d t e a c h e r b e h a v i o r i n the c l a s s r o o m . However, Druva's (1982) m e t a - a n a l y s i s y i e l d e d v e r y l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t e a c h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e i r subsequent t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r s . The mean c o r r e l a t i o n between v a r i o u s i n d i c a t o r s o f t e a c h e r t r a i t s and measures o f presumed e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g was o n l y +0.05. I t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t to p r e d i c t how t e a c h e r s w i l l behave i n the c l a s s r o o m g i v e n knowledge o f such t h i n g s as age, gender, p e r s o n a l i t y measures, e x p e r i e n c e and a t t i t u d e s . »•
Druva (1982) a l s o found low c o r r e l a t i o n s between her measures o f t e a c h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and measures o f s t u d e n t outcomes. The r e s u l t s from 300 c a s e s f o r b o t h c o g n i t i v e and a f f e c t i v e outcomes a r e shown i n T a b l e 2.
Note t h a t p r e v i o u s t r a i n i n g i n s c i e n c e a c c o u n t s f o r v e r y l i t t l e o f the v a r i a t i o n i n s t u d e n t performance. T h i s i s c o n t r a r y t o the b e l i e f s h e l d by many s c i e n t i s t s and s c i e n c e e d u c a t o r s t h a t s c i e n c e knowledge i s h i g h l y r e l a t e d t o e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g . L e s s than 4 p e r c e n t o f the v a r i a t i o n i n s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g can be e x p l a i n e d by t h i s v a r i a b l e . F u r t h e r m o r e , the c o n f o u n d i n g e f f e c t s o f age, and sex on t h i s v a r i a b l e may f u r t h e r d e c r e a s e t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . Note, a l s o , t h a t e x p e r i e n c e and a t t i t u d e s a r e c o r r e l a t e d low w i t h s t u d e n t performance measures.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s S t u d e n t Outcomes
C o g n i t i v e A f f e c t i v e
Sex 0.0a ( 4) 0.08 ( 7)
Age 0.13 ( 7) 0.26 ( 1)
T r a i n i n g i n s c i e n c e 0.19 ( 24) 0.18 ( 9)
E x p e r i e n c e 0.10 ( 23) 0.12 (11)
P e r s o n a l i t y 0.01 (144) -0.02 (53)
A t t i t u d e s 0.10 ( 6) 0.04 (11)
T o t a l 0.05 (208) 0.04 (92)
T a b l e 2 Teacher c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s t u d e n t outcomes (mean c o r r e l a t i o n s ) . Number o f s t u d e n t s a r e shown i n p a r e n t h e s e s
183 S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g o f advance o r g a n i z e r s and i n d u c t i v e v e r s u s d e d u c t i v e t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r s . He found a mean e f f e c t s i z e o f 0.24 f o r 22 s t u d i e s u s i n g advance o r g a n i z e r s , and 0.06 f o r t h e s t u d i e s w h i c h examined i n d u c t i v e v e r s u s d e d u c t i v e t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r s . H i s r e s u l t s a r e lower than t h o s e
found by Wise and Okey ( s e e t h a b e l 3 ) , b u t they used a b r o a d e r d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s than d i d L o t t .
In summary, t h e e f f e c t s due t o v a r i o u s t e a c h i n g s t r a t e g i e s a r e d i s a p p o i n t i n g l y low. They average o n l y 0.22 f o r t h e 812 c a s e s used i n these t h r e e m e t a - a n a l y s e s . Cohen (1969) would c o n s i d e r t h i s a s m a l l e f f e c t . I do t o o ! The i n f l u e n c e o f what t h e t e a c h e r does i n t h e c l a s s r o o m a p p e a r s m i n i m a l . P e r h a p s a d i f f e r e n t r e s e a r c h f o c u s i s needed.
L i t t l e work has been done i n s c i e n c e on t e a c h e r s t y l e v a r i a b l e s and t e a c h e r as manager. R o s e n s h i n e and F u r s t (1971) argue t h a t b e h a v i o r s such as o r g a n i z a t i o n , e n t h u s i a s m , and e x p e c t a t i o n a r e key f a c t o r s i n f a c i l i t a t i n g l e a r n i n g . They b e l i e v e t h a t d i r e c t t e a c h i n g s t r a t e g i e s have g r e a t e r impact than i n d i r e c t ones. Some d a t a r e p o r t e d h e r e tend to s u p p o r t t h i s c l a i m i n s c i e n c e t e a c h i n g ; s e e , f o r example, e f f e c t s o f f o c u s i n g , l e a r n i n g c o n t r a c t s , and mastery l e a r n i n g . These s t r a t e g i e s a r e a l s o t h o s e w h i c h s h i f t much o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r l e a r n i n g t o t h e s t u d e n t i n s t e a d o f the! t e a c h e r .
I n d i r e c t t e a c h i n g s t r a t e g i e s , e.g. i n q u i r y t e a c h i n g , s e l f - d i r e c t e d s y s t e m s , and i n d u c t i v e t e a c h i n g , seem l e s s s u c c e s s f u l . A l t h o u g h many s c i e n c e e d u c a t o r s a r e s t r o n g a d v o c a t e s o f t h e s e t e a c h i n g s t r a t e g i e s , these r e s u l t s s u g g e s t c a u t i o n . D i r e c t t e a c h i n g w i t h heavy emphasis on s t u d e n t r e s p o n s i b l e l e a r n i n g seems f a r more e f f e c t i v e .
C o n c l u s i o n s and i m p l i c a t i o n s
Based upon my a n a l y s i s o f r e s e a r c h on s c i e n c e t e a c h i n g , I c o n c l u d e t h a t t e a c h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and b e h a v i o r s have o n l y s l i g h t i n f l u e n c e on s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a r e a has been r e s e a r c h e d f a r more than t h e o t h e r components o f t h e domain o f s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n .
(The f o u r a r e a s I have r e v i e w e d h e r e a r e b u t a p a r t o f a 2 2 - c e l l g r i d t h a t I use t o d e f i n e t h e d i s c i p l i n e o f s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n ) .
What seems t o make a g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e l e a r n i n g o f s c i e n c e a r e : 1. s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g b e h a v i o r s ; 2. home, s c h o o l and c l a s s r o o m e n v i r o n m e n t s ; and 3. e x p o s u r e t o i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s (Welen, 1983). A l l o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s have mean e f f e c t s i z e s o f 0.50 or g r e a t e r and t h e r e s e a r c h a p p e a r s more f r u i t f u l than c o n t i n u e d r e s e a r c h on t e a c h e r s ' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and b e h a v i o r s . I b e l i e v e t h a t a r e s e a r c h agenda i s needed w h i c h f o c u s e s upon t h e b e h a v i o r s o f s t u d e n t s r a t h e r than on t h e b e h a v i o r o f t e a c h e r s .
The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f my c o n c l u s i o n s f o r t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n a r e s u b s t a n t i a l . Of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e i s t h e need f o r s c i e n c e t e a c h e r s t o become a c u t e l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e b e h a v i o r s o f s t u d e n t s i n t h e i r
Welch
c l a s s r o o m s . Teachers must l e a r n t e c h n i q u e s t o s t i m u l a t e s t u d e n t r e s p o n s i b l e b e h a v i o r s i n s c i e n c e l e a r n i n g . Techniques o f t h i s s o r t t h a t have been s u c c e s s f u l i n c l u d e such t h i n g s as c o o p e r a t i v e l e a r n i n g , l e a r n i n g c o n t r a c t s , p e r s o n a l i z e d system o f i n s t r u c t i o n and mastery l e a r n i n g . I n each i n s t a n c e , t h e emphasis i s s h i f t e d from what the t e a c h e r does t o what s t u d e n t s do. Teachers need t o be t r a i n e d to implement t h e s e and s i m i l a r t e c h n i q u e s .
A n o t h e r c h a l l e n g e f o r t e a c h e r e d u c a t o r s i s t o c o n v i n c e t e a c h e r s o f the need t o a c t i v e l y r e c r u i t s t u d e n t s i n t o t h e i r s c i e n c e c l a s s e s . A major s h o r t c o m i n g t o l e a r n i n g s c i e n c e i s t h e l a c k o f e x p o s u r e to s c i e n c e e x p e r i e n c e s . D e c l i n i n g s c i e n c e e n r o l l m e n t s a r e a symptom o f t h i s problem. Teacher e d u c a t o r s need t o demonstrate t o s c i e n c e t e a c h e r s ways i n w h i c h they c a n ' s e l l ' t h e i r c o u r s e s t o s t u d e n t s . They need t o be s e n s i t i z e d and t r a i n e d t o g e t more s t u d e n t s i n t o s c i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y e l e c t i v e c o u r s e s . I n c r e a s i n g e n r o l l m e n t w i l l i n c r e a s e s t u d e n t achievement and h e l p t o improve t h e p r o f e s s i o n o f s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n .
Teachers w i l l a l s o need t o be more c o g n i z a n t o f t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e the home, community, s c h o o l l a n d c l a s s r o o m environment a r e i n s c i e n c e l e a r n i n g . Teacher e d u c a t o r s w i l l need t o t r a i n t e a c h e r s t o r e c o g n i z e e f f e c t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t s ahu' s t r i v e t o c r e a t i v e t h o s e t h a t w i l l enhance l e a r n i n g . E x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h and development e f f o r t s a r e r e q u i r e d here but t h e p a y - o f f p o t e n t i a l i s g r e a t . We have o n l y s t r a t c h e d t h e s u r f a c e on how t o c a p i t a l i z e on t h e s e i m p o r t a n t d e t e r m i n e r s o f l e a r n i n g .
F i n a l l y , g i v e n t h e s t u d e n t - b a s e d approach I am a d v o c a t i n g as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o 50 y e a r s o f a t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d approach, r e s e a r c h and development i s needed on how t o s e l e c t and t r a i n t e a c h e r s to e f f e c t i v e l y f u n c t i o n i n l e a r n e r - b a s e d c l a s s r o o m s . I s s u e s o f engaged t i m e , t a s k r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , c o o p e r a t i v e l e a r n i n g , enhanced s t u d e n t i n t e r e s t , e f f e c t i v e homework, and t h e l i k e , need t o be r e s e a r c h e d and i f c o n t i n u e d t o be found e f f e c t i v e , become t h e backbone o f our p r e s e r v i c e and i n s e r v i c e programs. We seem t o have exhausted t h e w e l l , w i t h l i t t l e p a y - o f f i n our f o c u s on t e a c h e r - b a s e d s c i e n c e i n s t r u c t i o n .
I t i s time t o s h i f t o u r a t t e n t i o n i n more- f r u i t f u l d i r e c t i o n s . I b e l i e v e s t u d e n t r e s p o n s i b l e b e h a v i o r s r e p r e s e n t an o p t i m i s t i c new d i r e c t i o n f o r s c i e n c e t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n .
Notes
1. Paper g e p r e s e n t e e r d op h e t 'Bat Sheva Seminar on P r e s e r v i c e and I n s e r v i c e o f S c i e n c e Teachers' , Rehovot, 1983.
Een u i t g e b r e i d e r e v e r s i e i s v e r s c h e n e n i n Science Education, 69, 3, 421-447, 1985.
185 S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g R e f e r e n c e s
*Anderson, R.D. A m e t a - a n a l y s i s o f major s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n q u e s t i o n s , paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e a n n u a l meeting o f t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n
f o r R e s e a r c h i n S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g , F o n t a n a , W i s c o n s i n , 1982.
Cphen, J . Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences,
New York: Academie P r e s s , 1969.
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Note: a l l e r e f e r e n c e s marked w i t h an (*) were s u b s e q u e n t l y p u b l i s h e d
i n t h e Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20, 5, 1982.1
