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“The!influence!of!beer!on!problem1solving!consumer!behavior”!
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By!
Merijn!de!Vos!
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June!25!2015!
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Amount!of!words:!6571
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“The!influence!of!beer!on!problem1solving!consumer!behavior”!
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By!
Merijn!de!Vos!
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University!of!Groningen(!
Faculty!of!Economics!and!Business!
Master!Thesis!
Marketing!
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June!25!2015!
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Wassenberghstraat!36!B!
9718!LM!Groningen!
+31!620!595!368!
m.d.de.vos@student.rug.nl!
Student!number!S2587831!
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First!supervisor:!Prof.!dr.!B.M.!Fennis!
Second!supervisor:!dr.!D.!Trampe
ABSTRACT%
Problem!solving!is!an!important!factor!of!consumer!behavior.!For!firms!it!is!interesting!to!
know! how! consumer! behavior! can! be! influenced.! One! of! these! factors! that! influences!
problem1solving!ability!is!alcohol.!This!research!extends!existing!literature!on!the!effect!of!
alcohol!on!consumer!behavior,!and!focuses!on!the!influence!of!beer!consumption!and!beer!
priming!on!the!problem1solving!ability.!!
A! 2! (beer! dosage:! high! vs.! low)! x! 2! (priming! stimulus:! beer! consumption! vs.! neutral!
consumption)! between! groups! experiment! was! conducted! among! one! hundred! sporting!
respondents! in! a! sports! canteen.! The! study! consisted! of! a! problem1solving! questionnaire!
where!respondents!were!presented!with!a!moderate!math!task!and!the!need!for!cognition!
scale.! The! questionnaire! provides! insights! into! the! effects! of! beer! consumption! and! beer!
priming!on!problem!solving.!
Hypotheses!are!made!that!beer!will!decrease!the!problem1solving!ability!of!consumers.!In!
line! with! the! hypotheses! the! results! identify! that! beer! consumption! lowers! the! problem1 solving! ability! of! respondents.! Beer! priming! provides! consumers! with! a! faster! decision1 making! process.! The! interaction! effect! of! beer! consumption! and! priming! enhances! faster!
decision1making.!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT' 3!
1.'INTRODUCTION' 5!
2.'THEORETICAL'FRAMEWORK' 7!
PROBLEM'SOLVING' 7!
ALCOHOL'AND'BEER'CONSUMPTION' 8!
BEER'PRIMING' 9!
3.'RESEARCH'DESIGN' 11!
PARTICIPANTS'AND'DESIGN' 11!
PROCEDURE' 11!
INDEPENDENT'VARIABLE(S)' 12!
DEPENDENT'VARIABLE' 13!
CONTROL'VARIABLES' 14!
PLAN'OF'ANALYSIS' 14!
4.'RESULTS' 15!
PROBLEM'SOLVING'AND'AMOUNT'OF'RIGHT'ANSWERS' 15!
PROBLEM'SOLVING'AS'TIME' 15!
ANCOVA' 16!
5.'CONCLUSION' 18!
IMPLEMENTATIONS' 19!
6.'LIMITATIONS'AND'FUTURE'RESEARCH' 21!
REFERENCES' 23!
APPENDICES' 27!
APPENDIX'1'STUDY'WITH'NEUTRAL'PRIMING'CONDITION' 27! APPENDIX'2'STUDY'WITH'BEER'PRIMING'CONDITION' 33!
APPENDIX'3'RIGHT'ANSWERS'ON'MATH'TEST' 39!
1.%INTRODUCTION%
One! of! the! hardest! tasks! of! marketeers! is! to! influence! consumers.! Consumers! find!
competitive! products! all! over! the! world,! which! increases! the! critical! view! that! consumers!
have!nowadays.!Because!of!the!economic!downturn!consumers!have!to!make!multiple!vital!
decisions,!which!can!occur!as!a!problem.!Behavior!of!consumers!is!a!fundamental!aspect!of!
consumer!research!in!marketing.!Consumer!behavior!is!very!dynamic!and!hard!to!predict,!
and! there! is! an! ongoing! mission! to! identify! it! (Abbasi! &! Torkamani,! 2010).! !For! many!
consumers,! life! is! an! accumulation! of! daily! irritations! and! stressful! happenings.! These!
irritations! and! happenings! can! affect! one’s! physical! and! psychological! wellbeing,! both!
positively!and!negatively!(Houston,!1987).!To!deal!with!stressful!events,!people!can!rely!on!
their!problem1solving!skills!(Heppner!&!Baker,!1997).!!
Consumer! behavior! is! an! extensively! studied! topic! in! the! field! of! consumer! psychology.!
Problem! solving! is! however! not! described! extensively.! Studies! on! problem! solving! mainly!
focus!on!the!effects!of!problem!solving,!how!problems!solving!occurs!as!a!process,!problem!
solving!as!a!stress!therapy,!and!the!problem1solving!inventory!(Basok,!1990;!Bell!&!D'Zurilla,!
2009;!Soliman,!2014;!Tian,!Heppner,!&!Hou,!2014).!It!is!encouraged!to!conduct!a!study!in!
this! field.! Problem! solving! needs! to! be! controlled! for! an! external! consumer1influencing!
variable.! An! important! external! influence! is! everyday! drugs,! which! are! defined! as! alcohol,!
caffeine!or!drugs.!As!two!billion!people!worldwide!consume!alcohol,!with!yearly!five!liters!of!
pure!alcohol!on!average!(World!Health!Organization,!2004),!alcohol!is!an!important!external!
influence!that!affects!the!problem1solving!ability!of!consumers.!Everyday!drugs!are!able!to!
affect!the!behavior,!thoughts,!and!emotions!of!individuals!(Holt!&!Treloar,!2008).!!
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A!valid!assumption!that!can!be!made!is!that!the!usage!of!these!drugs!can!influence!problem1 solving!ability!of!consumers.!According!to!Van!Koningsbruggen!and!Stroebe!(2011)!alcohol!
consumption! impairs! cognitive! and! motor! importance! where! it! lowers! inhibitions.! It! is!
extensively!believed!that!alcohol!increases!impulsive!behavior!(Reynolds,!Richards,!&!de!Wit,!
2006).!Impulsive!behavior!can!affect!the!problem!solving!process!and!the!amount!of!time!
consumer’s! use! for! their! decisions.! Current! literature! extensively! studied! the! impact! of!
everyday! drugs! on! cognitive! abilities.! However,! a! study! on! the! potential! effects! of! beer!
consumption!on!the!problem!solving!ability!of!consumers!does!not!exist.!!
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This!study!presents!a!new!point!of!view!that!explains!how!problem!solving!is!influenced!by!
the! consumption! of! beer.! Besides! actual! beer! consumption,! beer! priming! can! influence!
problem1solving!behavior!as!well.!As!has!been!demonstrated!by!Fennis!and!Stroebe!(2010),!
activating! a! concept! in! consumer! memory! could! affect! the! behavior! of! the! consumer!
without!the!consumer!being!aware.!Therefore!consumer!behavior!will!be!influenced!by!the!
expected! effects! that! people! believe! alcohol! has.! Current! literature! does! not! provide! full!
evidence!that!expected!effects!of!beer,!influence!problem1solving!ability.!!
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The! current! study! will! therefore! test! the! effect! of! beer! consumption! and! beer! priming! on!
problem1solving!ability.!It!also!studies!the!moderating!role!of!primed!beer!consumption!on!
the!relationship!between!beer!consumption!on!problem1solving!ability.!
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To!provide!some!insights!in!this!theme,!this!paper!is!organized!as!following.!The!paper!starts!
with! a! literature! review,! where! the! existing! literature! is! discussed! in! more! detail! and! the!
hypotheses!are!formed!based!on!this!literature.!Subsequently,!a!methodology!part!follows!
and!describes!how!the!research!has!been!conducted,!which!includes!a!method!and!research!
design!section.!Finally,!the!results!will!be!discussed,!conclusions!will!be!drawn,!implications!
will!be!given,!and!limitations!will!be!discussed.!!
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2.%THEORETICAL%FRAMEWORK%
Problem%solving%
Consumer!behavior!is!a!broad!applicable!term,!which!includes!different!elements.!Problem!
solving!can!be!seen!as!one!important!element.!Problem!solving%is!relevant!to!a!wide!range!of!
working! fields,! and! can! be! applied! in! multiple! environments! (Heppner! &! Baker,! 1997).!
Therefore! problem1solving! can! be! seen! as! one! of! the! most! important! cognitive! processes!
(Wang! &! Chiew,! 2010).! Problem! solving! is! seen! as! an! individual’s! capability! to! undertake!
everyday!difficulties,!by!choosing!effective!and!adaptive!strategies!(D’Zurilla!&!Nezu,!1999).!
To!reduce!life!difficulties!people!use!problem!solving,!which!increases!positive!functioning,!
and!is!estimated!to!diminish!negative!impact!on!people’s!wellbeing!(D'Zurilla!&!Nezu,!2007).!!
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Problem! solving! indicates! how! people! deal! with! stresses! and! what! the! impact! will! be! on!
their! lives! (Folkman! &! Moskowitz,! 2004).! One! of! the! most! intensely! studied! topics! in!
psychology! is! how! people! manage! stressful! life! events! (Somerfield! &! McCrae,! 2000).! The!
application! of! problem! solving! matters! to! people’s! lives! (Tian,! Heppner,! &! Hou,! 2014).!
Because!problem!solving!is!a!highly!complex,!goal1directed!structure!of!cognitive,!affective,!
and!behavioral!actions!to!adopt!challenges!(Heppner!&!Krauskopf,!1987),!most!research!has!
been! done! in! laboratory.! Therefore! less! is! known! about! problem! solving! in! real! life!
situations.! According! to! the! laboratory! study! of! Durlak! (1983),! effective! problem! solvers!
should! be! adaptable,! flexible,! and! able! to! foster! fitting! problem1solving! methods! to! reach!
personal! goals.! One! of! the! extents! of! problem1solving! focuses! on! consumer! behavior.!
Because! consumers! deal! with! problems! on! a! daily! basis,! it! is! evidential! to! show! how! the!
problem1solving!ability!of!those!consumers!can!be!influenced.!!
According! to! Heppner! (2008),! problem1solving! confidence,! approach1avoidance! style,! and!
personal! control! are! important! factors! of! the! consumer! behavior! process! and! can! be!
influenced!in!order!to!change!the!decision1making!process!of!consumers.!The!main!problem1 solving! goals! of! consumers! are! adopting! a! positive! problem! orientation,! and! facilitating! a!
problem1solving! style! that! can! be! acquired! and! is! rationally! applicable! (D'Zurilla! &! Nezu,!
2007).!Consumers!can!be!influenced!by!multiple!factors!regarding!to!their!problem1solving!
style.!When!consumers!are!influenced!in!the!problem1solving!process,!they!will!make!more!
emotional!decisions!instead!of!rational!decisions.!It!can!be!beneficial!for!companies!to!know!
how! to! influence! the! cognitive! route.!Van! Koningsbruggen! and! Stroebe! (2011)! tested! the!
route! of! cognitive! performance! with! the! use! of! a! moderate! mathematics! task.! This! task!
makes!it!possible!to!explore!the!problem1solving!ability!of!individuals.!It!can!be!used!to!see!
the!difference!between!the!problem!solving!ability!of!different!groups.!
Besides!the!effect!of!external!influencing!factors,!the!internal!personal!factors!contribute!to!
the!ability!of!people!to!solve!problems!as!well.!Butler!and!Meichenbaum!(1981)!concluded!
that! an! individual’s! assessment! of! problem1solving! skills! could! affect! the! problem1solving!
performance!and!where!and!how!a!person!solves!certain!stressful!situations.!The!need!for!
cognition! scale! of! Cacioppo! and! Petty! (1982)! agrees! with! this! view! and! shows! how!
respondents!individually!are!focused!on!the!need!to!solve!problems!within!life.!The!scale!is!
able!to!confirm!whether!the!individual!problem1solving!skills!can!affect!the!problem1solving!
performance.!People!that!like!solving!problems!and!are!willing!to!contribute!sufficient!time!
and!energy!to!solving!problems!are!accepted!to!solve!problems!better.!Therefore!it!is!critical!
to!find!how!respondents!are!individually!focused!on!the!need!to!solve!problems.!!
Alcohol%and%Beer%consumption%
One! factor! that! can! influence! problem! solving! is! alcohol! consumption.! “Theoretically,!
alcohol!consumption!should!increase!aggression,!subsequent!alcohol!consumption,!specific!
physical! sensations,! positive! mood,! locus! of! control,! and! external! attention! focus;! alcohol!
consumption!suppresses!motor!performance,!information!processing,!certain!physiological!
responses,!and!sexual!arousal”!(Hull!&!Bond,!1986:!349).!Fromme!et!al.!(1993)!found!that!
alcohol! consumption! can! result! in! a! diversity! of! behavioral! and! emotional! changes,! and!
changes! the! way! of! thinking.! According! to! Ouspensky! (1971)! decreases! alcohol! self1 awareness!and!self1consciousness.Although!the!motives!of!alcohol!consumption!are!studied!
extensively,!there!has!been!done!less!research!regarding!the!effects!of!alcohol!on!problem!
solving.!This!study!will!focus!exclusively!on!the!effect!of!beer!on!problem!solving.!
Research!on!alcohol!effects!showed!that!alcohol!disturbs!performance!in!various!activities.!
Behavior!is!influenced!by!alcohol!through!the!effect!of!cognitive!processing!(Fromme,!Katz,!
&!D'Amico,!1997).!!Alcohol!lets!people!act!in!a!certain!behavior,!which!they!would!not!have!
done! without! alcohol! consumption! (Nathan,! Marlatt,! &! Loberg,! 1978).! This! might! cause!
overstressed! and! out1of1character! behavior.! According! to! Curtin! et! al.! (2001)! people’s!
thoughts! are! affected! through! alcohol! by! decreasing! the! cognitive1processing! capacity.!
Dougherty! et! al.! (2000)! found! that! the! consumption! of! alcohol! increases! impulsivity! and!
decreases! attention.! This! all! confirms! that! alcohol! will! affect! consumer! behavior,! and! will!
decrease!the!ability!of!consumers!to!solve!problems!when!they!have!consumed!alcohol.!!
Alcohol!can!reduce!the!level!of!stress!since!alcohol!can!reduce!the!anxiety!of!an!individual.!It!
increases!the!level!of!distraction!and!makes!the!person!less!aware!of!the!stress!factor,!which!
weakens!control!processes!(Hull,!1981;!Rose!&!Duka,!2007).!Rose!and!Duka!(2007)!provide!
evidence!that!a!moderate!dose!of!alcohol!weakens!the!inhibition!of!simple!responses,!which!
results!in!inaccurate!responses.!Alcohol!decreases!the!ability!to!filter!irrelevant!information,!
which!weakens!the!ability!of!solving!problems!(Saults!et!al.,!2007).!Jarosz!et!al.!(2012)!found!
that!alcohol!leads!to!less!focus!and!high!distractibility,!which!negatively!influences!problem!
solving.!The!consumption!of!alcohol!results!in!a!greater!likelihood!of!making!bad!decisions!
(George,!Rogers,!&!Duka,!2005).!This!shows!that!alcohol!consumption!leads!to!a!decrease!in!
control!processes.!These!processes!are!used!in!problem!solving!processes,!which!may!lead!
to!inaccurate!responses!and!making!mistakes!in!the!problem1solving!ability!of!consumers.!
From! multiple! studies! it! can! be! seen! that! alcohol! has! a! significant! effect! on! the! cognitive!
ability! to! solve! problems! and! the! ability! to! make! decisions.!Present! research! shows! that!
alcohol!decreases!self1awareness,!lets!people!act!in!out!of!character!behavior,!decreases!the!
cognitive!motor!functions,!increases!impulsivity,!reduces!the!level!of!stress,!and!leads!to!less!
focus.!This!all!shows!that!the!ability!to!solve!problems!will!decrease!when!people!consume!
alcohol.!However,!there!is!no!research!focusing!on!the!effect!of!beer.!To!contribute!to!this!
field,!the!ability!of!problem!solving!is!studied!after!the!consumption!of!beer!in!hypothesis!1.!!
Hypothesis(1.(A(higher(dosage(of(beer(decreases(the(ability(of(consumers(to(solve(problems.(
Beer%priming%%
Both! the! consumption! of! alcohol! and! expectancy! of! alcohol! consumption! have! significant!
effects!on!consumer!behavior!(Vogel1Sprott!&!Fillmore,!1999).!The!expectancies!of!alcohol1 related!outcomes!have!additional!contributions!to!alcohol!effects!(Caswell,!Morgan,!&!Duka,!
2013).! Caswell,! Morgan! and! Duka! (2013)! suggest! that! the! effect! of! alcohol! on! decision1 making!is!not!due!to!the!use!of!alcohol!but!due!to!the!expectancies!of!alcohol!consumption.!
Priming!consumers!with!alcohol!consumption!may!activate!alcohol!related!thoughts.!Priming!
provides!the!existence!of!thoughts!within!consumer’s!minds!(Baddeley,!1997).!The!primed!
concept!exerts!unintended!influence!on!consumer’s!response,!without!the!consumer!being!
aware!of!this!influence!(Bargh!&!Chartrand,!2000).!Fennis!and!Stroebe!(2010)!found!that!the!
activation! of! a! concept! in! a! consumer’s! mind! affects! their! behavior.! Priming! a! stereotype!
affects! the! outcomes! in! line! with! those! associated! stereotypes;! they! decrease! or! increase!
the!performance!(Dijksterhuis!&!van!Knippenberg,!1998).!!
Effects!of!alcohol!on!consumer!behavior!indicate!that!consumers!hold!several!expectancies!
about!alcohol!effects!on!cognitive!functioning!and!social!behavior!(Fillmore!&!Vogel1Sprott,!
1995).! Exposure! to! alcohol! related! cues! or! words,! activates! expectations! related! to! the!
outcomes!of!alcohol!consumption,!which!leads!to!behavioral!decisions!that!are!expectancy1 consistent! with! alcohol! consumption! (Friedman,! et! al.,! 2007).! It! follows! that! people! can!
show! alcohol! related! behavior! without! actual! consumption.! When! consumers! are! primed!
with!beer,!they!will!activate!the!associated!stereotype!and!behave!in!the!way!they!expect!
they!would!do!when!they!consume!alcohol.!It!is!expected!that!priming!is!a!good!reflection!of!
the! consumption! itself! and! affect! the! problem1solving! ability.! Priming! provides! valuable!
information! about! the! possible! effects! of! alcohol! resulting! in! changes! in! problem! solving!
behavior!in!the!second!hypotheses.!!
Hypothesis(2.(When(consumers(are(primed(with(beer,(they(are(expected(to(have(decreasing(
problem@solving(ability.(
The!main!concern!of!this!research!is!whether!there!is!a!distinction!in!the!problem1solving!
ability!of!consumers!influenced!by!beer!compared!to!people!that!are!not!influenced!by!beer.!
Main!effects!are!tested!through!beer!consumption!and!beer!priming.!It!is!expected!that!the!
consumption! and! priming! of! beer! provide! consumers! with! more! difficulties! in! problem!
solving.!The!moderating!role!of!beer!priming!on!beer!consumption!in!relation!with!problem!
solving!has!not!been!tested!before.!The!interaction!effect!shows!the!effect!of!beer!dosage!
and! priming! on! the! ability! of! problem! solving.! It! shows! whether! the! effect! on! problem!
solving! of! beer! consumption! depends! on! the! effect! of! beer! priming.! Van! Koningsbruggen!
and!Strobe!(2011)!showed!that!alcohol!consumption!weakens!cognitive!performance.!And!
exposure! to! alcohol! related! cues! activates! alcohol! consumption! outcomes,! which! leads! to!
behavior! that! is! consistent! with! alcohol! consumption! (Friedman,! et! al.,! 2007).! Goldman!
(1999)!found!that!more!recent!experiences!with!a!topic!facilitate!activation!of!accompanying!
associations.! When! associations! are! based! on! recent! experiences! individuals! that! recently!
consumed!beer!will!be!affected!more!by!the!beer!prime.!Therefore!it!is!expected!that!both!
the! effect! of! beer! priming! and! the! dosage! of! beer! will! decrease! the! ability! of! problem!
solving,!which!leads!to!the!third!hypothesis.!
Hypothesis(3.(The(decreasing(ability(of(consumers(to(solve(problems(after(a(higher(dosage(of(
beer(will(be(even(stronger(when(priming(with(beer(consumption.(
3.%RESEARCH%DESIGN%%
In!this!section,!the!research!design!is!discussed.!An!experimental,!factorial!design!measures!
the! effect! of! beer! priming! and! beer! consumption! on! problem! solving.! The! effect! of! beer!
consumption!is!moderated!by!the!prime!of!beer!dosage!on!problem!solving,!which!provides!
an!interaction!effect.!In!this!section,!the!participants!and!the!research!design!are!defined,!
followed!by!an!explanation!of!the!research!procedure.!In!addition,!the!measurement!scales!
are! described,! including! the! problem1solving! ability,! need! for! cognition! scale! and! alcohol!
dosage.!At!last,!the!plan!of!analysis!is!elaborated.!!
Participants%and%Design%
One! hundred! sport! participants! aged! between! seventeen! and! seventy1two! (53! men,! 47!
women;! Mage! =! 41.42! years,! SD( =! 14.639),! recruited! at! the! canteen! of! L.T.C.! Zierikzee,!
participated! voluntarily! in! a! two1week! experiment! on! consecutive! Thursday! and! Friday!
evenings!and!Saturday!and!Sunday!afternoons.!The!respondents!are!part!of!sport!teams!that!
participate!in!an!organized!competition.!All!participants!are!native!to!The!Netherlands!and!
have!an!average!alcoholic!consumption!of!9.19!glasses!per!week.!!!
The!study!used!a!2!(beer!dosage:!low!vs.!high)!x!2!(primed!stimulus:!beer!consumption!vs.!
neutral)! between! subjects! design.! Respondents! were! randomly! selected! and! assigned! to!
four! conditions! to! overcome! pre1existing! differences! between! participants.! Respondents!
participated!in!only!one!condition.!Participants!were!tested!individually!in!a!15!to!40!minute!
lasting! experiment,! in! which! they! worked! through! two! paper1and1pencil1type! tests! (Dutch!
math!tasks!and!need!for!cognition!scale)!and!seven!control!questions!(gender,!age,!amount!
of! alcohol! consumption,! average! alcohol! intake! per! week,! impact! of! alcohol,! need! for!
alcohol,!type!of!alcohol).!
Procedure%
An! examiner! provided! athletes! individually! with! a! questionnaire! in! the! sports! canteen.!
Participants! were! told! that! the! research! studied! language! and! reasoning! skills! of! sports!
participants.! Two! different! groups! were! approached,! high! and! low! beer! dosage! groups.! It!
can! be! assumed! that! sport! athletes! do! not! drink! before! a! sport! activity;! participants!
approached!before!the!training!or!game!are!marked!as!low!dosage!and!did!not!consume!any!
beer.! Participants! approached! after! the! training! or! game! are! marked! as! high! dosage! and!
consumed!on!average!2.5!glasses!of!beer.!!
Both!groups!were!randomly!divided!into!two!other!subgroups!where!they!received!a!priming!
task.!Two!different!questionnaires!(Appendix!1!and!2)!were!provided!in!order!to!specify!four!
different! conditions.! At! the! beginning! of! the! test! no! distinctions! about! the! priming! or! the!
control!questions!were!mentioned!to!avoid!unintentional!priming.!The!prime!stated!three!fill!
in!questions.!The!beer!prime!focused!on!describing!a!situation!where!the!participant!drank!
several!beers,!what!happened,!and!what!the!thoughts!and!feelings!where.!The!neutral!prime!
focused!on!describing!a!situation!where!the!participant!took!the!bus,!what!happened,!and!
what!the!thoughts!and!feelings!where.!(
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Thereafter,! the! participants! filled! in! a! moderate! math! test! to! provide! insights! in! the!
cognitive!ability!in!the!sense!of!problem!solving!(van!Koningsbruggen!&!Stroebe,!2011).!The!
math! test! consists! of! 13! different! multiple1choice! questions,! where! participants! had! to!
choose!one!of!the!three!or!four!stated!answers!(Taal!en!Rekenen,!2014).!The!task!provides!
day1to1day! problems! that! need! to! be! solved! in! an! application1oriented! mathematical!
approach.!Questions!are!similar!to!the!following!example:!“You!have!a!private!account!at!a!
bank!with!the!possibility!of!an!overdraft!of!€!1000.!You!have!€!198!deficit!on!this!account.!
What!is!the!amount!of!money!you!maximally!can!withdrawal?”!Only!one!answer!was!correct!
for!every!math!problem!(Appendix!3).!The!math!test!was!timed!by!the!examiner,!and!lasted!
17.36!minutes!on!average.!No!time!limit!was!mentioned,!hence,!Teresa!et!al.!(2002)!found!
that!time!pressure!negatively!predicts!cognitive!processing.!!
!
Followed!by!the!need!for!cognition!scale!(Cacioppo!&!Petty,!1982).!Participants!could!show!
their!need!to!solve!problems!within!life,!which!was!measured!by!18!questions!that!used!the!
51point! Likert! scale! (1=! no! reflection! of! the! participant,! 5=! accurate! reflection! of! the!
participant).!!
To!conclude,!the!examiner!provided!control!questions!about!the!individual!respondent!and!
alcohol! consumption! (Appendix! 1! and! 2).! Four! questions! provide! information! about! beer!
consumption! of! that! specific! day.! One! question! asks! participants! to! note! weekly! alcohol!
consumption.!The!participant’s!need!for!beer!was!measured!on!a!71point!Likert!scale!(1=!not!
at!all;!7=!desperately!need!a!beer).!!Alcohol!consumption!impact!expectancy!was!measured!
on!a!91point!scale!(1=!a!lot!worse,!5=!no!influence,!9=!a!lot!better).!At!the!end!gender!and!
age!of!the!respondents!were!noted.!The!nature!of!the!experiment!was!not!communicated!
after! all.! Participants! had! the! opportunity! to! fill! in! personal! contact! information! to! be!
debriefed.!All!sessions!were!coded.!!
Independent%Variable(s)%
Beer(dosage.!The!consumption!of!beer!has!a!significant!effect!on!the!cognitive!ability!and!
the! ability! to! make! decisions.! According! to! Curtin! et! al.! (2001)! alcohol! will! affect! people’s!
thoughts!by!decreasing!the!cognitive1processing!capacity.!A!distinction!is!made!on!people!in!
a!low!that!were!approached!before!the!sports!activity,!and!high!beer!condition!that!were!
approached! 30! to! 120! minutes! after! the! sports! activity! to! ensure! that! they! had! the!
possibility!to!consume!multiple!beers.!Actual!beer!consumption!was!controlled!at!the!end!of!
the!experiment!by!asking!the!participants!to!fill!in!questions!about!beer!consumption. ! (
Priming(stimulus.!The!priming!conditions!cause!people!to!behave!in!a!certain!way,!where!the!
expectancy!of!alcohol!consumption!does!have!significant!effect!on!behavior!(Vogel1Sprott!&!
Fillmore,! 1999).! This! distinguished! beer! primed! respondents! from! neutrally! primed!
respondents.! People! start! behaving! in! line! with! the! concept,! without! being! aware! of! it.!
Semantic!priming!is!the!most!appropriate!form!of!beer!priming!to!allow!consumers!to!think!
of! certain! thoughts! after! being! presented! with! the! prime! stimulus! (Kramer! &! Goldman,!
2003).! Priming! may! stimulate! the! effect! of! beer! dosage! on! problem! solving.! In! order! to!
prime! participants! with! the! consumption! of! beer,! respondents! filled! in! a! task! at! the!
beginning! of! the! test.! One! prime! focuses! on! beer! consumption,! where! the! other! prime! is!
neutral!and!focused!on!taking!the!bus.!Each!prime!was!used!for!50!respondents.!!
Dependent%variable%%
Problem@solving.!Problem!solving!is!seen!as!an!individual’s!capability!to!undertake!everyday!
dilemmas,! by! choosing! effective! and! adaptive! strategies! (D’Zurilla! &! &! Nezu,! 1999).! Van!
Koningsbruggen! and! Stroebe! (2011)! found! that! alcohol! could! influence! cognitive!
performance,!as!problem1solving!ability.!They!tested!cognitive!performance!with!the!use!of!
a!moderate!math!task.!In!this!study!the!moderate!math!test!“Rekentest!referentieniveau”!
was! used,! which! is! described! as! average! citizenship! level! of! mathematics! to! participate! in!
society.! The! test! consists! of! 13! multiple! choice! math! questions,! written! in! Dutch! and! is! a!
validated!test!for!measuring!problem1solving!ability!(Taal!en!Reken!bureau,!2014).!To!test!
the! problem1solving! ability! of! the! respondents,! both! time! and! amount! of! right! answers! is!
used.! ! The! more! correct! answers,! the! more! a! respondents! is! able! to! solve! problems.! The!
time!spent!on!the!test!shows!that!when!people!make!faster!decisions,!they!tend!to!use!the!
affective!processing!system!instead!of!the!cognitive!processing!system!(Saunders!&!Buehner,!
2013).! For! successful! problem! solving,! consumers! tend! to! rely! more! on! the! cognitive!
processing!system!in!order!to!make!the!optimal!decision.!However,!when!not!significant!it!
appears!that!when!consumers!take!more!time,!they!tend!to!solve!their!problems!better!(r=!
.120,!p=!.223).!When!respondents!take!more!time!they!make!fewer!mistakes.!Therefore!it!
can!be!expected!that!faster!decisions!lead!to!negative!problem!solving!effects.!
Control%variables%
The! need! for! cognition! scale! is! an! effective! measurement! of! an! individual’s! propensity! to!
follow!and!enjoy!the!process!of!thinking!(Cacioppo!&!Petty,!1982).!It!is!conducted!to!show!
how!people!see!themselves!as!problem1solving!consumers!and!are!focused!on!the!need!to!
solve!problems!within!life.!This!was!measured!by!18!questions,!using!a!five!point!Likert!scale!
(Cacioppo!&!Petty,!1982).!A!chronbach’s!alpha!is!conducted!to!measure!internal!consistency.!
The! average! score! of! 18! questions! provides! a! clear! insight! in! how! people! are! focused! on!
solving! problems.! The! reliability! analysis! on! those! 18! questions! showed! that! they! had!!=!
0.772.!The!18!questions!measure!the!same!construct!and!it!is!possible!to!proceed!with!all!
dimensions! together.! The! Dutch! version! of! this! test! was! used,! which! was! provided! by!
Pieters,!Verplanken,!and!Modde!(1987).!
Control! variables,! gender,! age! and! alcohol! behavior! (beer! consumption! that! day,! last!
moment!of!beer!consumption,!glass!size,!type!of!alcohol,!alcohol!intake!per!week,!need!for!
alcohol,!expected!behavior!after!beer)!was!administered!at!the!end!of!the!experiment.!!
Plan%of%analysis%
All!one!hundred!participants!within!the!four!conditions!are!part!of!the!analysis.!Descriptive!
statistics!are!used!to!summarize!group!differences!based!on!age,!gender,!beer!consumption!
and! usual! alcoholic! behavior.! To! show! the! main! effects! and! the! interaction! effect! of! beer!
consumption!and!beer!priming!on!problem!solving!a!Two1Way!ANOVA!is!conducted.!To!test!
the! hypothesis! a! significance! level! of! 0.10! is! used.! To! determine! whether! there! are! any!
significant! differences,! ANCOVA! tests! are! performed! to! regulate! for! the! control! variables.!
After!the!ANCOVA!test,!correlation!tests!are!used!to!show!what!the!relation!is!between!the!
control!variable!and!the!problem1solving!ability!of!the!respondent.!!
4.%RESULTS%
To! test! the! hypothesis! that! ‘high’! beer! dosage! and! beer! priming! stimuli! contribute! to! a!
decrease! of! the! ability! of! consumers! to! solve! problems,! a! two! way! ANOVA! is! conducted.!
Results! were! analyzed! using! a! 2! (beer! dosage:! low! vs.! high)! x! 2! (primed! stimulus:! beer!
consumption! vs.! neutral)! ANOVA,! to! measure! the! influence! of! beer! on! problem1solving!
ability.! The! analysis! shows! that! there! is! a! significant! difference! in! the! amount! of! beer!
consumed! in! the! high! dosage! condition! and! the! low! dosage! condition!(F! (1,! 98)!=!89.607,!
p!=!.000).! Respondents! in! the! high! dosage! group! consumed! significantly! more! beer!
(M!=!2.50,!SD!=!1.82)!than!respondents!in!the!low!dosage!group!(M!=!0.00).!!
Problem%solving%and%amount%of%right%answers%%
The! results! show! a! significant! main! effect! of! beer! consumption! dosage! (F! (1,! 96)!=!7.48,!
p!=!.007).!High!dosage!(M!=!8.74,!SD!=!2.59)!resulted!in!fewer!right!answers!on!the!math!test!
than!respondents!in!the!low!dosage!group!(M!=!10.06,!SD!=!2.23).!The!main!effect!of!beer!
priming! was! not! significant! (F! (1,! 96)!=!.83,! p!=!.365).! There! is! no! significant! difference!
between!respondents!primed!with!beer!(M(=!9.62,!SD!=!2.18)!and!respondents!primed!with!
the! bus! story! (M!=!9.18,! SD!=!2.57).! The! analysis! did! not! produce! a! significant! interaction!
effect!between!beer!dosage!and!beer!priming!(F!(1,!96)!=!1.35,!p!=!.249).!
Problem%solving%as%time%
The! results! show! a! significant! main! effect! of! beer! consumption! dosage! (F! (1,! 96)!=!3.03,!
p!=!.085)!on!the!amount!of!used!time.!Respondents!with!high!dosage!(M!=!16.60!minutes,!
SD!=!4.33)! provide! faster! task! completion! than! respondents! with! low! dosage! (M!=!18.12!
minutes,!SD!=!4.70).!Results!show!a!significant!main!effect!of!priming!the!respondent!with!
beer,!regarding!to!the!amount!of!used!time!(F!(1,!96)!=!5.89,!p!=!.017).!Respondents!primed!
with! beer! (M!=!16.30! minutes,! SD!=!4.78)! provided! faster! completion! than! respondents!
primed!with!the!bus!story!(M!=!18.42!minutes,!SD!=!4.11).!!
Of!particular!interest!was!the!significant!interaction!effect!between!beer!dosage!and!beer!
priming!(F!(1,!96)!=!2.87,!p!=!.094).!Respondents!in!the!high!dosage!group!primed!with!beer!
(M!=!14.80!minutes,!SD!=!3.58!minutes)!provide!faster!completion!than!respondents!in!the!
high! dosage! group! primed! with! the! bus! story! (M!=!18.40! minutes,! SD!=!5.39! minutes).!
Respondents! in! the! low! dosage! group! primed! with! the! bus! story! (M!=!18.40! minutes,!
SD!=!4.32!minutes)!provided!slightly!faster!completion!than!respondents!in!the!low!dosage!
group! primed! with! beer! ! (M!=!18.44! minutes,! SD!=!3.97! minutes).!This! indicates! that! the!
effect!that!beer!consumption!dosage!has!on!problem!solving!depends!on!beer!priming.!The!
time!participant’s!use!decreases!more!when!they!are!primed!with!beer,!and!are!part!of!the!
high!dosage!group,!which!can!be!seen!in!figure!1.!!
Figure 1. Amount of minutes needed for the math test as a function of beer dosage and beer priming ANCOVA%
Additional!ANCOVA!tests!were!performed!to!test!the!statistically!significant!difference!of!the!
problem1solving! result! between! the! priming! stimulus! and! beer! consumption! dosage!
adjusted!for!the!control!variables.!The!adjusted!control!variables!are:!age,!gender,!expected!
behavior!after!two!beers,!amount!of!drinks!per!week,!desire!for!a!drink,!need!for!cognition!
scale,!and!beer!consumption!of!the!specific!day.!!
After! adjustment! for! the! control! variables! on! problem1solving! time,! the! results! show! a!
significant! main! effect! of! priming! the! respondent! with! beer!(F! (1,! 89)!=!3.96,! p!=!.050).!
Respondents! primed! with! beer! (M!=!16.50! minutes,! SD!=!4.72! minutes)! provide! faster!
completion! than! respondents! primed! with! the! bus! story! (M!=!18.22! minutes,! SD!=!4.18!
minutes).! There! is! no! longer! a! significant! main! effect! of! beer! consumption! dosage! (F! (1,!
89)!=!0.70,! p!=!.407).! The! interaction! effect! between! beer! dosage! and! beer! priming! is! no!
longer!significant!(F!(1,!89)!=!0.84,!p!=!.363).!!
The!control!variable,!drinks!per!week,!provides!significant!impact!on!problem1solving!time!(F!
(1.!89)!=!4.53,!p!=!.036).!After!adjustment!for!drinks!per!week,!respondents!primed!with!beer!
(M!=!16.39!minutes,!SD!=!4.75!minutes)!provide!faster!completion!than!respondents!primed!
with! the! bus! story! (M!=!18.33! minutes,! SD!=!4.13! minutes).! The! other! control! variables! do!
not!provide!any!significant!impact!on!problem!solving.!!
!!
After!adjustment!for!the!control!variables!on!problem1solving!quality!in!the!sense!of!right!
answers,! the! results! show! a! significant!main! effect! of! beer! consumption! dosage! (F! (1,!
89)!=!3.42,!p!=!.068).!High!dosage!(M!=!8.76,!SD!=!2.60)!resulted!in!fewer!right!answers!than!
low! dosage! (M!=!10.04,! SD!=!2.22).!There! is! no!significant! main! effect! of! priming! the!
respondent!with!beer!(F!(1,!89)!=!0.03,!p!=!.870).!The!interaction!effect!between!beer!dosage!
and!beer!priming!is!not!significant!as!well!(F!(1,!89)!=!0.24,!p!=!.623).!Table!1!shows!the!data!
after! adjustment! for! control! variables! on! problem1solving! quality! for! beer! consumption.!
Need!for!cognition,!age,!gender,!and!desire!for!a!drink!provide!significant!impact!on!problem!
solving.!Other!control!variables!do!not!provide!any!significant!impact!on!problem!solving.!
Control%variable! FUvalue! PUvalue! Right%answers%
High%dosage%group! Right%answers%
Low%dosage%group!
Need%for%
cognition% F!(1,89)=!3.05! p=.084! M=!8.87,!SD=!2.60! M=!9.93,!SD=!2.14!
Age% F!(1,89)=!2.83! p=.096! M=!8.75,!SD=!2.58! M=!10.05,!SD=!2.19!
Gender% F!(1,89)=!7.26! p=.008! M=!8.70,!SD=!2.54! M=!10.10,!SD=!2.21!
Desire%for%drink% F!(1,89)=!4.26! p=.042! M=!8.85,!SD=!2.71! M=!9.95,!SD=!2.28!
Table 1. Amount of right answers adjusted for control variables as a function of beer dosage!
!
To! show! that! the! relation! between! the! problem1solving! ability! and;! amount! of! drinks! per!
week,! need! for! cognition! scale,! age,! gender,! and! desire! for! a! drink! contributes! to! the!
problem1solving!ability,!a!Pearson!Correlation!has!been!conducted.!!
The!results!show!that!the!amount!of!drinks!per!week!and!the!speed!of!the!problem1solving!
task!significantly!correlate!(r=!1.349,!p=!0,000).!When!people!consume!more!alcoholic!drinks!
in!a!week,!they!finish!the!math!task!faster.!!
The! results! show! that! the! need! for! cognition! scale! significantly! correlates! with! amount! of!
right!answers!(r=!.285,!p=!.004).!When!people!see!themselves!as!problem!solvers!and!score!
themselves!higher!at!the!need!for!cognition!scale,!they!make!less!mistakes.!!
The!results!show!that!age!significantly!correlates!with!amount!of!right!answers!(r=!1.158,!p=!
.059).!When!people!are!older,!they!make!more!mistakes.!!
The!results!show!that!need!for!alcohol!significantly!correlates!with!amount!of!right!answers!
(r=!1.196,!p=!.050).!When!people!are!in!a!need!for!an!alcoholic!consumption,!they!tend!to!
make!more!mistakes!in!the!problem!solving!process.!!
The!results!show!that!gender!significantly!correlates!with!amount!of!right!answers!(r=!1.273,!
p=!.006).!A!dummy!analysis!is!conducted,!which!shows!that!men!(M=10.04!right!answers)!
make!fewer!mistakes!in!a!problem1solving!task!than!women!(M=!8.68!right!answers).!!
!!
In!sum,!these!results!are!the!first!to!show!that!priming!of!beer!provide!consumers!to!make!
problem1solving!decisions!faster!and!the!consumption!of!beer!alone!provide!consumers!with!
making!more!mistakes!within!the!problem1solving!process.!Results!suggest!that!the!amount!
of!drinks!per!week,!need!for!cognition!scale,!age,!gender,!and!desire!for!a!drink!contribute!as!
significant!predictors!of!the!problem1solving!ability!of!consumers.!!
5.%CONCLUSION%%
Although! many! consumer! behavior! studies! focus! on! alcohol! consumption,! little! empirical!
evidence!for!the!assumed!role!of!beer!on!problem!solving!exists.!This!study!contributes!to!
existing! literature! by! studying! the! effect! of! beer! consumption! and! beer! priming.! This! is!
studied!in!a!sports!canteen!where!respondents!filled!in!questionnaires!before!and!after!they!
played! sports! and! consumed! beer.! This! study! argues! that! a! ‘high’! dosage! of! alcohol!
consumption! and! priming! participants! with! beer! stimuli! negatively! affect! the! problem1 solving!ability.!Furthermore,!it!was!expected!that!the!interaction!effect!of!beer!consumption!
and!priming!with!beer!stimuli!result!in!an!increased!negative!effect!on!problem!solving.!The!
results!of!this!study!provides!information!with!regards!to!the!three!studied!hypothesis.!
!
The! results! provide! support! for! hypothesis! 1.! A! higher! dosage! of! beer! will! decrease! the!
ability!of!consumers!to!solve!problems.!A!higher!dosage!of!beer!causes!respondents!to!make!
more!mistakes!and!finish!the!task!faster,!which!can!be!considered!as!undesirable!problem1 solving! behavior.! The! effect! of! beer! on! problem1solving! quality! has! been! found! in! earlier!
research!as!well.!According!to!Curtin!et!al.!(2001),!alcohol!will!affect!people’s!thoughts!by!
decreasing!the!cognitive1processing!capacity,!which!decreases!the!ability!to!solve!problems.!
This! research! shows! that! respondents! tend! to! make! more! mistakes! when! they! have!
consumed!beer.!It!is!found!that!alcohol!consumption!increases!risk!taking!(Lubit!&!Russet,!
1984),!and!impulsivity!(Dougherty!et!al.,!2000).!This!can!be!an!explanation!for!the!decreased!
time! respondents! use! when! they! have! consumed! alcohol.! Overthinking! will! decrease! and!
people! rely! more! on! intuition,! which! lowers! the! amount! of! time! people! spend! on! their!
problem1solving!task.!
However,! when! adjusted! for! control! variables,! a! ‘high’! dosage! of! beer! consumption!
significantly! results! in! decreased! problem1solving! ability.! The! control! variables;! need! for!
cognition!scale,!age,!gender,!and!desire!for!drink!have!significant!impact!on!problem!solving.!
This! indicates! that! these! control! variables! are! an! explanation! for! the! differences! between!
problem1solving!measures!after!consumption!conditions.!
!
Hypothesis!2!can!be!partially!supported.!Priming!beer!consumption,!only!significantly!results!
in!decreased!problem1solving!time.!!Priming!does!not!have!any!significant!effect!on!the!right!
amount!of!answered!math!problems.!!
Recent! studies! found! that! exposure! to! alcohol! cues! activate! representations! of! alcohol!
expectancies,! which! stimulates! expectancy1consistent! behavior! (Freeman! et! al.,! 2010).!
Caswell,!Morgan!and!Duka!(2013)!even!suggest!that!the!effect!of!alcohol!on!decision1making!
is!not!due!to!the!use!of!alcohol,!but!due!to!the!expectancies!that!alcohol!consumption!brings!
to!individuals.!However,!this!study!shows!that!alcohol!consumption!by!itself!has!more!effect!
than!priming,!which!only!has!effect!on!the!amount!of!time!spend!on!problem!solving.!!
When!adjusted!for!control!variables,!beer!priming!has!a!significant!effect!on!the!quality!of!
problem1solving! ability.! Only! beer! consumption! per! week! also! has! a! significant! effect! on!
problem! solving.!The! other! control! variables! did! not! provide! any! significant! impact! on!
problem!solving.!This!indicates!that!weekly!alcohol!consumption!contributes!to!the!problem1 solving!measures!after!consumption!conditions.!
!
Hypothesis! 3! can! be! supported! partially.! There! is! evidence! for! the! interaction! of! beer!
consumption! and! beer! priming,! causing! people! to! solve! their! problems! faster.! There! is!
however! no! evidence! that! the! interaction! of! beer! priming! and! beer! consumption! has! an!
impact! on! the! problem1solving! mistakes.! In! earlier! research! the! interaction! effect! of! beer!
consumption!and!beer!priming!has!not!been!studied.!Respondents!with!decreased!problem!
solving!time!after!beer!consumption,!and!primed!with!beer,!will!even!solve!a!problem!faster.!
The!effect!is!stronger!after!the!prime.!!
The! interaction! effect! is! not! significant! when! adjusted! for! the! control! variables.! This!
indicates! that! these! control! variables! are! an! explanation! for! the! differences! between!
problem1solving!measures!after!consumption!and!priming!conditions.!
!
These!findings!provide!experimental!support!for!Van!Koningsbruggen!and!Stroebe’s!(2011)!
contention! that! alcohol! consumption! weakens! cognitive! performance.! If! individuals!
consume!higher!dosages!of!beer,!they!spend!less!time!on!a!problem1solving!task!and!they!
tend!to!make!more!mistakes!in!their!decision1making!process.!If!individuals!are!primed!with!
beer! consumption,! they! tend! to! spend! less! time! on! a! problem1solving! task,! which! has! a!
negative! effect! on! the! problem! solving! process.! The! interaction! can! only! be! seen! as! a!
predictor!of!problem1solving!time.!Confronting!consumers!with!beer!impacts!the!problem1 solving!decision1making!process!intensely.!
Implementations%
From!a!theoretical!point!of!view,!the!results!point!to!the!importance!of!beer!consumption!
and!beer!priming!as!a!consumer!behavior!tool!for!problem!solving.!Earlier!research!on!the!
relation! between! alcohol! and! behavior! can! be! confirmed.! This! study! shows! that! beer!
consumption! provides! individuals! with! making! more! mistakes! in! the! problem1solving!
process.! Priming! of! beer! provides! consumers! with! a! faster! problem1solving! process.! The!
interaction! of! beer! priming! and! consumption! strengthens! the! effect! and! provides! a! faster!
problem1solving!ability.!
From!a!managerial!point!of!view,!the!results!point!to!the!importance!of!beer!consumption!
and!beer!priming!as!a!consumer!behaviour!tool!for!problem!solving.!Although!the!problem1 solving!task!was!a!math!task,!it!provides!information!on!influencing!conditions!of!consumer!
behaviour! in! real1life! situations.! The! study! indicates! the! importance! of! beer! consumption!
and!priming!as!an!influencing!consumer!behavior!tool!for!companies.!It!is!important!because!
consumers!are!exposed!to!an!increasing!number!of!problems!to!solve!in!day1to1day!life.!!
It! is! possible! for! firms! to! influence! the! consumer! in! the! process! of! problem! solving.!
Consumers! tend! to! consider! problems! carefully! and! take! time! to! solve! them.! This! study!
however! found! out! that! the! consumption! of! beer! and! the! prime! of! beer! consumption! let!
people!solve!their!problems!faster.!This!can!be!beneficial!for!firms,!because!they!can!spend!
less!time!and!money!on!an!individual!customer.!Hence,!it!is!beneficial!for!organizations!to!
serve!customers!that!have!consumed!beer!or!prime!the!customer!with!beer!consumption.!
Moreover,! it! is! also! possible! to! let! people! buy! products! due! to! faster! decision1making!
process,!based!on!an!impulse,!without!really!considering!the!consequences.!!
Besides!the!effect!on!a!faster!decision!making!process,!it!is!also!possible!to!let!the!consumer!
make! ‘mistakes’.! These! mistakes! can! be! created! by! beer! consumption.! Beer! priming! does!
not!have!an!effect.!Consuming!beer!by!customers!can!be!an!opportunity!for!organizations,!
when!the!mistake!caused!by!the!consumption!of!beer,!is!beneficial!for!the!organization.!An!
example!is!that!the!customer!buys!a!product,!which!he!did!not!intend!to!buy.!
Although! this! seems! like! an! easy! implementation,! it! is! nearly! impossible! to! serve! beer! in!
stores!on!a!regular!basis!in!The!Netherlands!because!of!the!law.!Therefore!stores!can!focus!
more! on! selling! products! on! Friday,! Saturday,! and! Sunday! afternoons,! because! it! is! more!
likely!that!customers!consumed!a!beer!at!home!or!in!a!bar!before!they!start!doing!shopping!
and!solving!some!consumer!problems.!However,!it!is!more!feasible!to!prime!consumers!with!
beer!consumption!in!order!to!stimulate!a!faster!decision1making!process.!Companies!should!
present!alcohol!related!primes!before!the!problem!solving!decision1making!process!starts.!It!
is!possible!to!show!alcohol!related!cues,!which!will!result!in!alcohol!consumption!behaviour.!!
6.%LIMITATIONS%AND%FUTURE%RESEARCH%
Despite!that!the!main!findings!of!this!study!support!the!hypotheses!that!beer!consumption!
and! beer! priming! result! in! decreased! problem! solving,! some! limitations! and! possible!
confounds!of!the!study!must!be!noted.!!
!
Firstly,!the!study!was!conducted!in!a!field!situation.!This!situation!provided!the!researcher!
with! less! control! compared! to! a! laboratory! setting.! Respondents! had! to! deal! with! a! noisy!
environment.! This! provided! distraction,! which! made! it! harder! to! complete! the! different!
tasks!and!might!have!influenced!the!results.!The!setting!made!it!more!difficult!to!randomly!
assign!respondents!to!certain!conditions!and!sometimes!respondents!were!not!useable!at!
all.!However,!the!field!situation!was!necessary!in!order!to!create!beer1consuming!conditions,!
which! facilitated! the! research! to! focus! purely! on! psychological! outcomes! of! this! study.!
Although!this!situation!appeared!to!be!appropriate,!the!results!still!need!to!be!replicated!in!
a!more!generalizable!laboratory!setting!to!establish!the!validity!of!the!conclusions.!
!
Secondly,!the!study!was!conducted!with!sports!participants.!There!was!an!extensive!mixture!
of!people!that!showed!a!lot!of!difference!within!the!sample.!Major!differences!can!be!seen!
in!the!level!of!education,!which!resulted!in!respondents!having!more!or!less!difficulties!with!
the! different! tasks,! and! might! have! compromised! the! results! as! a! confound.! To! make! the!
results!more!generalizable,! it! would! be! wise! to! replicate! the! study! under! different! groups!
based!on!their!level!of!education.!
Thirdly,!because!the!respondents!had!to!consume!beer,!the!study!was!conducted!in!a!sports!
canteen.!However!it!appeared!that!the!participants!in!the!high!dosage!group!only!consumed!
2.5! glasses! of! beer.! Which! is! a! small! amount! of! alcohol,! and! may! have! resulted! in! minor!
psychological!effects.!Therefore!it!would!be!interesting!to!do!another!study!with!people!who!
drank!more!than!5!glasses!of!beer!on!average.!
Fourthly,! the! problem1solving! task! was! a! multiple1choice! task,! which! might! not! be! a! good!
reproduction! of! reality,! where! people! have! to! make! decisions! and! find! solutions! fully! on!
their! own.! A! task! where! people! have! to! solve! open! problems! might! give! other! results.!!
Lastly,! because! of! the! long! questionnaire! respondents! had! to! complete,! they! started! to!
complain!about!the!length!of!the!task!and!were!losing!focus!and!lack!of!motivation,!which!
might!have!compromised!the!results.!Therefore!another!shorter!task!has!to!be!conducted!in!
order!to!keep!the!focus!of!the!respondents.!!!
In!sum,!despite!these!limitations,!the!results!of!this!study!suggest!the!importance!of!beer!
consumptions! in! problem1solving! consumer! behavior! and! expand! the! knowledge! of! beer!
consumption! and! beer! priming! on! consumer! behavior.! Beer! consumption! by! itself! causes!
people!to!decide!faster!and!make!more!mistakes!in!their!decision!making!process.!Priming!
beer!results!in!making!faster!decisions.!This!suggests!the!importance!of!beer!consumption!in!
the!process!of!problem!solving!for!individual!consumers!as!well!as!for!firms.!The!results!can!
be!used!to!influence!the!problem!solving!process!of!consumers.!
!
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