Cover Page
The handle http://hdl.handle.net/1887/36401holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation
Author: Huqa, Tuqa Jirmo
Title: The impact of climate variability on the ecology of a lion (Panthera leo Linnaeus
1758) population and lion livestock conflicts in the Amboseli ecosystem – Kenya
Issue Date: 2015-11-19
© 2015, Tuqa Jirmo Huqa tjirmo@yahoo.com
Cover photos: Tuqa Jirmo Huqa
Photos: Tuqa Jirmo Huqa, Gerard Persoon, Hans de Iongh Lay out: Sjoukje Rienks, Amsterdam
Language corrections: Barbara Croes
ISBN 978-90-5191-175-6
The Impact of Climate Variability on the Ecology of a Lion (Panthera leo Linnaeus 1758) Population and Lion Livestock Conflicts in the Amboseli Ecosystem – Kenya
proefschrift
ter verkrijging van
de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. mr. C.J.J. M. Stolker
volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties ter verdedigen op donderdag 19 november 2015
klokke 13.45 uur
door
Tuqa Jirmo Huqa
Geboren te Obbu, Kenya in 1973
Promotie commissie
Promotores: Prof. dr. G.R. de Snoo (Universiteit Leiden) Prof. dr. G.A. Persoon (Universiteit Leiden) Co-promotor: Prof. dr. ir. H.H. de Iongh (Universiteit Leiden/Universiteit Antwerpen)
Overige leden: Prof. dr. H. Leirs (Universiteit Antwerpen)
Prof. dr. B. Patterson (Chicago Field Museum of Natural History/
University of Chicago)
dr. A. Loveridge (Universiteit Oxford)
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
111.1 The importance of conserving large carnivores and lion as a species 11 1.2 Protected areas and their importance for the conservation of lion
and other large carnivores 12
1.3 Conservation status: effects of land use and climate change on
populations of lions and other carnivores 13 1.4 Current lion population status in Kenya and in the Amboseli
Ecosystem 16
1.5 Conservation of lions in the Amboseli Ecosystem 17
1.6 Problem statement and justification 18
1.7 Research design and conceptual framework 19
1.7.1 Natural climate variability 19
1.7.2 Bio-physical environment 20
1.7.3 Human environment 21
1.8 Conceptual framework 23
1.9 Hypotheses 23
1.10 Main objective 24
1.11 Study assumptions 24
1.12 Study area: Amboseli National Park and ecosystem description 25
1.13 Location 27
1.14 Geology and soil 27
1.15 Land use 28
1.16 Thesis organization 29
References 30
2 Impact of a Drought on the Social Structure of a Lion
Population in the Amboseli Ecosystem, Kenya
39 Abstract 392.1 Introduction 40
2.2 Material and methods 42
2.2.1 Study area 42
2.2.2 Assessment of drought severity and prey abundance 42
2.2.3 Field observations and sampling technique for lion
population structure 45
2.2.4 Data analysis and statistics 47
2.3 Results 47
2.4 Discussion 51
2.4.1 Impact of drought severity, prey abundance and related lion
retaliatory killing 51
2.4.2 Effect on lion sex ratio 53
2.4.3 Effect on lion social structure and group size 53 Acknowledgements 54 References 55
3 Impact of Severe Climate Variability on Lion Home Range
and Movement Patterns in the Amboseli Ecosystem, Kenya
59 Abstract 593.1 Introduction 60
3.2 Materials and methods 62
3.2.1 Study area 62
3.2.2 Methods 63
3.2.3 Home range analysis 64
3.2.4 Statistical analysis 66
3.3 Results 68
3.3.1 Relationship between rainfall, home range and movement
patterns 68
3.3.2 Mixed modeling and model comparisons 70
3.4 Discussion 74
3.4.1 Home ranges and movement patterns 74 3.4.2 Lion movement and landscape connectivity 75 Acknowledgements 76 References 76
4 Effects of Stochastic Drought on Prey Abundance and
Selection by Lions in the Amboseli National Park – Kenya
83 Abstract 834.1 Introduction 84
4.2 Study area: the Amboseli Ecosystem 85
4.3 Methods 86
4.3.1 Assessment of rainfall variability 86
4.3.2 Seasonal prey composition 87
4.3.3 Scat analysis 89
4.3.4 Data management 90
4.3.5 Data analysis and statistics 91
4.4 Results 92
4.4.1 Rainfall variability and severe drought 92 4.4.2 Herbivore density and seasonal fluctuation 92
4.4.3 Lion prey composition 93
4.4.4 Changes in diet composition 94
4.4.5 Prey preference and selectivity 95
4.5 Discussion 98
4.5.1 Impact of rainfall variability on prey densities 99
4.5.2 Prey distribution and density 99
4.5.3 Lion diet composition and preference 100 References 103
5 Local Knowledge and Attitudes towards Livestock
Predation by Large Carnivores in the Amboseli Ecosystem
(Southern Kenya)
107Abstract 107
5.1 Introduction 108
5.2 Study area: the Amboseli Ecosystem 110
5.3 Methods 111
5.3.1 Assessment of livestock predation trends 111 5.3.2 Wild herbivore abundance measure 112
5.3.3 Survey on attitudes 112
5.3.4 Methods of data collection 113
5.3.5 Data analysis 113
5.4 Results 114
5.4.1 Part I: Seasonal incidence of livestock and the influence
of severe drought on livestock attacks 114
5.4.2 Part II: Community attitudes 118
5.5 Discussion 123
5.5.1 Livestock predation trends 123
5.5.2 Influence of drought on specific livestock predation in
relation to wild prey abundance and rainfall 124 5.5.3 Community attitudes and views 125 References 128 Questionnaires 133
6 Synthesis, Conclusions, and Recommendations
137 6.1 Lion population response to environmental stochasticity andimplications for conservation: A synthesis 137 6.2 Lion population trends and response to environmental
stochasticity 138
6.3 Lion home range, movement patterns and connectivity provides
opportunity for mitigation and adaptation 139 6.4 Lion prey availability and diet shift – a realized niche in
constrained predator-prey relationships 141 6.5 Livestock predation trends, community knowledge and attitude 142
6.6 Conclusions 144
6.7 Recommendations for conservation and management 145 References 147
