Submitted in fulfilment of the Newcastle University Business School &

Is CSR in the Form of Ethical Clothing Lines Effective? Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour Model to Determine Purchase Intention Among UK

Consumers.

Natalie Owen

Student numbers: NCL B6065841 RUG S3313867

Submitted in fulfilment of the Newcastle University Business School &

Groningen University Dual Award Masters in Advanced International Business, MSc, MSc.

Supervisors: Laurence Vigneau & Esha Mendiratta

December 2017

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Abstract

The trend of ethical consumerism as a whole, in the UK has steadily increased since 1999 and

is only set to continue. This dissertation aims to better understand purchase intention regarding

ethically conscious clothing lines among consumers in the UK. Previous studies have largely

focused on individual Fairtrade products such as coffee, or the effect of sweatshop style

manufacturing in avoiding related purchases. Through employing the framework of the theory

of planned behaviour model, this research aims to further understand consumer purchase

intention through the constructs of attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural

control. Data was collected using questionnaires and examined through the use of structural

equation modelling. The empirical data collected indicates that while subjective norms and

attitude had a significant positive effect on purchase intention, perceived behavioural control

did not. Nevertheless, the findings of this research contribute to further improving the

understanding of purchase intention among UK consumers. Consumers who could effectively

contribute in leading the way for positive change in the retail industry through their

consumption habits.

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Acknowledgements

I would first like to thank my two supervisors for offering me their support and guidance throughout the process of writing this dissertation.

I would also like to express my thanks to the friends I have made in both Newcastle and

Groningen that have supported me over the duration of this course.

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Table of Contents

Abstract ... 1

Acknowledgements ... 2

1. Introduction ... 5

2. Literature Review ... 8

2.1 Introduction ... 8

2.2.1 CSR ... 8

2.2.3 Fast Fashion ... 12

2.2.4 Slow Fashion ... 14

2.2.5 Purchase Intention ... 16

2.2.6 Previous Studies ... 17

2.3 Theoretical Framework ... 18

2.3.1 Introduction ... 18

2.3.2 Introduction and Usefulness of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ... 18

2.3.3 Justification of TPB Model ... 19

3. Methodology ... 26

3.1 Introduction ... 26

3.2 Approach ... 26

3.3 Survey Method ... 27

3.4 Questionnaire ... 27

3.4.1 Questionnaire Content ... 28

3.4.2 Questionnaire Distribution ... 28

3.4.3 Questionnaire Format ... 28

3.5 Measuring of the Constructs in the Questionnaire ... 29

3.6 Sampling Method ... 30

3.7 Analysis of the Data ... 31

3.7.1 Statistical Analysis ... 31

3.7.2 Descriptive Statistics ... 31

3.7.3 Factor Analysis and Confirmatory Factor Analysis ... 32

3.7.4 Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) ... 32

4. Findings... 34

4.1 Introduction ... 34

4.2 Reliability Analysis ... 34

4.2.1 Reliability of Constructs ... 34

4.3 Findings of Sample Characteristics (socio-demographic). ... 37

4.4 Descriptive Statistics of constructs used in the questionnaire... 40

5. Discussion ... 42

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5.1 Introduction ... 42

5.2 Summary of Research Findings ... 42

5.3 Implications ... 44

6. Conclusion ... 45

6.1 Introduction ... 45

6.2 Summary of Research Design ... 45

6.3 Summary of Findings ... 45

6.4 Theoretical contribution of the study ... 46

6.5 Managerial Contribution of the Research Findings ... 46

6.6 Limitations of the Research Findings ... 47

6.7 Suggestions for Future Research ... 47

6.8 Conclusions ... 48

Reference List ... 50

Appendices ... 60

Record of Supervisor Meetings... 71

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1. Introduction

The retail industry is worth $3 trillion globally (approximately £2.24 trillion) and is the second most polluting industry on earth, second only to oil. Accounting for 10% of global carbon emissions (Conca,2015). In the UK alone, the industry amasses an average of £826million in sales per week, as of July 2016 (Retail Economics.co.uk, 2017). In the past, the retail industry has been heavily associated with exploiting child labour laws and creating unsafe working environments, despite its huge net worth.

Pressure for change in the industry has increased over several years with Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), consumers, the media, and other stakeholders, paying more attention to where their clothes are coming from. Scrutinising every aspect of a products journey from the supply chain to the shop floor.

Seemingly as a result of this increased attention, there has also been an increase in ethical

consumerism and the creation of ethical clothing lines. Ethical consumption, is defined as a

form of “individualised responsibility, whereby citizen-consumers consciously engage in

morally and/or politically directed purchasing decisions” (Humphrey, 2017 p.92). A concept

which has steadily been increasing in the UK as reported in the 2016 Ethical Consumer Market

Report. The report finds that across the several levels of; ethical food and drink, green home,

ethical personal products, and eco transport and travel among others, spending has increased

steadily from 1999-2015. The increase in ethical spending as detailed in the report is detailed

below. In this report, ethical clothing lines fall under ethical personal products.

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Although ethical spending has risen, there is an apparent gap between consumers intentions to purchase ethical products and the actual purchasing behaviour that they carry out. A YouGov study carried out in the UK revealed that 75% of respondents questioned would be willing to pay an extra 5% for their clothes if they were made in a sustainable way (Baker, 2015).

Although 5% may seem an insignificant amount, if companies operating in the fashion industry added only 1% of their profits to their workers’ wages; 125 million people could be taken out of poverty. Despite apparent willingness to pay more, it is often the case that ethical and/or sustainable product lines have a low market share at around 1% (MacGillivray, 2000). With apparent consumer support often failing to translate into an actual purchase (Chan & Wong, 2012).

Narrowing the gap between ethical purchase ‘intentions’ and actual purchase

‘behaviour’ presents a challenge of practical and theoretical significance towards positive environmental and socio-economic outcomes. To investigate this gap among UK consumers, this research employs Azjens Theory of Planned Behaviour model (TPB). The model has been influential in health psychology (Zemore and Ajzen, 2014), and has also been validated in similar studies including that of Whitmarsh & O’Neill (2010) in determining the context of pro-environmental behaviour, and further in the research of Zahid et al., (2017) who used the model to identify actors affecting purchase intention and social media publicity of green products.

Through focusing specifically on ethical clothing line purchase intention among UK consumers, this research hopes to gain perspective on an industry that is driven by fast fashion and disposable clothing items. Gaining an insight on what the strongest influences of purchase intention are, and whether or not purchase intention for ethical clothing lines represents actual purchase behaviour carried out.

The topic is deemed interesting due to the personal transaction between retailers and their

consumers, with retailers increasingly being held fully responsible for all aspects of their

clothing lines. As well as a change in dynamics of the industry where retailers predominately

offer low cost, quality products that enter into the market quickly, in a bid to ‘maintain a

profitable position in the increasingly demanding market’ (Bhardwaj et al., 2010). To retailers

now becoming increasingly aware and concerned with traceability. Leading some retailers to

create their own ethical clothing lines, partially due to consumer concern and particularly in

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regard to where their clothes are produced (GS1 Report, 2017). Although Fast fashion is still dominant in the industry, ethical clothing lines are a sign of positive change.

In terms of practical relevance, findings could determine actions going forward with ethical clothing lines. As stated by Banvara (2006), stakeholders such as consumers, are already responsible for a lot of positive change regarding CSR in the industry. Could it be the case that consumers are able to encourage further positive change through purchases from ethical clothing lines? Alternatively, do consumers see ethical clothing lines as a retailers attempt to be seen as ‘good’. To date, the UK leads the way in Fairtrade purchasing and one in three bananas purchased in the UK are certified Fairtrade products (Fairtrade.org.uk, 2017). Which indicates what the future could potentially look like in terms of ethical clothing purchases as their popularity increases, and purchase intention towards them is further understood.

Conversely, is it still the case that consumers remain largely unaware of such clothing lines and more needs to be done to increase awareness and inspire positive change.

1.1 Outline of Dissertation

This dissertation contains 6 chapters and is structured as follows. A literature review is presented in Chapter 2, followed by the theoretical framework and hypotheses development.

Chapter 3 explains the methodology used for the purpose of the research. This is followed by

the presentation of the research findings and analysis in chapter 4. A discussion of the research

findings and implications are contained in chapter 5. With the final chapter of 6, providing a

conclusive summary of the research, including limitations, and suggestions for future research.

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2. Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to provide a review on current literature related to the research topic.

Subsections of the literature review include; Purchase intention, Corporate Social Responsibility, Ethical Consumption, Fast Fashion, Slow Fashion, a review of previous studies and lastly, identification of the research gap. These concepts are considered important in answering the question of the research and have been specifically chosen due to the close ties of each subsection that will in turn help to best lay the groundwork for the conceptual model.

The literature review is followed by presentation of the conceptual model and consequently the hypotheses development and presentation.

2.2.1 CSR

Over the last 30 years, there has been a noticeable increase in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a corporate practice and as a subject of academic scrutiny. Definitions of CSR have grown, with new definitions and characteristics of the concept being debated. As well as the relevance of programmes, costs and benefits that are relevant across company strategies and reports. CSR is now recognised as a concept that can offer new ways of thinking and behaving which leads to multi-layered benefits being delivered for those who choose to carry out CSR activities within their business practices (Vertigans and Idowu, 2017). Benefits include, transnational company profits and profile, enhancing small business supply chain capacity, transforming lives through community engagement initiatives and local programmes, and government developmental programmes. With transnational companies now often emphasising certain “social and environmental cases to some stakeholders, while focusing on the business case for shareholders” (Vertigans and Idowu, 2017 vii). The expectations of CSR can be encapsulated within the triple bottom line perspective of people, profit and planet. Or similarly expressed in terms of the UN Sustainable Development Goals of 2030 as the 5Ps of people, peace, partnership, prosperity and planet (Vertigans and Idowu, 2017).

Today, whether a company is large or small, consumers expect that they are applying CSR to

their business practises. Consumers themselves, are also increasingly conscious in their

purchasing behaviours (Freestone & McGoldrick, 2008), and for some it is becoming a more

salient aspect of buying criteria (Memery et al.,2005). Sen and Bhattacharya, (2001)

Consumers are now also considered one important stakeholder group that is particularly

susceptible to a company’s CSR initiatives.

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Regarding the retail/apparel industry, Dickson and Eckman collected information from professors and graduate students to establish a working definition for the industry. Finding that socially responsible businesses in the industry “consider the entire system of stakeholders associated with apparel supply chains, including production workers, sales help, and consumers, and the entire product life cycle from the inception of raw materials and components to product design, use and discard” (Dickson et al., 2009 p.30)

In recent years, sustainability in the fashion industry has been gaining a large amount of attention. Many believe that the industry should be held accountable for operating with disregard to its negative environmental and social impacts. At the same time, society can be characterised by ‘unsustainable levels of consumption’ that are more want driven than need, with clothing being shaped by aesthetic appeal and social status. Furthermore, retail stores often overstock items, promoting ‘unsustainable consumer culture’ (Diddi,2017 no pagination) which does not help the case of the industry.

Reasons found by Rinaldi and Testa for increased consumer interest include; an increase in awareness of scarce planet resources, “the delocalisation of production and the globalisation of the supply chain”, “proliferation of scandals related to the use of child labour, and the lack of compliance with the working conditions set down by the International Labour Organisation”

as well as “an increase in multi-stakeholder associations” (Rinaldi and Testa, 2015 p.26) Speaking on the issue, Banavara, a college professor from LIM, NY, pointed out that stakeholders, “particularly consumers, have played a major role in encouraging CSR activities in fashion companies” (Banavara, 2016 no pagination). Banavara also stated that more can be done to encourage further CSR activities as many companies now use CSR as a marketing tool.

Which has improved the industry’s image of being increasingly socially responsible. However, it should be noted that increased CSR marketing comes at the cost of being seen as a greenwash’ strategy in a bid to gain competitive advantage. Greenwashing, defined by Delmas and Burbana (2011) as “poor environmental performance and positive communication about environmental performance” (p.65).

As attention on the industry increases, businesses must display efforts to “keep up with growing

demand for ethical behaviour and transparency in everything from employee rights and gender

discrimination to the supply chain” (Baker, 2015 no pagination). Although CSR may be

desirable for society and stakeholder groups, some practises are not likely to be welcomed by

corporate leaders unless they yield some business benefits. Opinions against CSR in the

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business realm do exist, with some claiming that CSR has no place in modern business. David Henderson, former chief economist of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has voiced the opinion that general adoption of CSR policies by businesses would reduce welfare, undermining the market economy (Tyrrell, 2006).

However, as conditions in today’s retail business environment are competitive, CSR has become a way for companies to present a positive image to their consumers. Due to this, ethical clothing lines, made from sustainable raw materials as in the case of H&M are becoming an increasingly popular concept in stores. H&Ms Conscious Collection was one of the first to appear on the UK high street in 2011. Followed by collections from Marks & Spencer, and Zara. As highlighted in previous studies, corporate social responsibility policies are found to be important in building a strong brand image, which in turn leads to consumer loyalty and consequently the willingness to pay a higher price for products. Attributes that are important in encouraging ethical consumption (Real de Oliveira, 2012).

2.2.2 Ethical Consumption

Ethical consumption is part of a “broader consumption picture” (Szmigin and Carrigan 2006 p.1). One that Devinney et al. (2010) find elusive and mysterious, with a range of differing definitions existing. However, popular definitions have been summarised into one so that the concept can be easily understood and interpreted, as “people purchasing and using products and resources according not only to the personal pleasures and values they provide, but also to ideas of what is right and good, versus wrong and bad, in a moral sense” (Starr, 2009 p.916).

Another simple definition is provided by the Ethical Consumer Guide which states that an ethical purchase can be that of a product which has not been produced in a way that has “harmed or exploited humans, animals or the environment” (ethicalconsumer.org, 2017 p.9).

Ethical consumerism is also seen as a way for consumers to translate their ethical

concerns through buying products due to their positive qualities, and boycotting those that hold

negative qualities. i.e. those associated with child labour. This has been found to be due to

consumers adopting a new perspective on disposable income. Instead of consumers seeing their

income as a means of showing social status, consumers increasingly consider their income as

a vote whenever they go shopping (Harrison et al. 2005). For example, purchasing cheaper

items of clothing that have been produced in a sweatshop would be a vote towards worker

exploitation. Whereas favouring organic products instead, is seen as a vote for environmental

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sustainability. Whereas Fairtrade product purchases would be seen as a vote for human rights (ethicalconsumer.org 2017).

In relation to buying from ethical product lines, consumer behaviour further includes the mental, physical and emotional processes which people use when selecting or purchasing a product, that will provide them with their wants and needs (Jeddi et al, 2013). Consumer behaviour has also been defined as “the behaviour that consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating, and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs” (Schiffman et al., 2007 p.3) and similarly by Solomon, (2006) as processes involved when individuals or groups select, use, dispose of, or purchase services, experiences, ideas, or products in order to satisfy needs and desires.

Reasons found for consumers benefitting through the exchange process of an ethical product is that they will feel good about themselves for contributing to altruistic actions. A further explanation of acting altruistically is offered by several researchers and includes reasons such as, ‘the desire to do what is right’ (Dawes and Thaler, 1990) and the search for moral satisfaction. It has also been found that CSR activities have a positive influence on a company’s reputation. As well as ethical consumerism being found to be a broad label for a company providing products which appeal to a consumer’s best self (Irwin, 2015).

Alexander and Nicholls (2006) find that consumers are also becoming more interested in gaining access to reliable and authentic information concerning the background of products.

Specifically, details concerning a products country of origin and issues throughout the supply chain. With some consumers stating that they would be more discerning in their purchases if they had a higher level of information about a company’s ethical and socially responsible activities. However, when consumers were asked if increased information regarding such activities would assist in the purchase decision making process, some respondents said the difference made would be very low. Whereas others indicated that it would make the process confusing. Carrigan and Attala, (2001) also found that in some cases, too much information could detract from consumer choice.

Earlier studies have addressed ethical consumerism in relation to Fair Trade products, finding

that buyers of such products were demographically homogenous, consisting of highly

educated, well-off Caucasian women in their 40s. Buyers were also those that attached a higher

importance to peace, equality and an environmentally secure world. Placing less importance

on inner values such as self-respect and inner harmony (Littrell and Dickson, 1999). Similarly,

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when researching Fair Trade products, Pelsmacker et al., (2006) discovered that Belgian consumers were also highly educated with a relatively high income and social status, as well as personal values also playing a role in purchasing Fair Trade products.

Additional findings from previous studies carried out among American consumers found that respondents would be willing to pay a 6% increase in price for green products (Simon, 1995).

Whereas French consumers wanted to pay 10-25% more. Taking this into consideration, it may be expected that demand for ethical products would be high, or that they would hold a larger market share. Yet, it is often the case that fair trade products often hold a small percentage of market share.

It seems that buying behaviour is based on multi-attribute decision making, where ethical attributes may not always be the most important feature of a product. In an attempt to understand this in consumers, the attitude-behaviour gap of purchases has been considered in numerous studies. However, King and Bruner (2000) note that in attitude based research, answers given are often deemed socially desirable by the participant, with participants wanting to make a good impression towards the researcher, or to conform to social norms. It seems that attitude measured, tends to be more positive than actual behaviour carried out. This issue has also been described as an “over reporting of ethical actions by research respondents seeking to give the ‘right’ answer” Clavin and Lewis (2005 p.185). Which could partially explain the gap between consumer willingness to buy ethical products, versus they actions they actually take.

2.2.3 Fast Fashion

The retail industry is one often characterised by the concept of ‘fast fashion’. A practice which refers to a business strategy that is adopted to enable a quick response to emerging trends.

Products are created quickly and effectively in order to increase product value and demand for short-cycle fashion products. Among consumers, the concept by its very nature, encourages disposability, due to being low cost, and based on high cost luxury items (Fletcher, 2008) Through purchases of fast fashion in the UK, the UKs budget clothing market increase by 45%

over a period of five years. Which is twice the rate of normal clothing market growth (Shah, 2008).

Interestingly, 80% of clothing carbon footprint is generated post purchase during the

usage phase, which considerably contributes to climate change (Allwood et al. 2006). As

shown in the example below for a pair of Levi’s jeans.

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Rinaldi & Testa used this example to demonstrate the importance of informing consumers and raising awareness of more responsible behaviour regarding their clothing purchases. For example, highlighting the importance of washing at a lower temperature or reducing the frequency at which consumers wash their clothes when they have them at home. They also suggest that businesses can recycle fashion products that are finished with, or use them to create new accessories or items of clothing. In the UK, only approximately 15% of unwanted clothes are recycled or donated. The remaining 85% ending up in landfills (Rehman, 2016).

Highlighting the UKs embeddedness in the cycle of fast fashion.

Nevertheless, the industry is beginning to turn its image around, with the combining of ethics and shopping becoming mainstream. There are however, different views that have developed on the topic. Mitch Baranowski, founding partner at BBMG? argues that retail companies, through “aligning their values with their actions, can close the trust gap with conscious consumers and reap the rewards of deeper relationships, enduring loyalty and a growing triple bottom line” (Baranowski, 2013).

Karnani (2017) on the other hand suggests that companies carrying out CSR activities,

are ultimately acting in their own self-interests which just happen to benefit society. For

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example, energy conservation wasn’t an issue for many companies until it became expensive.

Therefore, companies cut down to reduce their expenses, which at the same time benefits society. In the case of ethical clothing lines, retailers would potentially be carrying out a marketing ploy to increase general custom as well as highlighting their new clothing line and how they are benefitting others through its creation. Another point of view that has developed on the subject is that consumers cannot shop their way to a better world. If that were the case and purchasing habits were related to ethics, sales of ethical brands would be higher.

Companies who also had positive CSR initiatives in place would also have a higher market share than what they do (Irwin, 2015). Further to this, Irwin, holds a pessimistic view on ethical consumerism, in that it relies on the “assumption that consumers have one, stable utility structure and they express that utility in their purchasing” adding that “people do not have only one value for things and they do not have a stable and consistent utility structure” (Irwin, 2015 no pagination).

Despite the conflicting views, Cone and Roper (Simon, 1995) carried out a nationwide survey assessing consumer attitudes, finding that 85% of respondents had a more positive image of a company that supported a cause they cared about. However, only 51% of respondents were willing to pay more for a product or service which was associated with a cause they cared about. Further to this, only 20% had actually purchased a product or service in the last 12 months which was associated with a good cause. A similar study carried out by Vogel (2005) found that 75% of respondents indicated that they would modify purchasing behaviour due to social and environmental criteria, but only 3% of respondents had done so.

Furthermore, Boulstoudge and Carrigan (2000) found that although consumers state that they are willing to purchase ethical products that are linked to a good cause or reputation, when it came to purchase decisions, social responsibility is not the most dominant criteria. Boulstoudge and Carrigan’s findings determined price, quality, brand familiarity and value as the most important purchasing criteria. With consumers purchasing products for personal reasons over social benefits. Supporting the findings of Littrell & Dickson (1999) and those of Pelsmacker et al. (2006). Overall, these findings support findings that conclude that buying behaviour is based on multi-attribute decision making, with ethical attributes not always being the most important feature of a product.

2.2.4 Slow Fashion

Despite the constant process of fast fashion in the industry, slow fashion, also known as

sustainable, has been on the increase since its first introduction in the late 1990s. Emerging as

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a response to fast fashion cycles, slow fashion promotes purchasing quality over quantity, ethical conduct and reduced fashion production. (Fletcher, 2010; Ertekin and Atik, 2014). The practice aims to empower workers throughout the supply chain, and utilise traditional production techniques whilst incorporating raw materials (Johnston, 2012). The key being, a balanced approach to fashion production, fostering long term relationships, whilst focusing on transparency and building local production (Ertekin and Atik, 2014). In a bid to increase transparency, many companies detail their supply chain practises online and become members of NGO certified plans and initiatives to combat unethical supply chains.

However, a vicious cycle exists when it comes to information regarding product supply chains. Although customers are increasingly interested in scrutinising and gaining detailed information about the whole production chain; it is true that it is not always possible for such information to be made available. Without a clearly developed demand, companies in the textile and apparel industry are reluctant to invest in innovation. Therefore, buyers, in turn, do not attend events dedicated to sustainable fashion and shops do not devote space to such products in their stores. And so, the vicious cycle continues to exist (Rinaldi, F. and Testa, S.

2015).

Slow fashion requires a holistic view with both production and consumption needing to be considered. This is due to the fact that sustainable consumption can become unsustainable when sustainable made clothing items are only worn a couple of times and then discarded.

Therefore, it is critical that a products life cycle is maximised, in order to slow down consumption. Slow fashion items are typically those that have been produced with the aim of reducing their negative environmental and social impact (Csanák,2014).

Additionally, the aim of these products is to become wearable designs that “reduce the fashion worlds carbon footprint and support environmentalism” (Csanák,2014). Allowing consumers to adopt purchasing habits in favour of becoming socially and environmentally responsible, through consuming goods that are made from sustainable materials with this impact in mind.

An example of the slow fashion movement in the UK comes from the introduction of H&Ms

‘dedicated Conscious Collection’ (hm.com) which debuted in Spring 2011. The collection

included clothing made from sustainable raw materials. With the aim of making it an easier

choice for their customers to make an ‘informed and more sustainable choice’ (hm.com). The

most recent launch in April 2017, included products that were made from “BIONIC® - a

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polyester made of plastics recycled from shoreline waste” (hm.com). The collection was made available in 160 stores worldwide, as well as being available online.

Another popular high street brand, Marks & Spencer’s is also well known for their continuous efforts in becoming a sustainable source and production retailer. Through their Plan A initiative, which was launched in 2007, they aim to achieve several ethical and environmental goals by 2020. In 2015, the company paired up with a consultancy brand focusing on sustainability to put together an eco-friendly collection. Which, when items were bought online or looked at in store, made customers aware that they were buying a product from an eco- friendly line. Online for example, the item description contained text letting customers know that they were ‘supporting responsible cotton production through the Better Cotton Initiative’

(Marksandspencers.com).

The practise of eco shopping is also available online with other retailers. Including the online brand of ASOS. Allowing customers everywhere to purchase items and not limiting those in smaller cities without flagship stores, where larger stock selection of brands is often kept and limited to. As in the case of H&M where their conscious collection is only available in 160/3962(about.hm.com) stores worldwide.

Previous research regarding ethical clothing options available, has indicated that consumers are not always aware of sustainable options (Butler and Francis, 1997; Birtwistle and Moore, 2007). It is also suggested that the desire for updated fashion increases the chance of sustainable items being disposed of after limited use. which would effectively diminish the purpose of creating such items in the first place (Morgan and Birtwistle, 2009).

2.2.5 Purchase Intention

Purchase intention refers to the antecedents that stimulate and drive consumers’ purchases of products and services (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2010). One common approach to understanding consumer behaviour is to study consumer intentions (Ghalandari & Norouzi 2012). As understood by Ajzen, ‘intention’ is the factor that motivates consumers, in turn influencing their behaviour. If intentions towards performing a certain behaviour are strong, the more likely a person will be to perform the respective behaviour (Ajzen, 2005). Ajzen also finds, attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control as able to predict intention with considerably high accuracy (Ajzen, 1991).

To gain an understanding of purchase intention regarding products from ethical clothing lines,

purchase intention must be understood. This can be quite complex as understanding consumer

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purchase intentions and decisions is not always straightforward. When consumers are shopping, purchase intention may be influenced or changed by factors such as price or perceived quality in the moment of actually buying. Additionally, consumers are also affected by internal or external motivations during the buying process (Gogoi, 2013).

To gain an overall understanding of purchase intention toward ethical clothing lines, the topics of corporate social responsibility, ethical consumption, and fast/slow must also be understood as they allow for an understanding of current problems and the need for change towards increased ethical clothing lines in the retail industry. The literature on these topics also highlights how the retail industry is responsible for how consumers behave; in relation to fast fashion culture for example. Understanding purchase intention will also allow for recommendations to be made in instigating this change.

2.2.6 Previous Studies

Of the studies that have investigated ethical consumption and ethical considerations among consumers, many have used highly purposive samples. For example, subscribers to ethical magazines that have been purposely selected for surveying. As in the case of Shaw and Shiu, (2003) who surveyed a large sample of subscribers to the ‘Ethical Consumer Magazine’. Their findings determining that a feeling of ‘ethical obligation’ positively and significantly influenced the intention to purchase Fair Trade products. Concerns such as these limit the extent at which findings can be applied to a general population, and inferences made are at limited practical applicability.

Previous studies have also only investigated certain aspects of ethical behaviour. For example, when investigating consumer behaviour and purchase intentions, Shaw et al. (2006) only focussed on decisions that consumers made in a bid to avoid purchasing clothes that were made in sweat shops. Similarly, when investigating ethical fashion Joergens (2006) relied on 18-26- year olds for their surveying methods, while focusing on the determinants of price, style and quality to understand awareness of ethical issues. Limiting applicability of the study. Likewise, Hill and Lee (2012) focused specifically on the ‘Y’ generation in researching awareness concern and consumer perception, using sustainability as the only criteria to assess consumer knowledge or lack of. Which also limited the applicability of their study.

Further to this, when reviewing studies of ethically minded consumer behaviour

Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher, (2016) find that when ethical research is consumer focused, it

tends to focus on environmental issues. Similarly, Vitell and Muncy (2005) determined that of

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the substantial literature existing on the topic, a large proportion focuses on the business side of buyer/seller dyad.

Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher also find that when studies do focus on consumers, they often use one or a combination of the following methods; the Machiavellianism scale, Forsyth’s Ethics Position Questionnaire, or the Consumers Ethics Scale developed by Muncy and Vitell (1992). The Machiavellianism scale was originally developed with the intention of “measuring an individual’s tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain, giving an insight into the ethical beliefs of an individual” (Sudbury-Riley & Kohlbacher, 2015 pp2696-8).

Forsyth’s (1980) Ethics Position Questionnaire (EPQ), measures an individual’s philosophy in terms of inclination toward idealism or relativism. With the Consumer Ethics Scale as developed by Muncy and Vitell (1992) and later modernised by Vitell and Muncy in 2005;

examining the extent to which consumers believe that certain questionable behaviours are ethical or unethical.

As these models previously discussed have been extensively used, and considering the factors of importance, a different model was chosen for the purpose of this research; Ajzens Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) model. An explanation of the model including its purpose and usefulness is presented in the next section.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

2.3.1 Introduction

This section aims to provide an overview of the theoretical framework chosen to be incorporated in gaining an understanding of purchase intention. Including justification and usefulness of the model, presentation of the conceptual model and development of the hypotheses.

2.3.2 Introduction and Usefulness of the Theory of Planned Behaviour

Since the Theory of Planned Behaviour model was created about 30 years ago, it has been

applied to a great variety of behavioural domains. Many across social scientific disciplines

including; charitable giving, coupon usage, fast food consumption and moral behaviour. A

great number of these studies have provided strong support for the “proposition that intentions

to perform a behaviour can be predicted from attitudes towards the behaviour, subjective

norms, and perceived behavioural control” (Ajzen, 2005 p.119). The model is now widely used

in predicting behavioural intentions. Previous studies have described the intentions and have

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concluded that intentions are the best predictors of behaviour, and fully mediate the impact of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (Maichum et al. 2016). Intention is also accepted as the best available predictor for human behaviour, which is central to the TPB model.

Advantages of the method include that it does not rely on external variables such as emotion or affect-related constructs. Which in itself, strengthens the theory. If external variables are relied upon, different kinds of variables have to be invoked for different behavioural domains, which acts as a disadvantage (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Another advantage of the method is that it is easy to understand and has been used by many researchers.

There are also limitations to the method. As the theory relies on self-administered data collection methods, behaviour itself is rarely directly observed. A risk that comes with self- administered data is the over inflation of ‘positive’ behaviours and intentions by respondents.

A further limitation is that the model assumes that humans are rational beings that make systematic judgements, and does not account for unconscious motives.

2.3.3 Justification of TPB Model

There are many models that have been introduced to study consumer behaviour and decision making as mentioned briefly at the end of section 2.1.6. One approach that a researcher can take is a cognitive approach, which ascribes observed action (behaviour) to intrapersonal cognition with environmental and social experience being acknowledged. (Ribeaux et al., 1978). A model that is suitable, and serves this purpose is the TPB model. The model is an extension of the earlier, Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) model, which was updated to due to its limitations. The TRA model was used to observe behaviours under a person’s control, whereas the updated TPB model considers volitional control as a variable. Volitional control meaning that a person must have the resources, opportunity and support available to them to be able to perform a specific behaviour (Ajzen, 1991).

The Theory of Planned Behaviour uses, attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural

control to predict ‘intention’ with relatively high accuracy (Azjen, 1991). Intentions being a

function of one of three determinants; one personal in nature, one reflecting social influence

and the other dealing with issues of control (Ajzen, 2005 p.117). These are also known as

attitude towards the behaviour, Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC), and Subjective Norms

(SN). Ajzens model, is illustrated below.

20 Hypothesis Development

Attitude

Unlike general attitude towards objects or people, attitude in this case refers to an individual’s negative or positive evaluation of performing the particular behaviour of interest. Attitude under the TPB model is determined by accessible beliefs of the respondents about the consequences of performing the behaviour, termed behavioural beliefs. Each behavioural belief linking the behaviour in question to a certain outcome. Ajzen determined that generally speaking, a person who believes that performing a given behaviour will lead to mostly positive outcomes will hold a favourable attitude toward performing the behaviour” (Ajzen, 20005 p.124). Whereas a person who believes performing a behaviour will lead to negative outcomes will hold a less favourable attitude (Ajzen, 2005 p.123).

Attitude is shown to hold a positive relationship between attitude and behavioural intention, and has a clear role in in the decision to accept a specific behaviour. Irland, (1993) determined that consumer purchasing intentions are dependent upon positive environmental attitudes.

While when exploring attitude towards Fairtrade products and purchase behaviour among Turkish consumers Kirezli and Kuşcu, (2012) found that consumer intention to buy Fairtrade products can be shaped by general Fairtrade attitude. i.e. if consumers have a positive attitude towards Fairtrade, then they are inclined to purchase these kinds of products. Similarly, Creyer and Ross (1997), found that consumers in America considered the ethical behaviour of a firm as relevant criteria in their purchase decisions, awarding such firms through patronage and willingness to pay a premium for products produced under ‘ethical circumstances’ (Creyer &

Ross, 1997). Allowing for the creation of the first hypothesis

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H1: attitude towards purchasing from ethical clothing lines is positively associated with purchase intention of ethical clothing lines

Subjective Norm

Subjective norm, refers to an individual’s perception of social pressure to perform, or not perform the behaviour in question. Similarly, to attitude, it is a belief, but refers to the belief of the individual that specific groups or individuals would approve or disapprove of the individual engaging in a behaviour. Therefore, the beliefs that underlie social norms are known as normative beliefs. Subjective norms can be measured directly through asking respondents how likely it would be that most people who are important to them would approve of them engaging in a certain behaviour (Ajzen, 2005 p.125). For many, important individuals include their families, close friends or work colleagues.

Subjective norms (SN), refer to social pressure to perform or not to perform a behaviour and are the opinion of an individual that has an influence in one’s decision making. Shaw et al., 2006, detailed how ethical concerns have become part of everyday conversation in the UK, along with findings that although ethical consumers are acting individually, they feel connected to a wider collective of concerned consumers. (Shaw et al., 2002; Ozcagar-Toulouse, 2006).

Several studies indicate that subjective norms are an important determinant of intention to purchase green products or organic food. (Paul et al., 2016; Dean et al., 2012). While Vemeir and Verbeke, (2006) find that willingness to comply with others in buying ethically might occur against consideration of personal attitudes. Further to this, even information about a stranger’s ethical behaviour can be influential (Goldstein et al., 2008). Leading to the creation of the second hypothesis

H2: subjective norms are positively associated with purchase intention of ethical clothing lines

Perceived Behavioural Control

The third determinant, perceived behavioural control (PBC), also known as control

beliefs, refers to the ability or self-efficacy to perform the behaviour under consideration. It

should be noted that perceived behavioural control does not refer to the amount of control a

person has in a given situation, but it considers the “possible effects of perceived behavioural

control on achievement of behavioural goals” (Azjen, 2005 p.118) The factor is likely to

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consider some of the realistic constraints that may exist, whereas intentions reflect an individual’s willingness to try and perform a behaviour.

The theory also assumes that PBC has motivational implications for intentions, whereby if an individual does not believe that they possess the opportunities or resources to perform a behaviour; they are unlikely to form strong intentions to engage in a behaviour. Even if the individual holds a favourable attitude towards the behaviour, and believes that important others would approve of them performing the behaviour. Ajzen also determines that perceived behavioural control may be in part related to past experience with a said behaviour. Or also influenced through second hand information concerning the behaviour, through the observed experiences of friends or acquaintances, or even through factors which increase or decrease the perceived difficulty that comes with performing the behaviour. Further to this, the more resources an individual believes they possess, and fewer obstacles they anticipate, the greater their perceived behavioural control over the behaviour should be. PBC is able to be measured through asking individuals directly if they believe that they are capable of performing the behaviour of interest. Respondents could also be asked whether they believe that performing a behaviour is completely under their own control.

One of the key antecedents in most constructs of TPB is self-efficacy or self confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour. In this case it would be that the more in control individuals feel about making purchases from ethical clothing lines, they more likely they would be to do so. Therefore, if individuals do feel self-confident in making purchases from ethical clothing lines, the individual should feel positive about their behavioural control when it comes to making purchases. When studying self-efficacy in relation to drivers of green purchase intentions, it was found to influence the consumers’ motivation and attitude, leading to green consumerism among green consumers’ (Sharma & Dayal, 2017). Likewise, when exploring self-efficacy among experienced e-shoppers, self-efficacy was determined as fundamental in the development of e-purchasing, and also found to stimulate customers to behave more efficiently (Hernandez et al. 2009).

Therefore;

H3: perceived behavioural control is positively associated with purchase intention of ethical

clothing lines

23 Conceptual Model

After reviewing the literature and taking the TPB model into consideration, the conceptual model and hypotheses were created. To understand the reasoning and how each construct effects purchases made from ethical clothing lines the conceptual model was created with the intent of being able to describe the reasoning process. With the further aim of identifying the most influential factors in the decision-making process concerning purchase intention. As demonstrated in the model, each construct of the TPB model is used as a variable. Attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control represent the independent variables and purchase intention represents the dependent variable. The conceptual model is presented below.

Further aspects of the theory include that it assumes that the “relative importance of attitude

towards the behaviour, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control depends in part on

the intention under investigation” (Azjen, 2005 p.118). For some intentions, “attitudinal

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considerations are more important than normative considerations, while for other intentions, normative considerations predominate” (Ajzen 2005 p.118). Equally, perceived behavioural control may be more important for behaviours over others. Furthermore, in some cases, only one or two of the factors may be necessary to explain the intention, whereas in others, all three could be equally important. Additionally, the relative weights of the three factors may also vary from one person to another, or it could even be the case that the weight varies from one population to another.

Nevertheless, these factors have the ability to interfere or facilitate with behavioural performance and produce a certain level of perceived behavioural control in relation to the behaviour. Ajzen states that people tend to perform a behaviour when they view it favourably, experience social pressure to do so, and when they believe that they have the opportunities and means to do so.

As a general rule, Ajzen stated “the stronger the intention to engage in a behaviour, the more likely should be its performance” (p,181, Ajzen, 1991). He also states that how much effort people are willing to exert, and how hard they at willing to try, in order to perform the behaviour also impacts performance (Ajzen 1991). It should be noted that the variables used in the TPB are hypothetical or latent and cannot be directly measured. Therefore, measurements are inferred through observable responses on a questionnaire.

As previously mentioned, behavioural intention can only be considered if the behaviour in question is “under volitional control, i.e. if the person can decide at will to perform or not to perform the behaviour” (p181-2, Ajzen, 1991). As it is entirely the consumers choice in purchasing from ethical clothing lines, the method is deemed suitable for the use of this research.

The model also recognises the importance of other variables, such as demographic characteristics; age, race, gender etc. personality traits, intelligence, and life value among others. They are considered background factors in relation to the model and are expected to influence the behaviour and intentions indirectly through their effects on behavioural, normative and control beliefs. (Ajzen, 2012).

Regarding demographic and descriptive statistics when researching general ethical

consumption; several studies have found that when it comes to ethical purchasing, older

consumers are more likely to purchase ethical products as they feel ‘more positive about the

impact of their ethical purchasing compared to younger adults’ (Carrigan et al., 2004).

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Additionally, older people ‘appear to be more positive about the price level of Fairtrade products’ as reinforced by De Pelsmacker et al. (2006). Hassan et al. (2004) suggest that there is uncertainty around ethical products with marketing and branding using various terms, which leads to confusion and uncertainty. Therefore, consumers are uncertain about information that is available when making their purchase decisions.

As this study is concentrating on the fashion industry and ethical clothing lines, it will be

interesting to see if the same relationship develops in the research as it has in others concerning

Fairtrade products or general ethical consumption.

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3. Methodology

3.1 Introduction

The key feature of the adopted methodology is the use of primary research to capture data concerning purchase intention of items from ethical clothing lines; using the theory of planned behaviour model to do so. The research instrument being a questionnaire as per the survey method, which was distributed online for participants to voluntarily choose whether or not to take part.

3.2 Approach

To conduct data analysis for this research, a positivist approach was adapted through quantitative research. In positivism studies, the role of the researcher is limited to data collection and interpretation, through an objective approach, with research findings usually being observable and quantifiable. Collins (2010) finds that “as a philosophy, positivism is in accordance with the empiricist view that knowledge stems from human experience. It has an atomistic, ontological view of the world as comprising discrete, observable elements and events that interact in an observable, determined and regular manner” (Collins, 2010 p.38). Further to this, the researcher is independent from the study and human interest is irrelevant. A positivist approach usually also adopts a deductive approach; whereby hypotheses are based on existing theory, and then a research strategy is designed to test the hypotheses (Wilson, 2010). Despite the above-mentioned advantages, a positivist approach does come with disadvantages. One being that research findings are only descriptive, therefore, lacking insight when it comes to in-depth issues.

Likewise, there are both positive and negative qualities to using a quantitative approach,

including; the advantage of data analysis being less time consuming due to the enabled use of

statistical software such as SPSS (Connolly, 2007). As well as findings which are able to be

generalised to a whole, or sub population as it typically involves a larger sample size that has

been randomly selected (Carr, 1994). However, there are also disadvantages that come with

the approach. The approach can be seen as taking a snapshot of a phenomenon; measuring

variables at a specific moment in time (Schofield, 2007). Further disadvantages include, the

assumption that facts are true and the same for all people, all of the time. As well as the method

not being totally objective as the researcher is subjectively involved in the investigation and

the interpretation of the results. Despite the stated disadvantages, the methods discussed above

are determined suitable for this research due to their positive qualities.

27 3.3 Survey Method

In research, the survey method is one of the most popularly used strategies in social research, including those of a business discipline (Babbie, 2004). Generally associated with a deductive research approach, the method allows researchers to collect a large amount of data at a low cost. Data typically being quantitative and gathered through a questionnaire as in the case of this research. Data collected can then be easily analysed and compared using several statistical techniques. The survey method is also adopted by researchers who are interested in collecting original data (Babbie, 2004).

3.4 Questionnaire

A popular tool for the survey method is the questionnaire. A questionnaire is a “data or evidence collection device that consists of a list or series of specific questions which when answered by an appropriate informant or group of informants, will help lead a researcher to a greater understanding of the research question/s and provide insight into possible answers”

(Remenyi, 2012. p.133) Questionnaires have advantages over other types of surveys due to the fact that they are cost effective, often have standardised answers, and require little effort from the researcher (Hair et al., 2003). However, questionnaires also have certain limitations. One being that they lack flexibility of response from participants. In cases where further information is required, an interview may be more appropriate (Walliman, 2011). A further limitation of a questionnaire is that it can be a difficult task to find respondents willing to complete a questionnaire for academic research purposes. Meaning that the method can become time consuming for the researcher and by no means easy (Remenyi, 2012).

Taking this into consideration, a questionnaire was the chosen data collection method for the

purpose of this research. The questionnaire was self-administered, meaning that respondents

read and recorded their own responses, independently from the researcher and without the

presence of a trained interviewer (Hair et al., 2003). The survey being self-administered also

helped to minimise any potential effects of social desirability bias. Specific details or aims of

the questionnaire were not presented to respondents before they clicked the link sent out, in

order to take part. Therefore, instructions were kept to a minimum with the following statement

being provided; ‘This questionnaire will be used in my Master’s thesis for completion at

Newcastle/Groningen University. It will take around 3-5 minutes to complete. Please answer

all questions honestly. Responses are 100% anonymous. Thank you for your time’. It is thought

that any mention or definition included covering the questionnaire topic, may have either

consciously or sub-consciously altered the respondent’s perceptions towards the responses that

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they made. As it was entirely the respondent’s choice to complete the questionnaire, and responses were recorded anonymously, the data collection method was deemed not to present any risk to participants, or pass any ethical boundaries.

3.4.1 Questionnaire Content

Regarding the content of the questionnaire, it can either be pre-made or bespoke. Pre-made questionnaires are those that have “been used before and their function validated in earlier research studies” (Remenyi, 2012 p.139). Whereas bespoke questionnaires are specifically developed by the researcher for the research at hand. One advantage of using a pre-made questionnaire is that it prevents the researcher from having to produce their own, thereby reducing the time, effort and cost involved to obtain a questionnaire that is fit for purpose (Remenyi, 2012). In the case of this research, the questionnaire is pre-made and adapted from Maichum, K., Parichatnon, S. and Peng, K. (2016), who used the questionnaire to investigate the purchase intention of Green products among Thai consumers. Questions from this particular survey that were not deemed relevant for this study were disregarded.

3.4.2 Questionnaire Distribution

Distribution of the questionnaire was done using an online method. The questionnaire being distributed through email and social media platforms. The advantage of this method being that online survey methods have become increasingly accepted, data acquisition is faster, and results are reported in real time (Hair et al., 2003). Additionally, other methods of distribution such as postal, are increasingly expensive and do not always receive the best response rate.

(Remenyi, 2012).

3.4.3 Questionnaire Format

The format of the questionnaire involved two sections. The first section was created to assess the respondent’s demographics and the second to observe the constructs from the Theory of Planned Behaviour model. The questionnaire first section included basic background questions such as income, education level, and age etc. as these are deemed relevant constructs to be measured alongside the TPB model. Overall there were 20 questions included in the questionnaire that allowed all constructs to be suitably measured through the questions asked.

Whilst at the same time, remaining a manageable task for respondents and not taking up too

much of their time. Questionnaires which are long and time consuming are more likely to have

a lower rate of response due to time constraints of participants (Nakash et al., 2006).

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Most questions used in the questionnaire prompted a closed response, allowing the process to be less time consuming. Open ended questions were also added when appropriate. However, this was only the case for 2 questions, so this will not have had a major impact on the time taken to complete the questionnaire.

To allow for the best response to be measured, a range of question styles were included in the questionnaire, including; Likert scales, closed and open-ended questions where appropriate.

Answers recorded through the questionnaire in the second section were mostly collected through the use of seven-point Likert scales, with responses varying from ‘strongly agree’ (1) to ‘strongly disagree’ (7). A Likert scale is a psychometric measure, most commonly used in survey research. Likert scales require respondents to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with presented statements Since the creation of the scale in 1932, several researchers have attempted to pinpoint the number of scale points which maximises reliability. Some researchers find seven points more suitable, where some state four, or even three (Philip and Hazlett, 1997). For the purpose of this research, a seven-point scale was used ranging from

‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’. Providing a scope for adequate differentiation among responses. The responses of such scales can be individually analysed or summed, to create a group score. The group score becoming a Likert scale that can be treated as interval data.

(Remenyi, 2012).

3.5 Measuring of the Constructs in the Questionnaire

Hypothesis 1 concerning attitude was measured using two observed variables, assessing whether or not purchasing ethical items is seen as good idea or favourable by respondents.

Hypothesis two concerning subjective norms was measured through three observed variables.

Asking respondents if they think that the people closest to them, including friends and family think that they should make purchases from ethical clothing lines. As suggested by Ajzen, the measures are in place to assess what important others think of the respondents engaging in a behaviour. In this case it is the purchasing items from ethical clothing lines.

Hypothesis three concerning Perceived Behavioural Control was measured through the

following four observed variables; the confidence level of the respondent in making purchases

of items from ethical clothing lines, whether they see themselves as capable of doing so,

whether or not they have the time, willingness and resources, and whether there are likely to

be plenty of opportunities for respondents to actually make purchases from ethical clothing

lines in future.

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Purchase Intention was measured through two observed variables asking respondents whether they planned or intended to make purchases from ethical clothing lines and whether they would consider switching to ethical clothing lines in future. The measures used in the questionnaire have been adapted from Maichum et al., (2016) and incorporated elements from the TPB model.

3.6 Sampling Method

A sampling method refers to the technique or procedure that a researcher adopts in order to collect samples for their study (Kothari, 2004). An optimum sample being one that fulfils the following criteria of; efficiency, representativeness, flexibility and reliability (Dhawan, 2010).

There are two basic sampling techniques of non-probability sampling and probability sampling.

An overview of the two techniques is presented below.

(Kothari, 2004)

As this study focuses specifically on UK consumers, non-probability – ‘non-random’ sampling was the chosen method of data collection. Whereby, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; in this case, consumers that resided in the UK. “Under non- probability sampling the organisers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they so select out of a huge one will be typical or representative of the whole” (Dhawan, 2010 p. 76).

However, with this method, the danger of bias increases. The researcher may select a sample that yields results favourable to his point of view, which may lead to the enquiry being vitiated.

(Dhawan, 2010). In the case of this research, the country was the main criteria for selection,

with the questionnaire collecting the responses of anyone who resided in the UK, and not just

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those who would propose the best results. Therefore, bias in this case is not seen as increased.

There are also several advantages to a non-probability sampling method. The main two being time and money; as the method is relatively quick and carried out at a low cost.

3.7 Analysis of the Data

Data collected will be analysed through the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software, with structural equation modelling (SEM) being carried out through the Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) program. Allowing for the proposed hypotheses to be analysed and conclusions drawn. To test reliability and validity of the data, Cronbach’s α coefficient will be adopted to test the reliability of the measurement items. Along with Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) in AMOS to test the adequacy of measurement for confirming reliability and validity. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) will also be carried out in AMOS to test the hypothesised relationship among constructs.

3.7.1 Statistical Analysis

This subsection discusses the use of statistical techniques to analyse the data collected. The first section explains descriptive statistics, followed by the discussion of statistical analysis in the second. The statistical analysis techniques that will be discussed in section two are, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). SEM and CFA will be carried out through the use of the AMOS 25 program. As per the suggestion of Anderson and Gerbing (1988), SEM analysis should be done in two stages. The first being construct validity through confirmatory factor analysis. The second being the estimation of the conceptual model for analysis regarding the hypotheses. Descriptive statistics will be assessed using the functions of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

3.7.2 Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics refer to the techniques used to gather information that is based on the

description of data from a population. Including calculations of “figures and parameters as well

as the generation of graphics and tables” (Cleff, 2014 p.3) being some of the methods or

techniques used. Descriptive statistics can be categorised into different groups. One group

dealing with the central tendency of a variable, often represented by the mean, median or mode

(Mazzocchi, 2008 p.78). The mean is essentially a model of the data, calculated by a sum of

values in a data set, that is then divided by the number of values. Another group of descriptive

statistics represents dispersion; which can be estimated using variation, for standard deviation