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SOCIAL CHANGE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF 'MODERN' POLITICS IN TRAVANCORE: FROM THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY TO 1938

Name o f C a n d id a te :

James L a z a r C h iriy a n k a n d a th

D e g re e ;

D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y

C o lle g e ;

S c h o o l o f O r ie n t a l and A f r ic a n S tu d ie s

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A b s t r a c t

The s u b je c t i s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p o l i t i c s , w i t h i n a c o n t e x t o f s o c i a l change, i n th e I n d ia n p r i n c e l y s t a t e o f T ra v a n c o re . The t h e s is i s d iv id e d i n t o tw o p a r t s : P a r t One fo c u s e s upon s o c i a l ch a n g e , and P a r t Two on p o l i t i c s .

S in c e , i n c o n s id e r in g th e emergence o f 'm o d e rn ' fo rm s o f p o l i t i c a l e x p r e s s io n we a re c o n c e rn e d w it h th e t w in themes o f p o l i t i c a l s o c i a l ­ i s a t i o n and m o b il i s a t i o n , P a r t One e x p lo re s th e s o c i a l b a c k g ro u n d . B e g in n in g w it h th e l a t t e r h a l f o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y i t d e a ls w it h th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f communal i d e n t i t y . C h a p te rs Two and T hree g iv e a s u rv e y o f th e c a s te s and c o m m u n itie s i n th e s t a t e and t h e i r s i t u a t i o n a t th e t u r n o f th e c e n t u r y . They c o v e r s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s re fo r m movements and th e emergence o f communal a s s o c ia t io n s . C h a p te r F o ur i s d e v o te d t o r e l i g i o u s re fo r m i n th e 1918-38 p e r io d . C h a p te r F iv e tu r n s t o th e economy o f T ra v a n c o re : i t c o n s id e r s th e r i s e o f c a p i t a lis m and th e consequences o f change f o r n a s c e n t c la s s c o n f l i c t .

H a v in g exam ined p o l i t i c a l d e ve lo p m e n t p r i o r t o 1918 i n C h a p te r One, P a r t Two c o n c e n tr a te s on p o l i t i c s i n th e e v e n t f u l 1 91 8 -3 8 p e r io d .

C h a p te r S ix d e a ls w it h th e fo r m a tio n o f th e e a r ly p o l i t i c a l a s s o c ia t io n s and th e cam paigns f o r c i v i c e q u a lit y and l e g i s l a t i v e r e fo r m i n 1 9 i8 - 2 2 . C h a p te r Seven c o v e rs th e communal p o l i t i c s o f th e 1 9 2 0 s, C h a p te r E ig h t exam ines th e A b s te n tio n movement o f 1933-35 t h a t s o u g h t an end t o th e p o l i t i c a l and a d m in i s t r a t iv e dom inance o f c a s te - H in d u s . The f i n a l

c h a p te r lo o k s a t th e b a c k g ro u n d t o th e fo r m a tio n , i n 1938, o f th e m u l t i - communal T ra v a n c o re S ta te Congress on a p la t f o r m o f r e s p o n s ib le g o v e rn ­ m ent.

The c o n c lu s io n re v ie w s th e t r a n s f o r m a t io n o f p o l i t i c s i n a p e r io d o f s o c i a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l change - th e d ev e lo p m e n t and e x p r e s s io n o f a new sense o f communal i d e n t i t y , n a t io n a lis m , and an em e rg en t c la s s c o n s c io u s n e s s . I t th e n goes on t o c o n s id e r th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a l l th r e e i n p o s t-1 9 3 8 K e r a la .

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Acknow legdem ents 4

L i s t o f A b b r e v ia t io n s 5

Map o f T ra v a n c o re 6

I . I n t r o d u c t i o n : i . The H is t o r io g r a p h y o f Modern T ra v a n c o re 7 i i . T ra v a n c o re and I t s P o l i t i c s B e fo re 1918 9 P a r t I : S o c ia l Change fro m th e L a te N in e te e n th C e n tu ry t o 1938

I I . C a s te s ; S o c ia l R eform and I d e n t i t y 27

I I I . C o m m u n itie s : S o c ia l R eform and I d e n t i t y 63 I V . C a ste O r g a n is a t io n s , R e lig io u s Reform and H in d u R e v iv a lis m 90 V. The D e ve lop m e n t o f C a p it a lis m and th e R ise o f T ra d e U nions 109 P a r t I I : P o l i t i c s 1918 t o 1938

V I. 1 9 1 8 -1 9 2 2 : The Emergence o f ’ M o d ern ’ P o l i t i c s 128

V I I . 1 9 2 2 -3 2 : Communalism and N a tio n a lis m 167

V I I I . 1 9 3 3 -1 9 3 5 : The A b s te n tio n Movement 216

IX . 1 9 3 5 -1 9 3 8 : The J o i n t P o l i t i c a l Congress and th e F o rm a tio n

o f th e S ta te Congress 262

C o n c lu s io n ; The P o l i t i c s o f Com m unity, C la s s and N a tio n 295 T a b le s ;

1. P o p u la tio n o f T ra v a n c o re i n 1931 302

2 . Land i n T ra v a n c o re 303

3. O w nership o f Wet Land 304

4 . O w n ership o f D ry Land 305

5 . P e rc e n ta g e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f C la s s e s o f Owners o f Wet Land 306 6 . P e rc e n ta g e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f C la s s e s o f Owners o f D ry Land 307 7. The E l e c t o r a l S tr e n g th o f th e P r i n c i p a l C o m m u n itie s i n 1931 308

B io g r a p h ic a l N o tes 309

B ib lio g r a p h y 316

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Page

5 Add ’ SMPAP - Sri Mtilam Popular Assembly Proceedings’.

22 Add to n. 1 'V. Rangaswaini r The Story of Integration.

A New Interpretation in the Context of the Democratic Movements in the Princely States of Mysore. Travancore and Cochin 1900-1947. New Delhi 1981'.

2 2 Add to n . 3 ’C.J,Baker, The Politics of South India 1920-1937, Cambridge 1976’.

122 Add to n.2 (after Sree Padomvaka) 'Sree Pandaravaka and Kundukrishivaka’.

1 6 3 Add n.107a - ’Freedom Fighters, pp.258-59*.

294 Add to n , 1^5 'Perumal, op.cit., p p . 4 6 - 4 9 ’.

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F i r s t o f a l l , I m ust e x p re s s my g r a t i t u d e t o my p a r e n ts f o r t h e i r u n g ru d g in g s u p p o r t o v e r th e p a s t f o u r y e a r s . The S c h o o l o f O r ie n t a l and A f r ic a n S tu d ie s and th e C e n tr a l R esearch Fund, U n iv e r s it y o f London, a id e d w it h th e fin a n c e f o r my f i e l d re s e a rc h i n I n d ia in 1 9 8 2 -8 3 .

I w o u ld a ls o l i k e t o r e c o r d my a p p r e c ia t io n o f th e in v a lu a b le a s s is ta n c e re n d e re d by th e s t a f f o f v a r io u s l i b r a r i e s and a r c h iv e s I have u se d , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e a t th e I n d ia O f f i c e L i b r a r y , London, and th e K e r a la S e c r e t a r i a t R e c o rd s , T riv a n d ru m .

F i n a l l y , th a n k s s h o u ld go t o my s u p e r v is o r , D r P e te r Robb, f o r h is p a t i e n t g u id a n c e , and t o S a r a h , f o r h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l c o m p a n io n s h ip and p r a c t i c a l h e lp . T h a t t h i s t h e s is has seen th e l i g h t o f day i s , i n la r g e m easure, due t o th e s u s ta in e d i n t e r e s t th e y have b o th ta k e n .

James L a z a r C h iriy a n k a n d a th London, 31 May 1985.

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S e le c t L i s t o f A b b r e v ia tio n s

C l Census o f I n d ia

CT Census o f T ra v a n c o re C h .J . C h ie f J u s t ic e

CMSP C hurch M is s io n a r y S o c ie ty P ro c e e d in g s CS

•X

C o n f i d e n t i a l S e c tio n f i l e s CSP C ongress S o c i a l i s t P a r ty CRR Crown R e p re s e n ta tiv e R ecords FR F o r t n i g h t l y R e p o rt

G e n l.

■X

G e n e ra l f i l e s

G e n l. ( P o l) G e n e ra l ( P o l i t i c a l ) f i l e s

IMC/CBMS I n t e r n a t i o n a l M is s io n a ry C o u n c il/C o n fe r e n c e o f B r i t i s h M is s io n a r y S o c ie t ie s

INC I n d ia n N a t io n a l Congress J u d i c i a l

X

J u d i c i a l f i l e s

KPCC K e r a la P radesh C ongress C om m ittee Leg.

■X

L e g i s l a t i v e S e c tio n f i l e s LMS London M is s io n a r y S o c ie ty

MLA Member o f th e L e g i s l a t i v e ( o r S r i Mulam) Assem bly MLC Member o f th e L e g is l a t i v e ( o r S r i C h it h r a ) C o u n c il MNNR M adras N a tiv e Newspapers R e p o rt

MSD M adras S ta te s D ir e c t o r y

MSMD Madras S ta te s and M ysore D ir e c t o r y RRSC R e g io n a l R ecords S u rve y C om m ittee

RPT R e g u la tio n s and P ro c la m a tio n s o f T ra v a n c o re P o l.

•X

P o l i t i c a l f i l e s

SMAP S r i Mulam Assem bly P ro c e e d in g s

SCSCP S r i C h it h r a S ta te C o u n c il P ro c e e d in g s TAD T ra v a n c o re Alm anac and D ir e c t o r y TAR T ra v a n c o re A d m in is t r a t iv e R e p o rt TLA T ra v a n c o re L a b o u r A s s o c ia t io n

TLCP T ra v a n c o re L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c il P ro c e e d in g s TLJ T ra v a n c o re Law J o u r n a l

TLR T ra v a n c o re Law R e p o rt

TSCC T ra v a n c o re S ta te C a t h o lic Congress WSB W eekly S e c r e t B u l l e t i n

YMNA Young M en's N a ir A s s o c ia t io n

* T ra v a n c o re G overnm ent f i l e s , K e r a la S e c r e t a r i a t . F o r d e t a i l s see B ib lio g r a p h y .

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I n t r o d u c t i o n

i . The H is t o r io g r a p h y o f Modern T ra v a n c o re

The In d ia n s t a t e s , t h a t a c c o u n te d f o r a t h i r d o f th e a re a and a

q u a r t e r o f th e p o p u la tio n o f th e s u b - c o n t in e n t b e fo r e 1947, have o n ly r e c e n t ly begun t o a t t r a c t th e a t t e n t i o n o f h i s t o r i a n s . The s t u d ie s by B a rb a ra Ramusack, Ia n C opland and S tephen A shto n have c o n c e n tr a te d on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e p r in c e s and th e B r i t i s h , w h ile V a n a ja R angasw am i's e x a m in a tio n o f M yso re , T ra v a n c o re and C o c h in c o n s id e rs d e v e lo p m e n ts w i t h i n th e s t a t e s s p e c i f i c a l l y i n r e l a t i o n t o th e n a tio n a ­ l i s t m ovem ent.^

The i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s o f th e s t a t e s th u s re m a in t o be f u l l y e x p lo r e d , and i t i s u n s u r p r is in g t h a t th o s e s e e k in g t o f i l l th e gap s h o u ld have begun w it h tw o o f th e most p o p u lo u s and p o l i t i c i s e d s t a t e s - Mysore and T ra v a n c o re . The w o rks by Bjjzfrn H e ttn e and dames Manor on t w e n t ie t h - c e n tu r y M yso re , and t h a t o f R obin J e f f r e y on T ra v a n c o re i n th e second h a l f o f th e n in e te e n th c e n t u r y , s h o u ld be m e n tio n e d i n t h i s re g a r d .2 T h e ir s t u d ie s app e ared a t a tim e when S outh I n d ia n h is t o r io g r a p h y i n g e n e r a l b e n e f it e d fro m th e s u rg e o f i n t e r e s t i n r e g io n a l h i s t o r y a ro u s e d by th e in f lu e n c e o f th e s o - c a lle d Cam bridge s c h o o l, r e p re s e n te d i n th e S outh by D .A .W ashbrook and C .J .B a k e r. D a v id A rn o ld has a ls o c o v e re d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p o l i t i c s i n th e Madras P re s id e n c y betw een 1870 and 1940.3 My s tu d y o f T ra v a n c o re i s aim ed a t c o m p le m e n tin g t h e i r w o rk , and t h a t o f J e f f r e y and M anor, as w e l l as c o n t r i b u t i n g to w a rd s th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e b a c k g ro u n d t o modern K e r a la p o l i t i c s .

S o c ia l and r e l i g i o u s change i n K e r a la i n th e n in e te e n th and tw e n t­

i e t h c e n t u r ie s has been c o m p a r a tiv e ly w e l l c o v e re d . A p a r t fro m th e w o rk done by J e f f r e y , th e C a t h o lic s o c i o l o g i s t s , F ra n c o is H o u ta r t and4

G enevieve L e m e r c in ie r , have a tte m p te d t o r e l a t e s o c i o - r e l i g i o u s3

movements t o th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c a p it a lis m ; M .S .A .R a o ^ has lo o k e d a t th e Ezhava u p l i f t movement; and T .K .R a v in d ra n 7 has made a s tu d y o f th e 1924

g

Vaikom S a ty a g ra h a . M ost r e c e n t ly , Susan B a y ly has c o n s id e re d th e o r i g i n o f com m unity i n K e r a la , w h ile J .W .G la d s to n e 9 has fo c u s e d upon th e

c o n v e rs io n o f lo w - c a s te H in d u s t o C h r i s t i a n i t y i n th e p e r io d fro m 1850 t o 1936.

H ow ever, no s u b s t a n t i a l re s e a rc h has h i t h e r t o been u n d e rta k e n 9 q

on th e p o l i t i c s o f e a r ly t w e n t ie t h - c e n t u r y T ra v a n c o re . S e v e ra l M a la y a li h i s t o r i a n s , such as M .K .K o s h y , K.K.Kusuman and T . K . V ija y a Mohan, have p ro d u c e d a c o l l e c t i o n o f la r g e l y u n c r i t i c a l n a r r a t i v e a c c o u n ts ,

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p r i n c i p a l l y n o ta b le f o r t h e i r le n g th y e x t r a c t s fro m p r im a r y s o u rc e s . 10 J e f f r e y ’ s The D e c lin e o f N ayar Dominance ends i n 1 908, w h ile h i s a r t i c l e on th e T ra v a n c o re S ta te C ongress d e a ls o n ly w it h th e decade a f t e r 1 9 3 8 .^

The in t e r v e n in g p e r io d was one i n w h ic h T ra v a n c o re a n p o l i t i c s c r y s t a l l i s e d u nd e r th e im p a c t o f b o th f a r - r e a c h in g s o c i a l and econ o m ic changes w i t h in th e s t a t e and th e r i s e o f n a t io n a lis m i n B r i t i s h I n d i a . My t h e s is

exam ines d e ve lo p m e n ts i n t h i s p e r io d i n two p a r t s : C h a p te rs Two t o F iv e a re d e v o te d t o s o c i a l change fro m th e end o f th e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h ile th e n e x t f o u r c h a p te r s c o n s id e r th e e v o l u t io n o f p o l i t i c s i n th e 1 91 8 -3 8 p e r io d .

The c e n t r a l theme o f th e s tu d y i s th e r o l e p la y e d by c a s te and

c o m m u n ity , and l a t e r by n a t io n a lis m and c la s s , i n p o l i t i c a l s o c i a l i s a t i o n . T h e r e fo r e , we b e g in w it h th e v a r io u s movements f o r s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s r e fo r m t h a t emerged betw een th e m id - n in e te e n th c e n tu r y and th e 1930s.

By in d u c in g an aw areness o f a d i s t i n c t communal i d e n t i t y , th e movements e n s u re d t h a t , i n i t i a l l y , p e o p le were drawn i n t o th e new p o l i t i c a l s y s te m , w it h i t s modes o f o p e r a t io n and s t r u c t u r e m o d e lle d on th e W e st, as

members o f a p a r t i c u l a r c a s te o r co m m u n ity. H ow ever, as th e s p h e re o f p o l i t i c s expanded t o embrace g ro up s o u ts id e th e w e a lth y and e d u c a te d communal e l i t e s , c la s s c o n s c io u s n e s s and n a t io n a lis m a ls o became s i g n i f ­ i c a n t f a c t o r s i n p o l i t i c a l m o b i li s a t i o n . As a r e s u l t , by 1938, c o m m u n ity, c la s s , and n a t io n w ere a l l im p o r t a n t c a tc h w o rd s f o r T r a v a n c o r e 's

p o l i t i c i a n s .

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i i . T ra v a n c o re and I t s P o l i t i c s B e fo re 1918

L o c a te d i n th e e x tre m e s o u th -w e s t o f th e In d ia n s u b c o n tin e n t, th e p r in c e l y s t a t e o f T ra v a n c o re was b o rd e re d in th e n o r th by C ochin S t a t e , t o th e e a s t by Madras P re s id e n c y , and t o th e w e s t-a n d s o u th by th e A ra b ia n Sea and th e In d ia n Ocean. W ith an a re a o f o v e r 7 ,6 0 0

12 s q u a re m ile s and a p o p u la t io n , in 1921, o f j u s t o v e r f o u r m i l l i o n , i t ra n k e d s e v e n te e n th among th e 562 p r in c e l y s t a t e s i n te rm s o f a re a , and t h i r d ( b e h in d H yderabad and M ysore) i n p o p u la t io n .

I s o la t e d fro m Madras P re s id e n c y by th e W e stern G h a ts , T ra v a n c o re was d is t in g u is h e d by i t s r i c h t r o p i c a l v e g e t a t io n . A b o u t a t h i r d o f

i t s a re a was c o v e re d by dense ju n g le , and a n o th e r t h i r d by low ju n g le . By th e 1910s te a and cardamom p la n t a t i o n s were b e g in n in g t o be a common s i g h t on m ost o f th e h ig h e r e le v a t io n s , w it h o th e r cash c ro p s , such as p e p p e r, ru b b e r and g in g e r , f l o u r i s h i n g i n th e le s s e r u p la n d s .

T here w ere re s e r v e f o r e s t s o f v a lu a b le tim b e r i n b o th r e g io n s . Paddy c u l t i v a t i o n was fo u n d i n t e r r a c e d s t r e t c h e s a lo n g v a l le y s , % and was a ls o e x te n s iv e i n th e i r r i g a t e d a re a s o f N a n jin a d and Edanad i n th e s o u th , and i n th e b a c k w a te r r e c la m a tio n s o f K u tta n a d i n th e n o r th - th e tw o 'r i c e - b o w l s ' o f T ra v a n c o re . The c o a s t a l b e l t was - c o v e re d w it h dense c o c o n u t p l a n t a t i o n s , and in t e r s e c t e d by la g o o n s , b a c k w a te r s , and r i v e r s f lo w in g w e s t i n t o th e A ra b ia n Sea.

The s t a t e was p e c u lia r even a m id s t th e d i v e r s i t y o f th e I n d ia n s u b c o n tin e n t. One o f th e s t r o n g e s t b a s tio n s o f H in d u o rth o d o x y and th e c a s te syste m i n s o u th e r n I n d i a , i t in c lu d e d th e l a r g e s t , o ld e s t and s o c i a l l y b e s t - p o s it io n e d , c o n c e n tr a t io n o f C h r is t ia n s i n I n d ia - th e S y r ia n C h r is t i a n s . F u rth e rm o re , w h ile e x h i b i t i n g an e x t r a o r d in ­ a r i l y r a p id r a t e o f p ro g re s s i n a s p e c ts o f m o d e r n is a tio n such as l i t e r a c y , i t , n e v e r t h e le s s , m a in ta in e d an outmoded fo rm o f s o c ia l

o r g a n is a t io n - th e m a t r i l i n e a l j o i n t - f a m i l y o f th e c a s te -H in d u N a ir s - r i g h t u n t i l th e 1920s.

The h a l f c e n tu r y fro m th e M a la y a la M e m o ria l o f 1891 t o th e

cam paign f o r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f r e s p o n s ib le g o ve rn m e n t i n T ra v a n c o re i n 1938, was a p e r io d o f s o c i a l , econom ic and p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t w h ic h gave th e s t a t e th e r e p u t a t io n o f b e in g among th e most p r o g r e s s iv e o f th e In d ia n p r i n c i p a l i t i e s . A few s t a t i s t i c s drawn fro m th e

d e c e n n ia l Census and a n n u a l A d m in is t r a t iv e R e p o rts w i l l s e rv e as a g u id e t o th e pace o f ch an g e. I n d e m o g ra p h ic te rm s , th e p o p u la tio n more th a n d o u b le d - fro m tw o and a h a l f t o o v e r s i x m i l l i o n - betw een 1891 and 1941, w it h th e p r o p o r t io n o f H in d us d e c lin in g fro m 73 t o 60 p e r c e n t;

th e c o rr e s p o n d in g C h r is t ia n p e rc e n ta g e r i s i n g fro m 21 t o 32 . 13

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One o f th e most t h i c k l y p o p u la te d a re a s o f I n d i a , se con d o n ly t o n e ig h b o u r in g C o c h in , T ra v a n c o re had a d e n s ity o f 525 p e rs o n s p e r

s q u a re m ile i n 1921. W ith in tw e n ty y e a rs t h i s a v e ra g e had in c re a s e d t o n e a r ly e ig h t h u n d re d . O nly a t e n t h o f th e p o p u la tio n was enum erated as l i v i n g i n tow ns i n 1921. A p a rt fro m T riv a n d ru m , th e s t a t e c a p i t a l , o n ly t h r e e tow ns - N a g e r c o il, Q u ilo n and A lle p p e y - b o a s te d a

p o p u la tio n i n e xcess o f 2 5 ,0 0 0 .

One o f th e m ost s t r i k i n g fe a t u r e s o f th e s t a t e was th e h ig h p e rc e n ta g e o f l i t e r a t e p e o p le . T h is was th e r e s u l t o f th e e f f o r t s o f th e C h r is t ia n m is s io n a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s s in c e th e e a r ly n in e te e n th c e n t u r y , and th e v ig o r o u s p o l i c y o f e d u c a tio n a l e x p a n s io n p u rs u e d by T ra v a n c o re a n g o ve rn m e n ts fro m th e 1860s. I n 1891, one i n te n T ra v a n c o - re a n s was l i t e r a t e ; by 1921 t h i s had r is e n t o one i n f o u r , and in 1941 th e f ig u r e was a lm o s t one i n e v e ry tw o . 15 T h is re p re s e n te d a t e n f o l d in c r e a s e i n th e number o f l i t e r a t e s , fro m 280 ,00 0 t o 2 .8 m i l l i o n , and meant t h a t l i t e r a c y i n T ra v a n c o re was f o u r tim e s th e I n d ia n a v e ra g e , and on a p a r w it h a s o u th e rn European s t a t e o f c o m p a ra b le s iz e - such as P o r tu g a l.

I n th e l i g h t o f t h i s f a c t i t i s u n s u r p r is in g t h a t th e p re s s i n th e s t a t e grew r a p i d l y , and was e a s i ly th e most a c t i v e i n any I n d ia n

p r i n c i p a l i t y . I n 1 8 9 3 -4 th e v e r n a c u la r p re s s l i s t i n th e T ra v a n c o re A d m in is t r a t iv e R e p o rt, in c lu d e d o n ly seven new spapers w it h a com bined c i r c u l a t i o n o f 4 ,1 5 0 . 16 By 1 9 0 3 -4 c i r c u l a t i o n had q u a d ru p le d , and in th e n e x t tw o decades i t more th a n q u in t u p le d , so t h a t by 1921 i t was o v e r 8 2 ,0 0 0 . The A d m in is t r a t iv e R e p o rt f o r 1 9 2 3 -2 4 gave a t o t a l o f 43 new spapers and 73 p e r i o d i c a l s , b u t f o l lo w in g th e 1926 Newspaper R e g u la tio n , th e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f p u b lic a t io n s was ch ecke d a nd , by 1 9 3 9 -4 0 , th e a g g re g a te o f p a p e rs was down t o 88. One i n 50 T ra v a n c o - re a n s was a new spaper re a d e r i n 1921 - a p r o p o r t io n t h a t re m a in e d c o n s ta n t o v e r th e n e x t tw o deca d es.

T ra v a n c o re i n 1921 was a p re d o m in a n tly a g r a r ia n s o c i e t y , w it h o v e r h a l f th e p o p u la tio n engaged i n fa r m in g , as compared t o o n ly a te n t h i n t r a d e , and a f i f t h i n in d u s t r y . 20 The v a s t m a jo r it y o f th e l a t t e r were in v o lv e d i n c o tta g e i n d u s t r i e s , and th e r e w ere few f a c t o r i e s o f any s i z e . M ost o f th e in d u s t r y was r e la t e d t o p ro c e s s in g th e p ro d u c e o f th e p l a n t a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e s e c t o r , e s p e c ia lly te a ( i n th e h ig h la n d ra n g e s o f D e v ic o la m ) and c o c o n u t ( c o n c e n tr a te d ro u n d th e p o r t o f A lle p p e y ) .

The e x p a n s io n o f p l a n t a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e i n th e e a r ly t w e n t ie t h c e n tu r y c o n t r i b u t e d t o a phenom enal in c r e a s e i n c o m m e rc ia l a c t i v i t y

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in th e s t a t e . The number o f r e g is t e r e d j o i n t s to c k com panies ro s e fro m t e n , i n 1 8 9 2 -3 , t o 132 i n 1 9 1 6 -1 7 . I t re a c h e d a peak o f 943 i n 1932-33 when T ra v a n c o re a c c o u n te d f o r a f i f t h o f a l l th e banks i n I n d ia . 21

Though th e number o f com panies had d ro pp e d s h a r p ly - t o 407 - by 1940, T ra v a n c o re s t i l l had more th a n t w ic e th e number r e g is t e r e d i n th e much la r g e r s t a t e o f M y s o r e .22

Some o f th e m ain fe a t u r e s o f s o c io -e c o n o m ic change i n modern T ra v a n c o re c a n , th u s , be sum m arised as f o l lo w s : a r a p id r a t e o f p o p u la tio n g ro w th , w it h a s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t i n communal s t r e n g t h s ; a h ig h l i t e r a c y r a t e t h a t was th e r e s u l t o f im p r e s s iv e e d u c a tio n a l e x p a n s io n ; th e r i s e o f a s iz e a b le n e w s p a p e r-re a d in g p u b l i c ; and th e

g ro w th o f commerce, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e s e c to r s o f b a n k in g and p l a n t a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e . Some o th e r p ro m in e n t fe a t u r e s i n th e t r a n s f o r m a t io n o f

T ra v a n c o re s h o u ld a ls o be n o te d . These in c lu d e th e f i n a l b re a k u p o f th e m a t r i l i n e a l N a ir j o i n t - f a m i l y ( th e ’ t a r a v a d ') , and th e r e la t e d h ig h in c id e n c e o f la n d t r a n s f e r i n th e 1920s and 1 9 3 0 s, w h ic h b e n e f it e d S y r ia n C h r is t ia n s i n p a r t i c u l a r . T here was a ls o th e upw ard econom ic and s o c i a l m o b i l i t y o f members o f th e b ackw ard Ezhava c a s te , and th e

new a s s e r tiv e n e s s o f th e Ezhavas and th e e x - s la v e c a s te s o f

P u la y a s and P a ra y a s . T h is h e lp e d t o b r in g a b o u t th e re fo r m o f t r a d i t i o n a l H in d u is m , c u lm in a tin g i n th e Temple E n try P ro c la m a tio n o f 1936.

The s t a t e o f T ra v a n c o re came i n t o b e in g i n th e m id - e ig h te e n th c e n t u r y . I t r e s u lt e d fro m th e e x te n s io n n o rth w a rd o f th e dom ain o f R a ja M a rth an d a Varma o f Venad (1 7 2 9 - 5 8 ) , fro m w h a t was t o become th e s t a t e c a p i t a l o f T riv a n d ru m . Venad had been a fe u d a to r y o f th e second Chera e m p ire ( c . 800-1102 AD) based a t Mahodayapuram, n o r th o f modern C o c h in . C ontem poraneous w it h th e T a m il C h o la and Pandya Kingdoms f u r t h e r e a s t , th e C heras d e v e lo p e d a s m a ll e m p ire c o v e r in g much o f p r e s e n t day K e r a la . 23 The e m p ire had s t r o n g c o m m e rc ia l t i e s w it h West A s ia , and betw een th e f o u r t h and n in t h c e n t u r ie s , J e w is h , C h r is t ia n and M u s lim , s e tt le m e n t s w ere e s t a b lis h e d a lo n g th e M a la b a r c o a s t.

The Chera e m p ir e 's d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , i n th e c o u rs e o f th e e le v e n th c e n t u r y , was th e r e s u l t o f th e c o n s ta n t cam paigns la u n c h e d a g a in s t i t by i t s p o w e r fu l C h o la n e ig h b o u r. By th e e a r ly t w e l f t h c e n tu r y th e Chera r u l i n g h o u s e , th e K u la s e k h a ra s , had s h i f t e d t h e i r s e a t t o th e p o r t o f Q u ilo n , f o l l o w i n g th e C h o la s ' d e s t r u c t io n o f Mahodayapuram,

The C hera r u l e r , Rama Varma K u la s e k h a ra (1 0 9 0 -1 1 0 2 ), i s c o n s id e re d th e fo u n d e r o f th e Venad r o y a l f a m ily .24

I n th e wake o f th e c o lla p s e o f th e C hera e m p ire , th e r e emerged f o u r s m a ll c o a s t a l kingdom s - K o la ttu n a d , K o z h ik o d e , C o ch in and Venad - and

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a la r g e number o f s e m i-in d e p e n d e n t p r i n c i p a l i t i e s i n th e h i n t e r l a n d . The s i t u a t i o n t h a t p r e v a ile d i n K e r a la p r i o r t o th e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y has been d e s c r ib e d as b e a r in g a s tr o n g re se m b la n ce t o th e fe u d a lis m o f e le v e n th c e n tu r y W estern E u ro p e . The s m a lle s t p o l i t i c a l u n i t was25 th e ' d e s a m ', p r e s id e d o v e r by th e 1d e s a v a z h i1, th e h e r e d it a r y c a s te - H indu ( N a ir ) headman. He owed a lle g ia n c e to th e 'n a d u v a z h i', th e N a ir head o f a number o f desams, w h ic h c o n s t it u t e d a 'n a d ', o r t e r r i t o r y . A c h i e f who had a t l e a s t a h u n d re d N a ir f o llo w e r s was c o n s id e re d a n a d u v a z h i, and owed a lle g ia n c e t o th e r a j a , b e in g e x p e c te d t o s u p p ly h im w it h f i g h t i n g f o r c e s i n tim e o f need.26

I n V enad,a s e tt le m e n t i n 1050 AD had g ra n te d th e a d m in i s t r a t io n o f th e S r i Padmanabhaswami Temple i n T riv a n d ru m t o an 'E tta r a y o g a m '

( c o u n c il o f e ig h t and a h a l f v o te s ) o f e ig h t h e r e d it a r y M a la y a la

Brahmans and th e r e ig n i n g r a j a . These 'Y o g a k k a r' ( c o u n c i l l o r s ) d iv id e d th e e x te n s iv e la n d s owned by th e te m p le i n t o e ig h t d i s t r i c t s , o v e r w h ic h th e y a p p o in te d e ig h t N a ir s t o be i n ch arge o f re v e n u e c o l l e c t i o n . The e i g h t , known as th e ' E t t u v e e t t i l P illa m a r ' ( th e L o rd s o f th e

E ig h t H o u s e s ), w ere s a id t o have g r a d u a lly u s u rp e d a l l a u t h o r i t y and re d u ce d th e r a j a t o a f i g u r e head. When R a ja M a rth an d a Varma succeeded 27 t o th e th r o n e i n 1729, he was fa c e d by a r e b e l l i o n , s u p p o rte d by th e Y og a kkar and th e E t t u v e e t t i l P illa m a r , w h ic h he r u t h l e s s l y c ru s h e d . They were b a n is h e d , o r p u t t o d e a th , and t h e i r p r o p e r t y was c o n f is c a t e d . In 1749 M a rth an d a Varma d e d ic a te d h is d o m in io n s i n p e r p e t u i t y t o th e god S r i Padmanabha, and to o k th e t i t l e o f S r i Padmanabha Dasa

( t h e S e rv a n t o f th e L o rd Padm anabha), f o r h im s e lf and h is s u c c e s s o rs .28 A p a r t fro m th e a s s e r t io n o f r o y a l a u t h o r i t y , th e i n t e r n a l p o l i c i e s o f M a rth a n d a Varma had th e lo n g - te r m e f f e c t o f s e r v in g t o und e rm in e th e p re e m in e n ce o f th e M a la y a la Brahman 'ja n m is ' ( l a n d l o r d s ) and th e N a ir n a d u v a z h is and d e s a v a z h is . I t a ls o marked th e b e g in n in g o f th e ascend­

ancy o f f o r e i g n , n o n -M a la y a la Brahmans i n a d m in i s t r a t io n t h a t was th e main g rie v a n c e b e h in d th e M a la y a la M e m o ria l o f 1 8 9 O th e r s i g n i f i c a n t changes in t r o d u c e d by M a rth a n d a Varma were th e c r e a t i o n o f a s ta n d in g a rm y, and an e le m e n ta ry b u re a u c ra c y , w h ic h was aim ed a t m aking th e re ve n u e a d m in i s t r a t io n o f th e s t a t e more e f f i c i e n t .

The t r a n s f o r m a t io n o f Venad i n t o T ra v a n c o re o c c u rre d in s ta g e s and in v o lv e d th e s u b j e c t io n o f numerous l o c a l r a ja s and c h i e f t a i n s .

By M a rth an d a V a rm a 's d e a th i n 1758, th e b o rd e rs o f T ra v a n c o re were much as th e y w ere t o re m a in f o r th e n e x t 190 y e a r s . H is s u c c e s s o r,30 Rama Varma ( 1 7 5 8 -9 8 ), w it h s t o o d th e a tt a c k s o f T ip p u S u lta n w it h th e a id o f th e tr o o p s o f th e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d ia Company, w it h whom

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M a rth a n d a Varma had a lw a y s m a in ta in e d good r e l a t i o n s . I n 1795 a t r e a t y o f p e r p e t u a l a l l i a n c e was c o n c lu d e d betw een th e Company and th e R a ja . " ^

The im m e d ia te im p a c t o f B r i t i s h hegemony was a f u r t h e r u n d e r­

m in in g o f th e pow er and in f lu e n c e o f th e N a ir s , who c o n s t it u t e d th e m ost num erous c a s te -H in d u g ro u p . H a v in g seen t h e i r p re d o m in a n ce i n a d m in i s t r a t io n d e c lin e u n d e r M a rth a n d a Varma, th e N a ir o f f i c e - h o l d i n g c la s s had e x p e rie n c e d a r e v i v a l o f fo r t u n e s d u r in g Rama V a rm a 's r e ig n when tw o o f t h e i r number - Ayyappan M arth an d a P i l l a i and R a ja Kesava Das - s e rv e d as c h i e f m i n i s t e r . H ow ever, f o l lo w in g an a b o r t iv e r e v o l t by th e N a ir D a la v a (D e w a n ), V e lu T am pi, i n 1 8 0 8 -9 , th e B r i t i s h

R e s id e n t, C o lo n e l John M unro, o f f i c i a t e d as Dewan fro m 1 8 1 1 -1 4 , and d e p r iv e d th e m o s tly N a ir 'K a r ia k k a r s ' ( l o c a l o f f i c i a l s ) o f t h e i r m a g is t e r i a l and j u d i c i a l f u n c t io n s , so t h a t th e y became m e re ly t a x c o l l e c t o r s . He a ls o a b o lis h e d th e in d e p e n d e n t 'S a n k e th a m s ' o f th e H in d u te m p le s w it h t h e i r c o n s id e r a b le pow ers and p r i v i l e g e s . I n 1811 th e

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e management o f th e te m p le s was assumed by th e S i r k a r . 32 A n o th e r cause f o r g rie v a n c e f o r th e c a s te -H in d u s was M u n ro 's a tte m p t t o re d u c e t h e i r m onopoly o f th e S ir k a r s e r v ic e by r e c r u i t i n g S y r ia n C h r is t ia n s and a p p o in tin g C h r is t ia n ju d g e s t o th e re fo rm e d j u d i c i a r y . T h is p o l ic y o f e n c o u ra g in g th e in d ig e n o u s C h r is t ia n s was n o t c o n tin u e d by M u n ro 's n o n -M a la y a la Brahman s u c c e s s o r s .3 3

The 1820s and 1830s saw T ra v a n c o re a c q u ir in g some fe a t u r e s o f a modern s t a t e , such as th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a c o d i f i e d s y s te m o f law and th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f new law c o u r ts a lo n g B r i t i s h l i n e s .

The f i r s t census was u n d e rta k e n i n 1836. From th e 1810s B r i t i s h m is s io n a r ie s o f th e C hurch M is s io n a r y S o c ie ty (CMS) and th e London M is s io n a ry S o c ie ty (LMS) w ere t o th e f o r e i n e n c o u ra g in g th e s p re a d o f W e s te rn - s t y l e e d u c a tio n . H ow ever, i t was th e second h a l f o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y t h a t saw th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t changes o c c u r r i n g . - I n 1855 a R o y a l P ro c la m a tio n a b o lis h in g s la v e r y was p ro m u lg a te d a f t e r y e a rs o f c a m p a ig n in g sp e a rh e a d e d by th e m is s io n a r ie s , and i n 1858 a new Dewan, T.M adhava Rao, was a p p o in te d ; he soon g a in e d a r e p u t a t io n as a m o d e rn is e r.

I n h is fo u r t e e n y e a rs i n o f f i c e , Madhava. Rao, w it h th e s u p p o r t o f th e r e ig n i n g M a h a ra ja , A y i l l i a m T ir u n a l ( 1 8 6 0 -8 0 ), c a r r i e d o u t a

w h o le s a le r e o r g a n is a t io n and e x p a n s io n o f s t a t e e d u c a tio n . He a ls o s o u g h t t o r e fo r m th e a g r a r ia n s y s te m , o rg a n is e d a P u b lic Works

d e p a rtm e n t, and e n c o u ra g e d th e g ro w th o f a cash economy. Madhava R a o 's p e r io d was f u r t h e r c h a r a c t e r is e d by th e s te a d y b u r e a u c r a t is in g o f th e

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r a p i d l y e x p a n d in g s t a t e a d m in is t r a t io n .

34

A s i g n i f i c a n t p o l i t i c a l in n o v a t io n was in t r o d u c e d u n d e r one o f Madhava R a o 's s u c c e s s o rs , T.Rama Rao. I n 1888 T ra v a n c o re became th e f i r s t In d ia n s t a t e t o e s t a b lis h a L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c il. M o d e lle d on th e B r i t i s h In d ia n C o u n c ils A c t -of 1861, th e C o u ncil R egulation o r ig in a lly provided f o r s i x o f f i c i a l , and tw o n o n - o f f i c i a l members. H ow ever, i n 1898 th e R e g u la tio n was amended t o a llo w f o r a maximum o f f i f t e e n members, o f whom a t le a s t t w o - f i f t h s had t o be n o n - o f f i c i a l s . ^ I n i t i a l l y , th e m em bership was w h o lly c a s te - H in d u , and i t was m a in ly p re s s u re fro m th e B r i t i s h R e s id e n t, H .B .G r ig g , t h a t p e rsu a d e d th e a d m in i s t r a t io n t o n o m in a te a C h r i s t i a n , V e l l a l a C a t h o lic la w y e r A.M .M uthunayagom P i l l a i , t o th e C o u n c il i n 1 8 9 4 . ^ I t was n o t u n t i l 1896 t h a t a S y ria n C h r is t i a n , K . K . K u r u v ila , a r e t i r e d e n g in e e r i n th e s t a t e P u b lic Works D e p a rtm e n t, was g iv e n a s e a t . ^ A p p o in tm e n t t o th e C o u n c il was l a r g e l y a m a tte r o f p r e s t ig e f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l and com m unity c o n c e rn e d , s in c e i t s

pow ers were s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d , and members c o u ld n o t even r a is e q u e s tio n s o r p ro p o s e m o tio n s .

These a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , s o c i a l and econom ic changes enge nd e re d a r i s i n g p o l i t i c a l c o n s c io u s n e s s w h ic h began t o e x p re s s i t s e l f i n th e 1880s th ro u g h th e fo r m a tio n o f s h o r t - l i v e d a s s o c ia t io n s , such as th e m a in ly N a ir M a la y a li Sabha and th e S y r ia n C h r is t ia n J a th ia k y a Sangham.

I t was a ls o seen i n th e emergence o f th e f i r s t p o p u la r M a la yalam new spapers - th e M a la y a li (1 8 8 6 ), th e N a z ra n i D e e p ik a (1 8 8 7 ) and th e M a la y a la Manorama (1 8 8 9 ).

The M a la y a la M e m o ria l o f 1891 i s c o n s id e re d a la n d m a rk i n th e h i s t o r y o f modern T ra v a n c o re . I t was th e c u lm in a tio n o f th e f i r s t phase i n th e in te r-c o m m u n a l s t r u g g le s t h a t w ere t o d o m in a te th e p o l i t i c s o f th e s t a t e f o r th e n e x t h a l f c e n t u r y . I n i t i a t e d by a g ro u p o f young W e s te rn -e d u c a te d N a ir s , many o f whom were a c t i v e i n th e M a la y a li Sabha, th e M e m o ria l, w h ic h was s u b m itte d t o th e M a h a ra ja , S r i Mulam T i r u n a l, i n J a n u a ry 1891, had as i t s p r i n c i p a l theme th e p re p o n d e ra n c e o f f o r e ig n n o n -M a la y a la Brahm ans, and th e c o rre s p o n d in g ,u n d e r -r e p re s e n t- a t i o n o f n a t iv e M a la y a lis , i n th e h ig h e r a d m in i s t r a t io n o f th e s t a t e . W h ile m e n tio n in g th e c la im s o f th e S y r ia n C h r is t ia n s and th e most

numerous n o n -c a s te - H in d u c o m m u n ity, th e E zhavas, th e M e m o ria l em phasised th e demands o f th e M a la y a li S udras ( i . e . th e N a ir s ) . I t d e c la re d t h a t

'A s th e M a la y a li S udras a re th e m ost l o y a l p o r t i o n o f Y our H ig h n e s s * s u b j e c t s , as th e y a re i n p o i n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , g e n e r a l c u l t u r e and a tta in m e n ts n o t b e h in d any o th e r c la s s i n th e c o u n t r y , as th e y w ere fro m th e e a r l i e s t tim e s t i l l w i t h i n th e l a s t few y e a rs th e r u l i n g ra c e i n th e la n d , and as i t i s th e y t h a t m a in ly c o n t r i b u t e t o th e m a t e r ia l re s o u rc e s o f th e

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s t a t e , more th a n o n e - f o u r th o f w h ic h i s d e r iv e d fro m la n d re v e n u e - t h e i r c la im s on V our H ig h n e s s ' G overnm ent a re Jg»r s t r o n g e r th a n th o s e o f any o th e r c la s s i n th e c o u n t r y . '

The o r g a n is e r s o f th e M e m o ria l seem t o have s o u g h t s u p p o r t fro m o u ts id e th e N a ir c o m m u n ity, e s p e c ia lly fro m S y r ia n C h r i s t i a n s , as a means o f im p re s s in g th e g o v e rn m e n t. In t h i s th e y had some su ccess - tw o o f th e s i x p u b l i c m e e tin g s i n s u p p o rt o f th e M e m o r ia lis t s , h e ld d u r in g th e f i r s t h a l f o f 1891, w ere p r e s id e d o v e r by S y r ia n

3 9

e c c l e s i a s t i c s . I n a d d i t i o n , th e M e m o r ia lis t d e le g a tio n o f s i x t h a t met Dewan T.Rama Rao i n J u ly 1891, in c lu d e d C y r ia c N i d h ir y , a S y r ia n C a t h o lic la n d lo r d and a b ro th e r o f Emmanuel N id h ir y , th e V ic a r G e n e ra l o f K o tta y a m . I n th e l i g h t o f l a t e r d iv e rg e n c e s i n th e p o l i t i c a l s ta n c e o f S y r ia n and n o n -S y ria n C h r is t ia n s , i t m ig h t a ls o be n o te d t h a t a c o u h te r - M e m o ria l movement g a in e d th e s u p p o rt o f p ro m in e n t T a m il

LMS c o n v e r ts i n S outh T ra v a n c o re . F o r in s t a n c e , P .C .J o s e p h , th e e d i t o r o f th e T ra v a n c o re Times o f N a g e r c o il, was a member o f th e c o u n te r - M e m o r ia lis t d e le g a tio n t h a t a ls o met th e Dewan.40

The M e m o r ia lis t s ' p u b l i c cam paign s u b s id e d f o l l o w i n g th e J u ly 1891 a u d ie n c e w it h th e Dewan, a t w h ic h th e c o u n t e r - M e m o r ia lis t s d e c r ie d any d i s t i n c t i o n b e in g made betw een M a la y a lis and n o n - M a la y a lis i n ' a p p o in tm e n ts t o th e p u b l i c s e r v ic e , and r e je c t e d th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f p e o p le as n a t iv e s and f o r e i g n e r s . 41 T h is s ta n c e was l a r g e l y a c c e p te d by th e g o v e rn m e n t, and no s p e c i f i c a s s u ra n c e s f o r th e re d r e s s o f t h e i r g rie v a n c e s was h e ld o u t t o th e M a la y a la M e m o r ia lis t s , th o u g h th e

M a h a ra ja d id s t a t e t h a t he w o u ld be 'h a p p y t o advance t h e i r i n t e r e s t s i n e v e ry l e g it i m a t e w a y '. 42 Thus th e f i r s t modern p o l i t i c a l movement i n T ra v a n c o re ended w it h a p p a r e n tly n o th in g t o show f o r i t s e f f o r t s , a p a r t fro m a few w e ll- a t t e n d e d p u b lic m e e tin g s , an a u d ie n c e w it h th e Dewan, and fa v o u r a b le comment i n th e Madras p re s s .

N o n e th e le s s , th e 1891 M e m o ria l was a w a te rs h e d i n th e p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f T r a v a n c o r e . lt came j u s t th r e e y e a rs a f t e r th e in a u g u r ­ a t i o n o f th e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c il, and a t a tim e when th e scope o f p o l i t i c s i n th e s t a t e was b e in g w id e ne d by th e n e w ly -fo rm e d

a s s o c ia t io n s and th e n a s c e n t M a la yalam p re s s . H i t h e r t o p o l i t i c s had been c o n fin e d t o p a la c e i n t r i g u e , w it h th e o c c a s io n a l i n t e r v e n t i o n by a B r i t i s h R e s id e n t, o r m is s io n a r ie s c a m p a ig n in g f o r s o c i a l r e fo r m s . The M e m o ria l was th e f i r s t p u r e ly in d ig e n o u s e x p r e s s io n o f p u b lic o p in io n t o w h ic h th e g o ve rn m e n t had had t o re s p o n d . I t e s ta b lis h e d a p a t t e r n w hereby p o l i t i c a l cam paigns were la u n c h e d t o b r in g a b o u t

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s o c i a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e re fo rm s i n th e i n t e r e s t s o f p a r t i c u l a r c o m m u n itie s - th e d o m in a n t f e a t u r e o f T ra v a n c o re p o l i t i c s u n t i l th e 1930s, In t h i s sense th e M a la y a la M e m o ria l was th e p r e c u r s o r o f th e movement f o r e q u a l c i v i c r i g h t s i n 1 9 1 8 -2 2 , and th e A b s te n tio n Movement o f 1 9 3 3 -3 5 .

The y e a rs f o l lo w i n g 1891 saw th e p ro m in e n t M e m o r ia lis t - le a d e r s b e in g won o v e r by th e g o ve rn m e n t th ro u g h th e s k i l f u l use o f

p a tro n a g e by Rama R a o 's s u c c e s s o r as Dewan, S .S h u n g a ra s o o b y e r.

These t a c t i c s , w h ile s u c c e s s f u l i n e n s u rin g t h a t th e p u b l i c cam paign a g a in s t f o r e i g n Brahmans was n o t resum ed, a ls o c o n t r i b u t e d t o a s p l i t among th e N a ir le a d e r s t h a t was t o have lo n g - te r m c o n se q u e n ce s.

Two o f th e c h i e f o r g a n is e r s o f th e M e m o ria l a c c e p te d g o ve rn m e n t p o s ts w i t h i n th e decade. C.V.Raman P i l l a i , th e S e c r e ta r y o f th e M a la y a li Sabha and e d i t o r o f i t s o rg a n , th e M a l a y a l i , became manager o f th e H ig h C o u rt i n 1897. K .R .S a n k a ra Menon,a Madras H ig h C o u rt v a k i l and th e o f f i c i a l spokesman f o r th e M e m o r ia lis t s , was a p p o in te d a d i s t r i c t ju d g e i n 1898. A n o th e r n o ta b le a p p o in tm e n t was t h a t o f P .Thanu P i l l a i as C h ie f S e c r e ta r y i n 1 8 9 5 .^ W h ile n o t a s s o c ia te d w it h th e M a la y a la M e m o ria l, Thanu P i l l a i had ta k e n an a c t iv e i n t e r e s t i n th e M a la y a li Sabha and had fo u n d e d i t s p r e c u r s o r , th e M a la y a li S o c ia l U n io n , i n th e 1870s. The o n ly N a ir le a d e r s t e a d f a s t l y t o s p u rn an accom m odation w it h th e g o ve rn m e n t was C .K ris h n a P i l l a i , a n . I n s p e c t o r o f G overnm ent S c h o o ls , who had fo u n d e d th e M a la y a li Sabha i n 1884 and f o u g h t ,

u n s u c c e s s f u lly , t o m a in ta in i t i n th e 1890s. W ith in th e N a ir com m unity K r is h n a P i l l a i le d a gro up fa v o u r in g r a d i c a l s o c i a l re fo r m w h ic h was opposed by c o n s e r v a tiv e N a ir s who lo o k e d t o Raman P i l l a i f o r le a d e r s h ip .

The o f f i c i a l p o l i c y o f c o n c i l i a t i n g th e N a ir e l i t e im p e lle d n o n -N a ir s t o o r g a n is e in d e p e n d e n tly t o p re s s f o r th e re d re s s o f t h e i r g r ie v a n c e s . I n 1895 and 1896 D r P .P a lp u , one o f th e few e d u c a te d men fro m th e Ezhava c a s te , and a s ig n a t o r y t o th e M a la y a la M e m o ria l, s u b m itte d p e t i t i o n s on th e d i s a b i l i t i e s s u f f e r e d by h is co m m u n ity, t o Dewan S h u n g a ra s o o b y e r and th e M a h a ra ja . He f a i l e d t o g e t a fa v o u r a b le re s p o n s e . 44

The S y r ia n C h r is t ia n s o f T ra v a n c o re had p a r t i c u l a r cause t o be d is c o n te n te d w it h Dewan S h u n g a ra s o o b y e r’ s a d m in i s t r a t io n fro m 1 8 9 2 -9 8 . The c le r g y saw a s e r io u s o b s t a c le t o c o n v e rs io n i n th e 1885 H ig h

C o u rt r u l i n g by w h ic h a C h r is t ia n c o n v e r t fro m one o f th e marumakkathayam ( m a t r i l i n e a l ) c a s te s l o s t h i s , o r h e r , r i g h t s o f in h e r it a n c e and

m a in te n a n c e . I n 1893 a m e m o ria l on th e s u b je c t was s u b m itte d t o th e M a h a ra ja on b e h a lf o f th e CM S,the LMS, and th e S y r ia n J a c o b it e and

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M a rth o m ite c h u r c h e s . ^ T h is e l i c i t e d no re s p o n s e , and two y e a rs l a t e r th e Dewan even r e je c t e d a s u g g e s tio n fro m th e B r i t i s h R e s id e n t, H .B . G r ig g , t h a t N a ir c o n v e r ts be g ra n te d m a in te n a n c e r i g h t s by law

I n 1894 a new E d u c a tio n Code was in tr o d u c e d t h a t s t a t e d t h a t p u p ils i n th e p r i v a t e s c h o o ls r e c e iv in g g r a n t s - i n - a i d , th e m a jo r it y o f w h ic h w ere c h u rc h s c h o o ls , c o u ld o n ly r e c e iv e . r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n w it h p a r e n t a l c o n s e n t . ^ In th e same y e a r , f u r t h e r c o n tr o v e r s y was a ro u s e d b y .a n amendment t o th e P e n a l Code t h a t p ro p o se d a c r i m i n a l p e n a lt y f o r b u i l d i n g a p la c e o f w o rs h ip w it h o u t o f f i c i a l p e r m is s io n . 48

W ith such l e g i s l a t i o n , th e absence o f a S y r ia n C h r i s t i a n member on th e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c il was e s p e c ia lly k e e n ly f e l t . F i n a l l y , th e r e was th e lo n g s ta n d in g g rie v a n c e o f th e u n d e r r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f C h r is t ia n s in th e p u b l i c s e r v ic e , one o f th e re a s o n s f o r w h ic h was th e c a s te - H in d u m onopoly o f th e h ig h e r p o s ts i n th e Revenue D e p a rtm e n t, th e la r g e s t d e p a rtm e n t o f s t a t e . T h is had been an im p o r ta n t c o n c e rn f o r

C h r is t ia n s u p p o r te r s o f th e M a la y a la M e m o ria l, such as Emmanuel N i d h i r y , who had s u g g e s te d i n a M e m o r ia lis t m e e tin g , in K o tta y a m i n 1891, t h a t

th e d u t ie s o f devaswom ( te m p le ) s u p e r v is io n be rem oved fro m th e p u rv ie w o f Revenue o f f i c i a l s , as t h i s w o u ld le a v e th e way c le a r f o r n o n - c a s te - H in d u s , and n o n -H in d u s , t o e n t e r th e h ig h e r ra n k s o f th e Revenue D e p a rtm e n t. 49

T hus, i t was i n th e c o n te x t o f c o n s id e r a b le d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n among b o th th e C h r i s t i a n c le r g y and th e e d u c a te d c la s s e s t h a t th e T ra v a n c o re

and C o ch in C h r i s t i a n A s s o c ia t io n was form ed i n A p r i l 1898. I t s f i r s t P r e s id e n t , T .C .P o o n e n , was a r e t i r e d C o ch in ju d g e and a p ro m in e n t A n g lic a n S y r ia n fro m K o tta y a m , who had th e d i s t i n c t i o n o f b e in g th e f i r s t M a la y a li t o be e d u c a te d i n E n g la n d . In 1899 th e new body p re s e n te d a m e m o ria l t o Dewan K .K ris h n a s w a m i Rao p ra y in g f o r th e s e p a r a tio n o f devaswom d u t ie s fro m e x e c u tiv e o f f i c e r s , th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c o m p e titiv e e x a m in a tio n s f o r th e h ig h e r a d m in i s t r a t iv e p o s t s , and a g r e a t e r b a la n c e t o be m a in ta in e d i n th e c o m p o s itio n o f th e a d m in i s t r a t io n .

The g ove rn m e n t was n o t r e c e p t iv e to w a rd s th e s u g g e s tio n s and when th e V ic e r o y , L o rd C o rz o n , v i s i t e d T ra v a n c o re i n November 1900, th e

A s s o c ia t io n p e t i t i o n e d h im , b u t C urzon d e c lin e d t o i n t e r f e r e . 50

The C h r is t ia n A s s o c ia t io n in c lu d e d J a c o b it e , M a rth o m ite and A n g lic a n S y r ia n s , b u t th e S y r ia n C a t h o lic N id h ir y was b a r r e d .b y th e P a p a l D e le g a te t o th e E a s t I n d ie s , M gr. L .M . Z a le s k i, fro m becom ing th e

A s s o c i a t io n 's p e rm a n e n t P r e s id e n t . M gr. Z a le s k i a ls o r e fu s e d p e r m is s io n f o r any C a t h o lic s t o j o i n th e bod y. 51 T h is f a c t , ta k e n i n c o n ju n c t io n w it h th e la c k o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i t s a c t i v i t i e s by th e n o n -S y ria n

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P r o te s t a n t C h r is t ia n s , meant t h a t th e A s s o c ia tio n c o u ld o n ly c la im t o r e p r e s e n t th e w e a lth y and e d u c a te d s e c tio n s o f C h r is t ia n d e n o m in a tio n s t h a t t o g e t h e r form e d le s s th a n t w o - f i f t h s o f a l l th e C h r is t ia n s i n th e s t a t e .

P o l i t i c s i n th e 1900s w ere d o m in a te d by th e i n t r i g u e s and s c a n d a ls s u rr o u n d in g th e M a h a ra ja ’ s c o u r t . The c e n t r a l f i g u r e i n p a la c e a f f a i r s was T .S a n k a ra n T a m p i, th e P a la c e Manager and th e e x -h u s b a n d o f th e

M a h a r a ja 's w i f e . S ankaran Tampi was c lo s e t o C.V.Raman P i l l a i and o th e r s o f th e c o n s e r v a tiv e ' o f f i c i a l ' N a ir f a c t i o n , b u t h is i n f lu e n c e was

u n d e rm in e d by th e re m o v a l o f Dewan K ris h n a s w a m i Rao i n 1904, and h is re p la c e m e n t, a t th e in s is t e n c e o f th e Madras G ove rn m e n t, by V.P.M adhava Rao fro m th e M ysore S e r v ic e . On t h i s o c c a s io n S r i Mulam T i r u n a l w o u ld have p r e f e r r e d t o a p p o in t V.Nagam A iy a , th e most s e n io r T ra v a n c o re a n o f f i c i a l ; he had had t o bow t o B r i t i s h p r e s s u r e .52

Madhava Rao’ s a p p o in tm e n t was re s e n te d by th e P a la c e c l i q u e , and he was th e o b j e c t o f a t t a c k s fro m Raman P i l l a i and o t h e r s . The new Dewan's a c tio n s w ere n o t c a lc u la t e d t o c o n c i l i a t e h is c r i t i c s . F i r s t he a p p o in te d more n o n -M a la y a la Brahmans t o th e L e g i s la t i v e

C o u n c il, th u s g iv i n g them a m a j o r i t y . T h is p ro m p te d a p r o t e s t d e le g a tio n t o th e Dewan le d by M a llo o r K .G o v in d a P i l l a i , a p ro te g e o f C.V.Raman P i l l a i . Madhava Rao d e fe n d e d h is a p p o in tm e n ts and s u g g e s te d t h a t th e d e p u t a t io n i s t s s h o u ld t u r n t o o rg a n is e d p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y . ^

He f o llo w e d t h i s u p , i n O c to b e r 1 904, by in a u g u r a t in g a new n o n - o f f i c i a l cham ber o f r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s , th e S r i Mulam P o p u la r A sse m b ly.54

The new b o d y , fo rm e d a lo n g th e l i n e s o f th e R e p r e s e n ta tiv e Assem bly e s t a b lis h e d i n M ysore i n 1881, was in te n d e d t o e l i c i t p u b l i c o p in io n . M e e tin g a n n u a lly f o r a s e s s io n w h ic h u s u a lly la s t e d a b o u t a w eek, i t s main f u n c t io n was t o a c t as a forum f o r n o n - o f f i c i a l s t o make r e p r e s e n t­

a tio n s b e fo r e th e g o v e rn m e n t. P u r e ly c o n s u lt a t i v e i n c h a r a c t e r , i t had no l e g i s l a t i v e p o w e rs .

The f i r s t A ssem bly was w h o lly n o m in a te d , b u t fro m 1905 m ost members w ere e le c t e d , a l b e i t on a s e v e r e ly r e s t r i c t e d f r a n c h is e . 55 I n i t i a l l y ,90

o f th e 100 members w ere e le c t e d , b u t f o l lo w in g s u c c e s s iv e r e v is io n s o f th e Assem bly R u le s betw een 1910 and 1914, th e f i g u r e d ro p p e d t o 1 1 ; - 43

from the 33 t a l u k s i n th e s t a t e , n in e te e n d e p u te d by Town C o m m itte e s , seven by c o m m e rc ia l i n t e r e s t s , and f o u r each by th e p l a n t e r s ' a s s o c ia ­ t i o n s and 'ja n m is ' ( la r g e la n d lo r d s ) . Under th e R ule changes th e

number o f members n o m in a te d by th e gove rn m e n t ro s e fro m te n t o 2 3 ^ 1 o ne - t h e le s s , u n t i l th e 1919 re fo r m o f th e L e g is l a t i v e C o u n c il, th e Assem bly re m a in e d th e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t l y - e l e c t e d p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n i n th e

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s t a t e . I t s im p o rta n c e was h i g h l i g h t e d i n O c to b e r 1906 when Dewan S.

G o p a la c h a ri f a i l e d t o convene th e t h i r d s e s s io n o f th e A sse m b ly.

Th ere w ere s tr o n g p r o t e s t s and a p u b lic m e e tin g i n T riv a n d ru m w arned th e Dewan a g a in s t a tt e m p tin g t o a b o lis h th e ch am be r, ^

D u rin g h is b r i e f te n u r e as Dewan, Madhava Rao was re g a rd e d w it h h o s t i l i t y by th e ' . o f f i c i a l ' N a ir f a c t i o n . T h e ir d i s a f f e c t i o n was

in c r e a s e d by th e e nco u ra ge m e n t he gave t o th e n e w ly -fo rm e d S r i N arayana Dharma P a r ip a la n a Yogam t h a t cham pioned Ezhava demands f o r g r e a t e r e d u c a tio n a l and em ploym ent o p p o r t u n i t i e s . I n 1905 th e D ew an's p o l ic y o f o p e n in g s t a t e s c h o o ls t o n o n -c a s te - H in d u s p ro v o k e d w id e s p re a d c la s h e s betw een N a ir s and Ezhavas i n c e n t r a l T ra v a n c o re . Even a H ig h C o u rt r u l i n g a g a in s t h is a r c h - f o e , p a la c e manager S ankaran T a m p i, i n a b r ib e r y case i n F e b ru a ry 1 906, f a i l e d t o make th e D ew an's p o s i t i o n e a s i e r , and i n March Madhava Rao r e t u r n e d t o M yso re .58

I n 1907 P .R a ja g o p a la c h a r i, a Madras c i v i l s e r v a n t and fo rm e r Dewan o f C o c h in , re p la c e d G o p a la c h a ri, M adhava; R a o 's u n p o p u la r s u c c e s s o r. The e a r ly y e a rs o f R a ja g o p a la c h a r i's a d m in i s t r a t io n w ere marked by c o n t in u in g confcrw ersy o v e r c o r r u p t io n i n c o u r t c i r c l e s .

U n lik e Madhava Rao, R a ja g o p a la c h a r i, whose second w if e was a T riy a n d ru m N a ir , m a in ta in e d c lo s e t i e s w it h S ankaran Tampi and th e i n f l u e n t i a l c liq u e o f N a ir o f f i c i a l s le d by C.V,Raman P i l l a i . 59

The a c t i v i t i e s o f Tampi and h i s a s s o c ia te s w ere a tt a c k e d , o ft e n i n v i r u l e n t te rm s , by a young N a ir j o u r n a l i s t , ' S w a d e s a b h im a n i' K.

R am akrishna P i l l a i , one o f th e y o u n g e r a s s o c ia te s o f th e r e fo r m e r

C .K ris h n a P i l l a i . Many o f th e a r t i c l e s p u b lis h e d i n R am a krish n a P i l l a i ' s

*

T riv a n d ru m p a p e r, S w adesabhim ani ( N a t io n a l P r id e ) , w ere a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n by K .N a ra y a n a K u r u k k a l, l i k e K r is h n a P i l l a i a s c h o o ls ' in s p e c t o r who was i n h is f i f t i e s . ^ K u r u k k a l was fo r c e d t o r e s ig n h is g overnm ent p o s t because o f h is c r i t i c i s m o f th e a d m in i s t r a t io n . A s y m p a th is e r o f th e In d ia n N a t io n a l C o n g re s s , he w ro te th e f i r s t p o l i t i c a l n o v e ls i n M a la y a la m , w h ic h w ere based on a lle g e d m is r u le by th e M a h a ra ja and h is m in i s t e r s , and th e lic e n t io u s n e s s o f th e T ra v a n c o re c o u r t .

I n 1910 R a m a krish n a P i l l a i was e le c te d t o th e P o p u la r Assem bly b u t was p r o m p tly d i s q u a l i f i e d fro m becom ing a member. 62 The Swadesabh­

im a n i 's in c r e a s i n g l y s t r i d e n t a tt a c k s on th e a d m in is t r a t io n th e n fo r c e d th e Dewan t o c o n te m p la te th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a s t i f f e r P re s s R e g u la tio n . H ow ever, such a measure was n o t fa v o u re d by e i t h e r ' t h e M a h a ra ja o r th e Param ount P o w e r . ^ T h e r e fo r e , i n Septem ber 1910 R a m a krish n a P i l l a i was a r r e s t e d and d e p o rte d fro m T ra v a n c o re , and th e S w adesabhim ani s u p p r e s s e d . ^ W h ile th e a f f a i r g a in e d c o n s id e r a b le p u b l i c i t y o u ts id e

(22)

T ra v a n c o re . w i t h i n th e s t a t e th e r e w ere few p r o t e s t s and m ost l o c a l new spapers b acke d th e a d m in i s t r a t i o n ’ s a c t i o n , 65

A consummate p o l i t i c i a n , R a ja g o p a la c h a r i was a b le , w h ile m a in t a in in g c lo s e t i e s w it h th e c o n s e r v a tiv e N a ir o f f i c i a l s , a ls o t o w in o v e r some p ro m in e n t r e f o r m i s t N a i r s ^ and e ncourage th e a s p i r a t io n s o f th e

C h r is t ia n s and th e n o n -c a s te - H in d u s o f th e s t a t e . The Dewan a c t i v e l y p ro m o te d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a communal c o n s c io u s n e s s t h a t had a lr e a d y been s t i r r e d by th e g ro w in g d e b a te o v e r s o c i a l re fo r m w i t h i n th e

advanced c o m m u n itie s , and s o c i a l u p l i f t among th e more backw ard g ro u p s . R a ja g o p a la c h a r i’ s f i r s t a c t io n i n o f f i c e was t o a p p o in t a c o m m itte e t o exam ine th e p o s s ib le r e fo r m o f th e m a t r i l i n e a l j o i n t f a m i l y , a q u e s tio n t h a t p re o c c u p ie d N a ir le a d e r s u n t i l th e e a r ly 192 0 s. I n 1911 a s i m i l a r c o m m itte e was a p p o in te d t o exam ine th e c o n t r o v e r s i a l q u e s tio n o f

s u c c e s s io n among C h r is t ia n s . I n a d d i t i o n , th e Dewan p a t r o n is e d some n o n - c a s te - H in d u le a d e r s , such as th e Ezhava p o e t Kumaran A san, and th e P u la y a Ayyan K a l i, b o t h o f whom w ere n o m in a te d t o th e P o p u la r A ssem bly.67 The S w adesabhim ani saw R a ja g o p a la c h a r i's p o l i c y as one o f d iv id e and r u l e , and accused th e a d m in i s t r a t io n o f e n c o u ra g in g r a c i a l s t r i f e by e m p h a s is in g d i s t i n c t i o n s o f c a s te and com m unity. 6R

I n a speech j u s t b e fo r e h is d e p a r tu r e fro m th e s t a t e i n 1914, Dewan R a ja g o p a la c h a ri h i g h l i g h t e d th e c r u c i a l is s u e s a ro u n d w h ic h th e p o l i t i c s o f T ra v a n c o re w ere t o e v o lv e i n th e n e x t tw o decades.

He s a id :

. . . I f y o u , men o f more advanced c la s s e s o r c a s te s , o b s t r u c t , e i t h e r w i l f u l l y o r th r o u g h ig n o r a n c e , th e n a s c e n t l i f e o f th e s e r i s i n g c o m m u n itie s , w h a t w o u ld be th e r e s u l t ? You w o u ld c e r t a i n l y n o t be a b le t o s to p them } th e c o m m u n itie s now c a l le d b a ckw ard w o u ld one day come t o th e f r o n t , w h e th e r you l i k e i t o r n o t }

b u t in s t e a d o f com ing t o th e f r o n t w it h a f e e l i n g o f g r a t e f u ln e s s , t h a t th e y have been h e lp e d th ro u g h t h e i r t r i a l , th e y w o u ld

ta k e t h e i r p la c e w it h a f e e l i n g o f b it t e r n e s s a g a in s t th o s e who had s t r i v e n - and t h a t ^ u n s u c c e s s f u lly - t o p r e v e n t them fro m com ing t o th e f r o n t . . .

A p p a r e n tly r e f e r r i n g t o demands f o r g r e a t e r pow ers f o r th e P o p u la r A ssem bly made by C h a n g a n a c h e rry Param eswaran P i l l a i , th e m ost p ro m in e n t o f C .K ris h n a P i l l a i ' s f o l l o w e r s , he added t h a t i t was o n ly by t h e i r c o n s id e r a te tr e a tm e n t o f th e backw ard c la s s e s t h a t th e more advanced s e c tio n s c o u ld j u s t i f y t h e i r c la im s .

The w ords o f th e o u tg o in g Dewan p ro v e d t o be p r o p h e t ic ; th e p o l i t i c s o f com m unalism d o m in a te d th e a f f a i r s o f T ra v a n c o re f o r th e re m a in in g y e a rs o f th e s t a t e ’ s e x is t e n c e . The t y p i c a l p o l i t i c i a n s and th e m ost i n f l u e n t i a l o r g a n is a t io n s o f th e in t e r w a r p e r io d r e f l e c t e d th e i n t e r e s t s and a s p i r a t io n s o f th e w e a lth y and e d u c a te d

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p o l i t i c i s e d e l i t e s o f th e m a jo r c o m m u n itie s . Communal c o n tr o v e r s y p r o v id e d th e s t a p le d i e t f o r m ost o f th e s t a t e 's n e w s p a p e r-re a d in g p u b l i c , and form e d th e m ain s u b je c t f o r d is c u s s io n i n th e l e g i s l a t u r e . I n gove rn m e n t and p o l i t i c s S y r ia n C h r is t ia n and E zhava le a d e r s s t r o n g ly c h a lle n g e d th e h i t h e r t o d o m in a n t N a ir s , w h ile P a la c e i n t r i g u e and

p e r s o n a l r i v a l r y w ere th e main s u b s id ia r y f e a t u r e s .

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