University of Groningen Faculty of Arts M.A. in International Relations and International Organization Master’s Thesis Taming the Future

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University of Groningen

Faculty of Arts

M.A. in International Relations and International Organization

Master’s Thesis

Taming the Future

Exploring Biometric Technology Implementation to Prevent Identity

Theft after Natural Disaster Events in Higher Income Countries

Supervisor: MSc, MA Cecile W. J. de Milliano

Student: Daphne Marino

Address: Cedros 21

Col. Jardines de San Mateo

C.P. 53240 Naucalpan, Estado de México

México

Student Number: S2087464

Mobile: +31-6-48-53-74-39

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For my parents, who keep me grounded, and to the younger generations.

“Try and leave this world a little better than you found it and when your turn comes to die, you can die happy in feeling that at any rate you have not wasted your time but have done your best. "Be Prepared" in this way, to live happy and to die happy […]”.

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Table of Content

Social and Scientific Significance of the Research Question ... 11

Research Design and Methodology ... 12

Chapter 1- The Evolution of International Security Studies and its New Imperatives ... 14

Re-conceptualizing Threats through the Risk Assessment Theory ... 15

Security ... 16

Human Security ... 18

Environmental Security ... 20

Risk ... 22

Global Governance and Bio-politics ... 22

Surveillance and Biometrics ... 23

Concluding Remarks ... 24

Chapter 2 – Becoming Aware of the Value of identity through Identity Theft ... 26

The Power of Identity ... 26

Identity Theft and Identity Fraud ... 27

How does Identity Theft Works? ... 28

Evidence of Identity ... 31

Fighting Identity Theft through Laws, Regulations and Prevention ... 32

Concluding Remarks ... 34

Chapter 3 – Fraud and Identity Theft in the Wake of Natural Disaster Events ... 36

Natural Disasters as a Threat for International Security... 36

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Fraud and Identity Theft in Natural Disaster Events ... 38

Natural Disaster Events Case Studies ... 39

Case Scenario Analysis I ... 40

Case Scenario Analysis II ... 42

Concluding Remarks ... 45

Chapter 4 – Biometric Technology: An Enhancing Tool for Security and Management 48 The Evolution of Personal Security through Biometric Technology ... 49

Biometric Technology Background and main Features ... 49

Biometrics Technological Challenges ... 50

Virtual Borders and the Biometric State ... 52

Biometric Technology Usage during Natural Disaster Events ... 53

Data Privacy Protection Directives ... 57

Concluding Remarks ... 58

Conclusion ... 61

Appendix I- How to make a novelty fake ID ... 70

Acknowledgements ... 78

References ... 79

Books and Journal Articles ... 79

Websites ... 86

On-line News Papers ... 90

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Abstract

Natural hazards have increasingly been called a ‘national security’ problem, particularly when they become a natural disaster. There has been speculation that natural disaster environments may increase the risk of deviant behavior and criminal activity. Amongst these risks, this research focuses on the criminal act that entails the use of another person’s identity in order to carry out fraud or do something unlawful, namely identity theft. By integrating three distinct but well founded bodies of research –on identity theft, natural disasters and biometric technology, to offer new insights into the relationship between international security studies, human security, criminological studies, natural disaster risk management, and information technology advancements. It explains the extent to which identity theft has been a risk during natural disaster events in higher income countries during the 21st Century. Moreover, it explores how biometric technology could represent a plausible solution to fight and/or prevent identity theft.

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Introduction

‘Identity theft is a criminal act where someone uses your identity to carry out fraud or a criminal act’ (FBI, 2012a). The most common fraud consists on criminals obtaining credit cards or bank loans by using a stolen personal identification such as a driver’s license, social security number, passport, and the banking information details of a victim in order to buy goods over the phone or the internet (The Economist, 2005). Although this highly lucrative crime cost the United Kingdom more than £1.3 billion in 2004, results showed unsuccessful law enforcement outcomes as criminals can operate without a hierarchical structure, making it very difficult to identify and prosecute them (Idem.). In the United States, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) reported on August 2011 a breaking out complaint data of 250, 854 identity theft complaints received only in 2010 (FTC, 2011a). This number topped up the list represented by 19% of the 1,339, 265 top ten consumer complaints received in this country for 11th year in a row (FTC, 2011a).

Identity theft is a worldwide criminal act that can target anyone, even celebrities. Although this may seem less likely due to the fact that their lives are so opened to the public, Hollywood stars and famous sports men have been victims of this criminal activity. On December 2000, Mr. Tiger Woods, an American professional golfer, ranked as one of the world’s top earners in sports in 2010, was victim of identity theft as his social security number got stolen (BBC Sport, 2010; Los Angeles Times, 2000). The thief used this number to apply for credit cards under Mr. Woods’ name and charged him over US$50,000 (Rovell, 2002). Moreover, in 2005, Will Smith, the movie and television star of ‘The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air’ and ‘Men in Black’ was a victim of Carlos Lomax, identity thief, who opened 14 credit card accounts, spending up to US$33,000 under the name of Willard C. Smith, the actor’s legal name (CBSnews.com, 2009). Anybody can become a victim of identity theft and have his/her good name and credit history damaged for a considerable period of time (Idem.). "You work so hard to get to where you're at, you don't want some lunatic somewhere going ahead and screwing it up," Woods told ESPN.com during an interview after being an identity theft victim (Rovell, 2002).

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vulnerable to this type of crime namely during natural disasters. More often than you can imagine, identity thieves take advantage of the vulnerability of people and the government’s distraction generated under this scenarios in order to practice this criminal activity (FEMA, 2011). Disguised as charities, members of the government, insurance companies, bank workers, and volunteers in shelters, identity thieves take natural disaster victims’ personal details in order to receive on their behalf financial aid from the government, bank loans, insurances’ checks, and even money from donors from all over the world (Idem.). "It is a double tragedy to become a victim of fraud after suffering the effects of a disaster. Still, disaster survivors do become prime targets for fraud, identity theft, and other crimes linked to the event," said Don Keldsen, Federal Coordinating Officer of the Unites States Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA, 2010). For this reason, the goal of this research is twofold. On the one hand, look at the scope of this criminal activity in the wake of natural disasters. On the other hand, explore the plausibility of implementing biometric technology to counter fight it. Hence, when writing, planning and acting on natural disasters risk management, the probability of fraud is taken into consideration in order to be able to detect it and try to prevent it as much as possible.

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Axworthy, 2001; Neufeld, 2004; Bellamy and Mc Donald, 2002; Tomas and Tow, 2002) and environmental security (Barnett, 2007; Nye, 1989; Buzan et al., 1998) is amongst these new non-conventional threats, that has been introduced by the widening approach of international security studies. Amongst their major objects of studies, politics of identity and its relationship with information technology can be highlighted (Buzan and Hansen, 2009).

In particular, Ulrick Beck (1992, 1999), a German sociologist and risk theorist, has developed the concept of ‘society of insecurity’, where people’s body is perceived as a threat because they are seen as potential carriers of insecurity. According to Beck, risks can mainly be divided into two categories, everyday risks and catastrophic risks, which have irreversible effects and are impossible to calculate or prevent, predominantly environmental disasters (Idem.). The combination of these topics, identity theft, the implementation of biometric technology and natural disaster risk management in the international security field are the subject matter of motivation that unfolds the following research.

This research is an analytical study of fraud and identity theft risk during natural disasters in higher income countries based on an ISS framework. Moreover, this study has the objective to explore the implementation of biometric technology as a tool for good governance in environmental catastrophes scenarios. The rationale underlying this research is presented below along with a description of the research design and methodology. Thereafter, an overview of the content of each chapter is explained as well.

Rationale

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disaster. Their 2012 online report on Natural Disasters shows an increment in the number of disasters from less than 75 in 1975 to nearly 500 in 2005 (Idem.). In addition, the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) (2012c), reports that although 2005 had one of the highest peaks of natural disasters in the past 35 years, the amount of natural disasters in the last five years is still above 400. Therefore, the number of catastrophic events is expected to rise significantly in the future, which should call for an increase in attention from the international community to this issue. The data presented clearly invites to further reflect on this topic in order to prepare countries to be ready to respond to natural hazards, prevent disasters, and call for governments to provide human security.

On top of the increment of the amount of victims of natural disasters, other risks emerge from these events that threaten the stability of the state in particular and the international security in general. Criminal organizations usually seek for these opportunities to exploit global events for their own advantage (ACC, 2008). According to the Australian Crime Commission (ACC), the primary crimes issues that are related to natural disasters and infiltration of legitimate markets are fraud, robbery and illicit markets (Idem.). By highlighting identity and government tender frauds, the ACC states that identity theft is a common practice of criminal organizations during catastrophic situations, which after stealing victims’ identities they are used to defraud or traffic with them in the local and international markets (Idem.).

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identification of an individual (FBI, 2012b). Examples include but are not limited to DNA, fingerprints, irises, voice patterns and facial recognition features.

The change to border technologies of mobility control has been introduced as a solution to terrorism, drug trafficking, illegal migration, and movement of people by making possible to identify peoples’ bodies with biometric identifiers that can help governments monitor the course of action of plausible threats by profiling the next events and prevent them before they happen (Bigo, 2007, 11). However, this tool in particular has raised a lot of controversy in the international realm as it has been considered a powerful and useful technological program but also a dangerous tool for surveillance and control of population that threatens the individuals’ privacy (Lodge, 2007). Nevertheless, in contexts where major natural disasters occur and in which big groups of people are potentially at risk of losing their identity documents, it challenges us to re-think concepts such as identity theft and exploring the usefulness of biometric technology.

Research Question

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availability of quantifiable data related to natural disasters and identity theft issues. The cases of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita have been particularly chosen for study due to the wide range of literature that has been published as a result of the great impact they caused in the US during 2005. In order to elaborate around these topics, the following research question will be addressed in this analysis:

To what extent has identity theft been a risk during natural disaster events in higher income countries in the 21st Century; and how could biometric technology represent a plausible solution to fight it and/or prevent it?

In order to further answer the main research question the following sub-questions will be addressed.

1) Which are the new challenges of International Security and how can their acknowledgement and analysis could help prevent governments and society from this new threats? How is Global Governance being influenced by new technologies?

2) What is the value of personal identity in the modern state? What is identity theft, how does it work, and why is organized crime interested in it?

3) Which are the consequences of dealing with a large population of victims of a natural disaster with no personal identity documents, and to what extent could this lead to a potential scenario for identity theft? How does this represent a challenge to local governments and a threat to international security?

4) What is biometric technology, how does it work, and how has it been implemented by higher income countries? What are its challenges, risks and constraints? To what extent can biometric technology become a risk for personal data privacy protection?

5) How does the analysis of the interrelation between identity theft, natural disasters, and biometric technology impact ISS? Which has been the scope of identity theft in the wake of natural disasters? What is the future of biometric technology and its regulations?

Social and Scientific Significance of the Research Question

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fields of biometrics (see Bigo, 2007; Lodge, 2007; Salter, 2006; Zureik & Hindle, 2004), identity theft (see Monahan, 2009; Saunders & Zucker, 1999; Van Der Meulen, 2006), and natural disasters (see Blaikie et al., 1994; Cohen & Werker, 2008; Simon, 2007; Van Heerden, 2007.). Nevertheless, there is an academic need to explore how these topics can bond together in order to contribute to the theoretical and practical development of IR and IS studies. When there is awareness and knowledge there is also space to prevent the dangers and risks of having criminal organizations undergoing such activities that threaten human security. It is expected that this research will provide insights in the origin, the cause and the effect of such criminal activities. In this sense, preventive measures can be suggested and implemented in order to avoid the evolution of fraudulent techniques in future natural disaster events. In addition, it will contribute as well to the ethical debate of biometric technology and its implementation as a tool for good governance. Finally, it has the objective to demonstrate the value of personal identity, while looking into the new trends for establishing the latest technological features used by governments for identification, surveillance and control of population.

Research Design and Methodology

The analysis will unfold in four chapters. The first chapter will refer to the theoretical framework that revolves around the widening approach of ISS and the concepts of risk, human security, governance (surveillance and control of citizens), and environmental security. This chapter will serve the purpose of exploring diverse scholars whom have studied the characteristics and definitions of these topics as well as the debates that surround them. This analysis will help set a solid based argument which would aid the reader in the understanding of the challenges of administrating the legal movement of people.

The second chapter will look at the interrelation between IR and Criminological studies. It will then analyze the value and the power of identity. The purpose of this analysis will be to identify the value of a citizens’ legal identity in the modern state, and explain why it is a profitable business for organized crime. Moreover, this chapter will further invite to reflect on the scope of the damage of identity theft victims, and how can it be enhanced in the context of a natural disaster.

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identity documents can become subject of this crime, and how has this been managed by governments. In order to have a thorough analysis, this chapter will explore the case scenarios of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita as well as other natural hazards that have happened in the United States along the 21st century in order to trace identity theft patterns.

The fourth chapter will revolve around the implementation of biometric technology in the 21st Century. It will look into how higher income countries have used this technology in the aftermath of natural disaster settings and analyze to what extent it has been helpful to provide expedite governmental response to victims. Moreover, it will look into the new developing trends of biometric technology. In addition, it will discuss the right to personal data privacy protection, the management, and the disposal of this information.

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Chapter 1- The Evolution of International Security Studies and its

New Imperatives

‘It may appear that, in taming chance, you may tame time. Moreover, tame time and you may tame the future. Tame the future and you may, finally, secure a being – human being- whose very existence is temporal’ (Dillon, 2008, 313).

Threat and insecurity are not new to the condition of human beings. However, the perception of what they imply has evolved through human history. For an instance, during the Middle Age, illness, famines and plagues were the greatest threats to families (Beck, 2007). Now a days, the perception of what makes humans insecure has become a debatable issue between identifiable sources of insecurity such as housing, healthcare, sanitation, food and clothing (UNDP, 1994), to abstract concepts such as anything that threatens the sovereignty and the borders of a state (Bellamy & McDonald, 2002). This conception of human security by Bellamy and McDonald widens the scope of International Security Studies (ISS) by considering other pre-existent and new sources of threat such as natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and international organized crime. However, the limits of such scope can remain unclear. For these reasons, the aim of this chapter would be to identify and define these threats and insecurities in order to understand the role of the modern-state in the context of the world risk society. Thus, it would help identify the extent to which governments are obliged to provide security to its citizens. By reaching this aim, it is expected that the interrelation between the main topics addressed in this research and its relevance for IR and IS studies will be clearer.

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identity theft, biometric technology advancements, and risk management during natural disasters will be discussed. This theoretical framework will serve as the basis to analyze the extent to which fraud and identity theft have been a constraint in the wake of natural disaster events in higher income countries along the 21st century. Additionally, it will look into biometric technology as a plausible solution to fight these crimes.

Before addressing the theoretical framework that will be discussed along this first chapter, it has been considered useful to start by using an illustrative example which shows how the perception of what a catastrophe could be has evolved along the 21st century. It is questioned if a ‘Lucozade bottle’, which is a sports energy drink, represents a threat for international security. This example has been chosen as it encloses four of the main subjects of interest of this research. This case shows how the perception of insecurity has change; it gives an idea about how national and international regulations can be influenced by these new perceptions of threats; it exemplifies the value of the possession of higher income countries identification documents (e.g. British passport) for organized crime and terrorists; and it illustrates how charity donations for natural disaster relief funds can be diverted to be used to fund terrorist activities.

Re-conceptualizing Threats through the Risk Assessment Theory

On November 2006, new European Union-wide air-transportation security regulations came into force by restricting passengers from transporting liquids into the aircraft cabin (European Commission, 2006). On 2006, this security measure was implemented after a suicide transatlantic airplane bomb attack from London to the United States and Canada failed (Dodd, 2009a). The plan involved inserting liquid explosives into empty 500ml bottles of Lucozade and Oasis drink bottles, and by coloring the liquid so it appeared to be the same as the original (Dodd, 2009a). As a consequence, this EU regulation, which has now been implemented worldwide, prevents passengers from carrying in their hand-luggage any liquid, gel, cream or even baby food, unless they are in individual containers no bigger than 100ml and not exceeding 1 liter overall (European Commission, 2006).

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which were intended to aid the victims of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake (Lironi, 2006). Finally, after a second trial on September 2009, they were found guilty of conspiracy to murder (Dodd, 2009b). This incident has brought as a result the constraint of the freedom of all aircraft passengers in the name of ‘international civil aviation security’ (European Commission, 2006), and this regulation will not be changed or cancelled any time soon (Milmo, 2011).

Ulrich Beck (2007) has also addressed the above mentioned incident in order to portrait how anticipating a catastrophe is reshaping the world. Although the alleged plot took place five years after the 9/11 attacks and the implementation of this regulation would impact directly on the liberties of all passengers for the foreseeable future, Beck emphasizes how quickly citizens accepted such restrictions without complaints in order to feel secure (Idem.). Therefore, its implementation illustrates how preventing catastrophes, weather natural or not, from becoming a disaster show a direct influence on what can be perceived or defined as a threat to the security of the state and its citizens.

Redefining the concept of ‘security’ has become a controversial issue for both, policy-makers and scholars since the end of the Cold War. The main concern regarding the definition of security has been the impact it can have on the policy agendas of the nation-states (Baldwin, 1997). According to Baldwin, depending on the scope of the definition, what is perceived as a threat or insecurity can become a priority or can be decreased to a lower level of importance depending on the selected issues in the agenda (Idem.). For example, during the Cold War period the maximum security concern were external military threats (Idem.). Currently, topics such as human rights, refugees, natural disasters, crime, amongst other global issues have reached the top concerns in the security agendas of the nation-states (Buzan and Hansen, 2009).

Security

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individual, the state, and the international system levels. However, for Baldwin (1997) this analytical empirical observation of the concept of security lacks the conditions under which security may be achieved, which are essential to identify in order to reach a definition of security. Moreover, Ullman (1983) observes that it is necessary to question the cost of security so that its value can be determined. Therefore, Wolfer’s (1952, 485) description of security as ‘the absence of threats to acquired values, and the absence of fear that such values will be attacked’, serves as a start point to define it. Nevertheless, Baldwin (1997, 13) proposes to reformulate it as ‘a low probability of damage to acquire values’; which allows to consider Ullman’s (1983) argument to include environmental catastrophes as ‘threats’ to security. Although this reformulation provides an initial parameter for the definition of security, it still raises the questions of: Security for whom? And security for which values?

When defining security in military terms, it usually refers to national security, which has as a referent object the nation-state and its ultimate aim is to protect it from external threats (Zureik & Hindle, 2004). Threats can be understood as ‘actions that convey a conditional commitment to punish unless one’s demands are met’ (Baldwin, 1997, 15). However, it has been argued that natural disasters also represent a ‘threat’ to acquired values, exhorting to an expansion of the definition of this concept (Ullman, 1983). Baldwin (1997) has noted that referent objects can have different values which may include sociological, political, economical and even psychological factors. The concept of ‘national security’ has traditionally included political interdependence and territorial integrity as values to be protected; but other values are sometimes added (Idem.). According to him, when elaborating on a definition of national security, values can differ from definition to definition, but it is important that they are specified in order to have a point of comparison between definitions and avoid confusion or ambiguity (Idem.). For example, with the increment of religious, ethnic, and racial conflicts within the states, the United Nations and some countries have expanded their view to what threatens their security (Idem.). Particularly, the Canadian government has promoted the inclusion of human rights, protection of the environment and guaranteeing basic needs related to health, education and personal security as values that must be included in their national security policy (Zeurik, and Hindle, 2004).

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security should specify: (1) the values of people or a group of people, (2) determine the people or group of people which are the object to be protected, and (3) elaborate on the nature and magnitude of what a threat could be. However, since the end of the Cold War, the international community and scholars have recognized the existence of other type of threats, making necessary to include the security of people in their homes, their jobs, their communities and their natural environment when defining security (Axworthy, 2001). Consequently, it could be interpreted that the primary objective of a definition of security should serve the purpose of allowing governments to develop suitable national security policies. Such policies must be intended to provide security by lowering the probability that an attack will occur or that a hazard becomes a disaster in order to secure what that specific society considers of greater value.

Human Security

Although in the previous analysis the role that the nation-state has as the main provider of security is not questioned, other authors have done so since an emphasis on humans’ security has become a debatable issue in the international security realm (Axworthy, 2001; Barnett & Adger; 2007; Bell, 2006; Bellamy & McDonald, 2002; Suhrke, 1999; Thomas & Tow, 2002). The fundamental purpose of the state is to protect its citizens (Axworthy, 2001). However, the capacity of some states to provide protection has increasingly come into question which has become evident through shameful events in human history such as the Genocides in Rwanda, Darfur and Bosnia (Idem.). Therefore, the concept of human security, which was firstly promoted in May 1998 by Lloyd Axworthy, ex Canadian foreign affairs minister, during a bilateral meeting in Norway (Suhrke, 1999, 265), will be discussed in the following lines in order to explore how the focus of security beyond the level of the state and towards individual human beings could be broadened.

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International Relations, International Security and Security Studies realm allowed to analyze both, domestic and international issues, human security has enable to go beyond the states’ sovereignty prerogatives to address different threats in a more efficient way in order to protect the most vulnerable (Thomas & Tow, 2002).

Vulnerability has develop into a significant characteristic of human security, becoming a central task and concern of policy strategies, which has help to identify in a more clear way the beneficiaries of these policies (Suhrke, 1999, 271). The moral core of the concept of human security is based on the philosophical idea that we are obligated to protect the vulnerable (Idem.). He defines vulnerable as ‘those exposed to immediate physical threats to life or deprivation of life sustaining resources’ (Idem.). This can include other reasons as extreme poverty or natural disasters, which leads us to the following three categories: (1) victims of war and internal conflict; (2) persons that can barely subsist and thus are structurally positioned at the edge of socio-economic disaster; and (3) victims of natural disasters (Idem.). Set alone or in combination, these categories demand urgent humanitarian action (Thomas & Tow, 2002, 182).

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factors, reinstall the state-centric conception of security that critical advocates of human security had previously attacked.

Environmental Security

Within the context of human security it is important to consider the origins and outcomes beyond a threat; environmental crises are illustrative of this point (Thomas & Tow, 2002). Environmental security, as a subfield of human security focuses on topics such as: (1) the protection of people from the immediate and lasting deteriorating effects of nature; (2) human-made threats in nature; (3) protection of people from violent conflicts as a cause and consequence of environmental degradation; (4) predictability and control of negative environmental consequences caused by industry and technology; (5) and the creation promotion and implementation of environmentally responsible security policies (Græger, 1996). Environmental events can sometimes lead to violent conflicts, but in general, its real impact on a nation’s security is felt on its economic performances which often cause political instability (Matthews, 1989, 166). Yet, under natural disaster events, it is also likely that the capacity of the state to provide the opportunities and services that help people sustain their source of revenue is affected, creating a sense of misfortune and lack of opportunities for progress (Barnett & Adger, 2007).

A direct connection between climate change, human security, the state, and violent conflict has not been empirically proven, however, it has been noted by Barnett (2006), that violent conflict is itself a powerful cause of human insecurity and vulnerability to climate change. In this sense, it is more likely that in low income countries, young men whose expectations for a better life have been frustrated join armed groups to achieve some status in society (Ohlsson, 2000). Although not a significant number of young men join immediately armed groups, engage in illegal activities or looting, natural disaster victims are more likely to do so (Goodhand, 2003).

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future insecurity. In welfare states, where there is certainty that aid provision will arrive, according to Barnett & Adger, 2007, Gough, 2002; and Keen 2000, violent conflicts are reduced. For this reason, well established welfare systems in many higher income countries that perform this function, help in the understanding of why violent conflicts in the aftermath of natural disasters are less frequent than in lower income countries (Barnett & Adger, 2007, 644). Nonetheless, violence and deprivation, whether caused by man or nature, is not an exclusive phenomenon of lower income countries (Suhrke, 1999, 273). Moreover, Suhrke adds that there are all kinds of vulnerable groups and individuals that also include higher income states; there are vulnerabilities that are shared and have a regional impact; and there are also common economic environmental vulnerabilities that are more likely to become more sever in the future if climate change and globalization continue apace. Reflecting on Suhrke, Barnett & Adger’s arguments, introduces a possible explanation for illicit activities and looting, such as identity theft during the aftermath of natural disasters in higher income countries, which will be further explored in the following chapters.

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Risk

So far it has been explored how the concept of security and its subfields have evolved, modified, and redefined in order to adapt to the post-Cold-War era. Nonetheless, another major event in human history changed the perception of scholars and policy-makers regarding the concepts of security and threat: the September 11th, 2001 terrorist attacks. For Ulrick Beck (2002) this event did not represent something new in history, but depicted a gap in language. This terrorist attack that marked the beginning of the 21st century could not be described in terms of war, crime or even terrorism as it has been previously interpreted by these concepts (Idem.). This lack of ideas and concepts originated Beck’s (2002, 39) thesis of ‘the 21st century world risk society’. Risk, as defined by Beck (2007, 4) is the ‘present thematization of future threats that are often a product of the success of civilization’. In other words, the decisions-taken as part of society’s modernization process in an accelerated way, represent the product of future dangers (Buzan and Hansen, 2009, 250). Furthermore, risk is divided into two faces: chance and danger, and they are subdivided into three ‘logics’ of global risk, namely, global financial risk, terrorist threats, and environmental crises (Beck, 2007, 4-12). The main difference between these categories relays on the risk faces, where terrorism is related to chance as a consequence of a purpose, and the other two are understood in the dialectic terms of goods and bads, hence, as a dangerous side effect of the decisions-taken in the process of modernization (Beck, 2007, 13-14).

According to Beck, ‘risk’ is a modern concept that implies decision-making, in terms of calculating the incalculable or uncontrollable (Beck, 2002, 40). By calculating the incalculable Beck (2007, 9) means that risk makes present a state of the world that does not (yet) exist. In contrast, a catastrophe cannot be calculated because it lacks spatiality, temporality and it is not socially determined (Idem.). Therefore, risk signifies the anticipation of the catastrophe (Idem.). In this sense, calculating risks is part of the modern state, exemplified by higher income countries with a welfare state system, such as European Union member states, USA, Canada, Australia, and the UK, which base their legitimacy on their capacity to protect its citizens against dangers of all sorts (Beck, 2002; 41).

Global Governance and Bio-politics

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the management of society such as security, human rights, accountability and transparency in a political, economical and formal sense (Zureik & Hindle, 2004). However, in Zureik and Hindle’s analysis, governance involves the administration as well as the management of people through what Michel Foucault (1979, 1997, 2007) calls ‘bio-politics’. The concept of bio-politics has as a referent object man as a ‘living being’ (Dillon, 2008). Contrasted by the Sovereignty Theory, which is limited to the protection of the territory and borders of the state and is restricted to non-intervention, the power of bio-political theory signifies the ‘emergence of the state control over biological life’ (Bell, 2006, 150). By focusing power on life, Bell suggests that bio-politics has meant that the problem of how best to govern cannot be only reduced to the classical sovereignty theory, but also on how governments should improve the provision of security, amongst other services, to its citizens. For Dillon (2008, 312), this need of the state of accounting for the security of its citizens is what interrelates bio-political security with risk. He perceives risk as a technology, since all the problems related to security have a referent object, and all security technologies have a changing understanding of the properties of that referent object; being ‘life’ the referent object of bio-political security technologies (Idem.).

Surveillance and Biometrics

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countries have been trying to fuse biometric technology and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), a wirelessly data chip, in a new generation of identity cards (Jules, Molnar & Wagner, 2007). This fusion aims at reducing fraud and identity theft in order to enhance security at the governance level (Jules, Molnar & Wagner, 2007).

The change to border technologies of mobility control has been introduced as a solution to terrorism, drug trafficking, illegal migration, and movement of people by making possible to identify peoples’ bodies with biometric identifiers that can help governments monitor the course of action of plausible threats by profiling the next events and prevent them before they happen (Bigo, 2007, 11). However, by security profiling, Bell (2006, 160) notes that bio-political strategies are being mainly oriented as a long-term mechanism of control to achieve government’s desired outcomes, and reducing citizens’ freedoms at the same time. Consequently, these tools in particular have raised a lot of controversy in the international realm as they have been considered powerful and useful technological programs, but also dangerous tools for surveillance and control of population that threatens the individuals’ privacy (Lodge, 2007). Nevertheless, in contexts where major natural disaster events occur and in which big groups of people are potentially at risk of losing their identity documents, it challenges us to re-think concepts such as identity theft and exploring the usefulness of biometric technology; which will be further explored in chapters two, three and four respectively.

Concluding Remarks

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Another important shift in ISS has been the expansion of Foucault’s bio-political theory. Although its main referent object is the being and the protection of its ‘life’, it recognizes that the state remains as a key element of the contemporary international security order. The most important functions of the state remain as the provider of security and to improve the living standards of the population which constitute its reason for being. Parallel to this theory, human security illustrates an awareness of the international community of the need to work in partnership between all its actors in order to aid the most vulnerable. Moreover, the discussion of security provision is no longer exclusively concerned with state’s rights and national sovereignty. Consequently, it can be understood that the main goal of a national security policy must be to lower the probability that an attack will occur or that a catastrophe becomes a tragedy in order to secure its citizens’ lives in addition to what each specific society considers of greater value.

The re-definition of security has also brought the innovation and implementation of new technologies to secure life, such as biometrics, which is subject to different moral, political, social and economic behavior. Governments are using these tools for the safety and control of their population as well as to guard their health and their freedom. Nonetheless, a very thin line between security provision and privacy invasion is being debated; it seems that security policies are telling people how to be good citizens. However, when it comes to the context of a catastrophe, where a large amount of the population is affected and it is required to be managed, second thoughts to the usefulness and employment of these technological advancements should be reconsidered and further explored.

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Chapter 2 – Becoming Aware of the Value of identity through

Identity Theft

Despite disciplinary differences, Criminology and International Relations (IR) share a common sociological research frame work on topics such as security studies, risk assessment and policy-making that have increased the amount of IR articles on related issues (Bigo, 2007; Bryant & McKenzie, 2006; Caplan & Torpey, 2001; Marx, 2001). At the same time, criminology scholars have based some of their studies on security theories that have been developed within the field of IR to analyze criminological issues (Amoore & DeGoede, 2005; Aradau & Van Munster, 2009, De Lint & Virta, 2004; Loader &Walker, 2007; Simon, 2007; Zedner, 2005, 2007). A wide range of concepts shared by both disciplines such as sovereignty, surveillance, organized crime, terror, prevention, risk, security, identity, freedom, and liberty have become increasingly important points of debate within and between them (Aradau & Van Munster, 2009). In an attempt to contribute to the intellectual exchange between criminology and IR, this chapter proposes to engage in the debate of the documentation of individual identity and its fraud. A large range of questions rise concerning identity and anonymity when nation-states, private companies or individuals are involved in the process of documenting identity, especially when one becomes aware of its value (Marx, 2001).

This second chapter will carry out an analysis of the power of identity. The purpose of this analysis is to identify the value of a citizen’s legal identity in the context of the modern state, and explain why stealing it is a profitable business for organized crime. Thereafter, it will be explored who is responsible for the safe keeping of people’s identity, how to prevent its theft, and how governments have been regulating it. The ultimate aim of this chapter is to explain the damage that identity theft can cause to a victim under regular circumstances so that when analyzed within a natural disaster setting the scope of the damage could be understood in a more clear way. Therefore, it would be concluded what the value of identity is and what are the challenges behind proving to others that you are who you say you are.

The Power of Identity

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of ‘roles’ Castells (2004, 7) makes reference to the symbolic identification by a social actor of the purpose of his/her actions. ‘Roles’ instead are defined by norms that are structured by the institutions and organizations of society (eg. worker, father, football player) (Idem.). Therefore, identity organizes the meanings and roles organize the functions of the social actors (Idem.). In addition, he argues that the origin of an identity can be attributed to the dominance of an institution, when social actors construct a meaning around them. Consequently, it can be interpreted that identity from a sociological perspective is a socially-constructed concept based on power relationships between the social actors and the institutions and organizations that conform a society.

From a legally based perspective the concept of identity, as per the Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of Law (1996), can be defined in three ways (1) as someone or something that is the ‘same’ as other either in character or aspect; (2) the distinguishing character of a person such as information (name, date of birth, address, etc) that is required to reveal its existence; and (3) ‘the condition of being the same as a thing or person described, claimed, or accused’. Although these definitions provide a notion of identity that could be generalized as the characteristics by which a person or a thing can be recognizable or known (American Heritage Dictionary, 1970, 639), the definition offered by the Black’s Law Dictionary (1990, 745) seems more complete from a legal perspective. It describes identity as ‘the fact that a subject, person, or thing before a court is the same as it is represented, claimed, or charged to be’ (Idem.). The key element in this definition is that a ‘court’, as a legal authority and representative of the state, validates and recognizes or distinguishes one subject, person or thing from another. Overall, by bringing together the sociological and legal definitions of identity and applying it exclusively to a person, not a subject or a thing, it could be said that

personal identity not only involves information such as name and date of birth but, it also

involves references to some set of institutions, organizations or other socially agreed factors that authenticates before governments and society a person’s uniqueness in relation to others (Saunders & Zucker, 1999, 664; Dotson, 2004, 3).

Identity Theft and Identity Fraud

Now that the bases for identity and personal identity have been described, the definitions of identity theft and identity fraud will be explored in a deeper sense and a clearer distinction between the two concepts will be explained. Similar to the FBI’s definition on

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organizations as an offense where the personal information of a living individual is obtained on an illegal or fraudulent way in order to acquire certain goods, conduct a variety of activities, or for personal gain on the individual’s behalf with the intention to defraud others (Saunders & Zucker, 1999; Dotson, 2004; Gordon & Willox Jr., 2003; RCMP, 2010; FBI, 2012; NCPC, 2007-8). In contrast, identity fraud is described as a consequence of identity theft, produced as the result of a ‘breeder document’ (eg. fake or stolen driver’s license), which is a single fraudulent document of an individual (living or dead) that provides the necessary information to get further fraudulent documents and employ them to commit a felony, a criminal or terrorist act, and economic crimes (Gordon & Willox Jr., 2003, 18).

Dotson (2004, 3), identifies two subcategories of identity fraud, namely, (1) ‘true name’: using personal identification information to open new accounts in the victim’s name or to obtain a valid identification, and (2) ‘account take over’: taking over the existing account of a victim. While identity theft has long been recognized as an offense that spreads through our society, awareness of identity fraud’s role did not grow until the aftermath of the September 11th, 2011 events. Further examination of the event revealed that the terrorist possessed fraudulent documentation such as fake or stolen passports, credit cards, social security numbers and driving licenses (Gordon & Willox Jr., 2003). As the size and scope of identity theft and identity fraud are beginning to be understood, it is evident that they are both linked to other major international crimes such as terrorism, money laundering and financial crimes (Idem.). Therefore, they must be recognized as threats to both national and international security.

How does Identity Theft Works?

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Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) payment card fraud was the most commonly reported incident, and yet, many instances of identity theft and fraud go unreported. Cases of credit card theft, illegal wire transfers, Internet scams, utilities fraud, and theft of business data are amongst the characteristics included in this crime (Monahan, 2009, 155). Identity theft is being considered amongst the most likely technological and financial fraud crimes to grow in the 21st century (Moore, Clayton & Anderson, 2009); which raises the question of how does it work?

Identity theft techniques may vary from unsophisticated to more elaborated schemes (RCMP, 2010). Based on information provided by the US National Prevention Council and the Bureau of Justice Assistance (2007-2008), how identity theft works can be described in four steps: (1) getting the identity, (2) exploiting the identity, (3) discovering the theft, and (4) reporting and restoring the victim’s ‘good name’. During the first step, thieves may look for personal identification data in the following ways: discarded documents in the trash, receipts, lost or stolen wallets or purses, online ‘phishing’1

, stolen mail from mailboxes, hacking or stealing computers, phone calls, and on-line fake websites2 (Idem.). In order to exploit the data acquired the thief may have false ID cards made out of for example a state’s driver’s license with the thief’s picture and the victim’s name, a state identification card, employment identification card, social security number card, and/or credit card(s) (Idem.).

Techniques to create fake IDs can be as simple as following the instructions from an Internet website, to more sophisticated techniques that require advanced technological equipment. A detailed example of how to create an ID in 20 steps can be found in Appendix I or the following website: http://www.wikihow.com/Make-a-Fake-ID. This article contains information concerning all the necessary tools required for creating an ID, the steps to be followed, a tutorial video3, and even the links to the required merchandise so that it can be ordered on-line. For example, the website ‘Arcadiaid.com’ offers paper, butterfly pouches

1 _{‘Phishing’ is an Internet scam criminals use by creating illegitimate e-mails or pop-up messages posing as your}

bank, credit card, government agencies, or utilitarian companies in order to acquire your personal data. For further information on how to avoid phishing scams it is suggested to visit the Federal Trade Commission’s website www.ftc.gov or the Canadian Anti-Fraud Centre’s website: www.antifraudcentre.ca.

2 _{To get more detailed information on scams visit:}

http://www.antifraudcentreentreantifraude.ca/english/recognizeit.html

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(magnetic bands), holograms, ID laminators, magnetic stripe encoders, amongst other products. This on-line company is a legal enterprise regulated under the state of Arizona’s law and is protected under ‘disclaimer of warranties, limits on liability, and copy right conditions (Arcadiaid.com, 2006-2011).

Additionally, other interesting website that advertises themselves under the motto ‘add fun into life with a fake ID card’, www.myfakeid.biz, a United Kingdom Internet based business, offers free delivery fake ID cards such as international driving licenses, European driving permits, national identity cards, student cards, and international age cards. They regard themselves as a legal business as they argue that the possession of a ‘novelty item in your wallet or purse is not illegal’ (Idem.). Moreover, they state that ‘the company that sells you the novelty ID card is not committing a crime as they are just selling a card that [as far as they are concerned] is not being used for anything other than novelty purposes’(myfakeid.biz, 2012). Finally, they add that what makes novelty ID cards illegal is their usage to make some kind of legal transaction and getting caught by the police (Idem.). In this case the holder can be accused and prosecuted for presenting a forged document; however, the company that sold the card cannot be prosecuted as they can argue that they were not aware of your intentions (Idem.). For this reason this company concludes that, ‘some novelty ID card companies get shut down but it takes a lot of police resources to prove that they are selling these products for non novelty purposes’ (Idem.).

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Evidence of Identity

Determining the identity of a person could seem as easy as comparing the details (eg. name, signature, address, etc) that appear in two personal documents or tokens such as a driver’s license and a credit card. However, as previously demonstrated, in the case of identity theft, such documents can easily be forged at home or through the Internet by thieves. As a result, other means of identification are required. The process of identification can be considered as ‘the action of being identified, [by] linking specific information with a particular person’ (Crompton, 2004). In a legal sense, that which tends to prove the identity of a person –evidence of identity (EOI), could be done by either ‘direct evidence’ or by ‘circumstantial evidence’ (The Oxford Dictionary of Law Enforcement, 2007). Under some especial circumstances, particularly in criminal cases, secondary evidence of an out-of-court identification by a witness may also be allowed to confirm the identity of a person (idem.).

People can be identified by demonstrating that: (1) they have knowledge of specific information (eg. password, PIN or a code); (2) they possess a token (eg. passport, national identity card, voting card, etc); (3) a person’s physical appearance, actions or characteristics (eg. biometric features); and (4) social characterization (eg. gender, ethnicity, education, and employment), however this information has to be confirmed against data management software which can either be owned privately or by the government (Crompton, 2004). In Australia, for example, where identity theft has cause losses for over $1.1billion per annum (Cuganesan & Lacey, 2003), the state has implemented a common model based on a ‘100 point check’ scale where people can present different evidence of identity documents, and any combination that adds up to 100 points is considered acceptable. An electronic certificate can then be issued by the Customs Department certifying the person’s identity (Crompton, 2004).4 Variations of this model can also be found in US financial institutions, which in order to reduce the risk of bad credit, fraud and comply with the US PATRIOT Act (2001), they have implemented a validation, verification and authentication scored based model to acknowledge consumers’ identities (Gordon & Willox Jr., 2003, 31-35).

4

To see the ‘100 points check document’ see the following link:

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Fighting Identity Theft through Laws, Regulations and Prevention

A thin line between the individual’s responsibility and the state’s responsibility can be drawn when fighting identity theft (Idem.). On the one hand governments promote ‘prevention’ as measures individuals should take in to account in order not to become a victim of identity theft (OECD, 2008, RCMP, 2010, US Department of Justice’s, 2012). However, Monahan (2009, 157) criticizes the ‘moral panic’ these programs create as he points out that most credit agencies and retailers currently cover monetary losses related to fraudulent purchases. Therefore, Monahan concludes that the reactions of the victims are disproportionate to the real risk they face. On the other hand, as previously addressed in chapter one, the state should provide security to its citizens from both violent and non-violent threats; protect their rights, their safety and their lives (Axworthy, 1999, Suhrke, 1999). Identity theft is clearly an everyday form of insecurity that shows the instabilities and contradictions of modernity, extending the responsibility to fight it beyond the individual to include the state (Monahan, 2009, 171). Consequently, some scholars have stressed that it is the government’s duty to create clear guidelines and regulations for who has access to personal data, how it can be shared, and when it will be destroyed so that individuals have alternative legal means to turn at in order to protect themselves (Blanchette and Johnson, 2002, Leland and Zeller, 2006 Monahan, 2009).

Existent domestic and international laws, regulations and multilateral agreements that address different aspects of identity theft and identity fraud are spread across several codes and agencies. Even though the US and the EU laws and regulations will be used to illustrate some aspects of identity theft regulations, for the sake of briefness all the existing local and global legal frameworks will not be fully discussed. However, these legal instruments share some constraints that will be taken into consideration below.

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Code of 1986 to protect the integrity and confidentiality of Social Security account numbers was introduced on January 6, 2009, but was not enacted (Govtrack, 2009). The resolution was re-introduced on January 7th, 2011, but it is currently under the reviewing process of the committee and still requires approval from the House, the Senate and the President (Govtrack, 2011).

Unlike the US, the European Union (EU) distinguishes identity theft as a major security issue but does not recognizes it as a criminal offense nor shares a common EU wide definition of what constitutes identity theft (Van Der Meulen, 2006, 22). However, in a more proactive legislation than the US, the EU acknowledges privacy as a ‘fundamental human right’ of its citizens and recognizes the need of a balance between the individual’s privacy and the free flow of commercial information in the EU Directive 95/46/EC (Dotson, 2004, 16). This Directive provides data protection principles, but due to numerous data processing exceptions, Dotson (2004, 16), perceives it as a watered down regulation with major loopholes that reduces its effectiveness. Consequently, it can be noted that there is a legal inability in the EU to provide a clear picture of identity theft and data privacy protection regulations, although recent identity theft initiatives have been submitted to the European Commission5.

Although identity theft is a crime that started in the US and Canada, it has become more frequent in the EU and Australia and, thus it is not unique to them Van Der Meulen (2006). Countries all around the world are struggling with legislation gaps regarding privacy protection and security (OECD, 2008). Governments have united efforts to fight such crimes through international instruments such as the 2001 United Nations Convention Against

Transnational Organised Crime, the 2001 Council of Europe’s Convention on Cybercrime,

and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 2003 Guidelines

for Protecting Consumers from Fraudulent and Deceptive Commercial Practices Across Borders (OECD, 2008). Nevertheless, as Van Der Meulen (2006, 23) suggests, ‘if

governments are so concerned with the connection between terrorism, organized crime, and identity theft perhaps they ought to start analyzing identity theft from a broader perspective

5

See: ‘Legislative proposal on criminalization of identity theft (included in the European strategy of identity management)’, October 2010. Available at:

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and also investigate the dark numbers of criminal identity theft cases’. Van Der Meulen notes that most of the regulatory initiatives’ main focus is on financial identity theft but hardly in criminal identity theft, implying that more attention should be drawn to this face of identity theft as victims of the latter suffer a greater damage and have barely any legal resources to turn at in order to clean their ‘good names’ (Idem.).

Concluding Remarks

The objective of this chapter has been to analyze the power and value of personal identity for individuals in the context of the modern nation-state. Thus, it can be concluded that personal identity is a primary tool that lets individuals acknowledge that they are who they say they are and that they are citizens of a particular state. It allows a person to access different economical, social and political benefits such as –health care and financial aid provided by welfare states. Moreover, it gives access to services provided by private companies such as credits, loans, mortgages, and insurances. These benefits and services ease people’s financial life on a daily basis.

Socially speaking, personal identity relates the individual to particular institutions, organizations and other social networks that conforms a society. This aspect of personal identity provides a power relationship that works as a key that opens different doors inside a society as it can be used to demonstrate a person belongs to a particular group or an exclusive club. For these reasons stealing a person’s identity has become a gainful business for criminals and thieves. Their profit relies on the fact that identity theft is not very well regulated, it is usually prosecuted as a felony or an offense, and only condemn as a crime when it is associated with major criminal activities such as money laundering, drug trafficking and terrorism.

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understood and addressed yet. Most of the data available focuses on identity theft and its victims from a financial perspective, rather than showing statistics related to crimes.

Currently, in order to combat identity theft and identity fraud governments, international organizations and industry leaders have brought their expertise together to improve security features and implement preventive campaigns. Some regulation’s and initiative amendments have been introduced, particularly in the US and the EU. A step forward will be gained if the prohibition of the request of the Social Security Number by private enterprises and governmental offices is accomplished in the former; and the recognition of identity theft as a crime is legally acknowledge in the latter by the end of 2012. Still, major efforts have to be done in studying domestic and global policies, laws, and regulations to determine the best practices to protect personal identity.

Although substantive efforts to improve regulations can be acknowledge, major legal loopholes remain in laws and regulations. For this reason individuals should take preventive measures to protect their identity. An individual’s legal identity is like owning a key. The key has no value on its own, but when it is lost or stolen it causes disproportionate insecurity to its owner in relation to the value of the key itself. Identity theft causes further costs not only to the individual but also to private companies and governments. While at the individual level the cost of the loss is related to the time and expenses involved in trying to restore one’s identity, at the private and governmental levels the costs of identity theft could be reflected in the loss of billions of money every year.

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Chapter 3 – Fraud and Identity Theft in the Wake of Natural

Disaster Events

‘We will be able to tell who you are, if you live where you said you do’ David Paulison, FEMA director

Fraud is a complex and multifaceted crime that has as a result highly financial losses which are related to its versatile forms of deceiving people, organizations and governmental agencies (Davila, Marquart & Mullings, 2005, 271). In the previous chapter the consequences of the financial losses along with the value of personal identity were explored in order to settle down a basic notion of the scope of this crime. This chapter, however, will focus on the potential for fraud in a natural disaster context where there is expected to be an increase loss of victims’ identity proof. Particularly, this chapter will address the concept of natural disaster and its most common facets; how is risk assessed within this environment, which are its phases and how is it managed; and which are the most common types of fraud. Moreover, it will look at how disaster victims with no identity documents can become subject to identity theft or fraud and how has this been managed. Furthermore, it will be studied how these situations have represented a challenge to local governments and international organizations by analyzing as case a study Hurricane Katrina as well as other natural disasters in the US that had happen in the 21st century. Overall, the main aim of this chapter is to answer the central questions of why natural disasters enhance the opportunity for fraud and identity theft, and how does this represent a threat to international security.

Natural Disasters as a Threat for International Security

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cyclones and hurricanes in that region (Prasad & Singh, 2007, 4709). Hurricane Katrina (category 5) specifically, was the most powerful hurricane to strike the US in that year, threatening this state’s security by causing catastrophic damages and numerous fatalities in the areas of Louisiana and Mississippi (Ibid, 4710-4712). Moreover, Katrina has become one of the most expensive natural disasters in this country’s history, both in money and lives. However, from Alagona’s (2006, 77) perspective nature was not responsible for New Orleans’ collapse, but ‘human choices, blunders, and unintended historical consequences’. For these reasons, when studying natural disasters, he founds imperative to question the meaning of the term and its implications (Idem.).

Conceptualizing Natural Hazards and Disasters

Natural disasters are often defined as ‘destructive event[s] caused by the forces of nature’ (Alagona, 2006, 77). However, before a natural event becomes a natural disaster, it is actually considered a natural hazard (Dilley et al., 2005). When a natural hazard interacts with elements that are susceptible to damage, such as individuals, infrastructure, and economically or environmentally important land uses, disaster losses are caused (Ibid., 2). The first level of disaster losses start with individual elements, but their scopes in a large-scale can reach up to economic or social system break downs (Idem.). Therefore, for Slettebak (2012, 164), natural disasters are constituted by three elements namely, (1) hazards, which refer to a natural phenomenon; (2) exposure, which is related to infrastructure as a spotlight due to its location and weather if this makes it more prone to natural disasters; and (3) vulnerability, which makes reference to the preparedness of people and settlements to resist the devastating consequences of natural hazards. Consequently, several scholars agree that apart from the damaging results strong hazards can expectedly bring, the probability that a natural disaster occurs depends on ‘human preparation’(Alagona, 2006; Birkmann, 2006; Slettebak, 2012; Wisner et al., 2004). Thus, governments and citizens failure to adapt and/or moderately prevent potential natural hazards will eventually bring a natural disaster as an end result (Slettebak, 2012, 164).