TRANSFORMING DOMINICA INTO AN ORGANIC ISLAND
The
Government of the Commonwealth of
Dominica
Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment
and the
SIDS Unit, UNEP/ROLAC
February 2006
Prepared by
Al-Mario Casimir Derrick Oderson Joan Petersen-Polo McCarthy Marie Olive St. Ville Patrick Chesney (Team Leader)
CONSULTANCY
REPORT
About the Consultants
Al-Mario Casimir is a native of the Commonwealth of Dominica and holds an M.Sc. degree in Horticulture. Al-Mario is the National Organic Coordinator in the Dominica Ministry of Agriculture and Environment and a member of the Dominica Organic Agriculture Movement.
Derrick Oderson is a native of Barbados and holds an M.Sc. degree in Regional and Resource Planning and adds to that undergraduate degrees in Geography and Law. Derrick is a practicing Attorney-at-law specialising in environmental law and policy and is a member of the Barbados Bar Association.
Joan Petersen-Polo is a native of Trinidad and Tobago and holds a B.Sc. degree in Agronomy.
Joan is the organic agronomist with the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute and a member of the Trinidad and Tobago Organic Agriculture Movement Limited.
McCarthy Marie is a native of the Commonwealth of Dominica and holds an M.Sc. degree in Agricultural Economics. His interest is in agricultural diversification and he has published
“Agricultural diversification in a small economy: the case of Dominica”.
Olive St. Ville is a native of St. Lucia and holds an M.Sc. degree in International Agriculture and Food Marketing. Olive is a member of the American Marketing Association.
Patrick Chesney is a native of Guyana and holds a Ph.D. in Tropical Agroforestry and an M.Sc.
in Horticulture. Patrick is the current Chairman of the Guyana Organic Agriculture Movement and a member of the International Society for Horticultural Science.
Acronyms and Abbreviations
BPoA Barbados Plan of Action
CARDI Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute CARICOM Caribbean Community
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CITES UN Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
DBMC Dominica Banana Marketing Company DBPL Dominica Banana Producers Limited
DBSAP Dominica Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan DCP Dominica Coconut Producers
DEOSL Dominica Essential Oils and Spices Ltd.
DEXIA Dominica Export Import Agency DHTA Dominica Hotel and Tourism Authority DOAM Dominica Organic Agriculture Movement DOEH Department of Environmental Health DOWASCO Dominica Water and Sewerage Company ECU Environmental Coordinating Unit
EMA Environmental Management Act
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation GAPs Good Agricultural Practices
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GMO Genetically Modified Organism HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point HDI Human Development Index
ICM Integrated Crop Management
IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements IMF International Monetary Fund
IOIA Independent Organic Inspectors Association ISO International Standards Organisation
IUCN World Conservation Union
JOAM Jamaica Organic Agriculture Movement LFO Light Fuel Oil
MEA Multilateral Environment Agreement
NDFD National Development Foundation of Dominica NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
OAU Organic Agriculture Unit
OECS Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States OMG Organic Marketing Group
POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants SIDS Small Island Development States
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change USDA United States Department of Agriculture
WHO World Health Organisation
WIBDECO Windward Islands Banana Development and Export Company WINCROP Windward Islands Crop Insurance Limited
WINFA Windward Islands Farmers Association WTO World Trade Organisation
Acknowledgements
The Consultancy team salutes the Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica and the United Nations Environment Programme for the vision and courage to commission this important study and extends heartfelt gratitude for the opportunity to participate in the process.
To the many institutions and individuals who contributed of their time and information we thank you most wholeheartedly. Special thanks are extended to Mr. Lloyd Pascal for critiquing the ideas of the team during the data gathering exercise; to Mr. Joey Jno-Lewis for providing valuable reports, and assisting with design of questionnaire, inputting and analysis of data; and to the support staff for field and office support. The UNEP/ROLAC funded this study through the SIDS Unit.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
About the Consultants... ii
Acronyms and Abbreviations ... iii
Acknowledgements...v
List of Tables... ix
List of Figures ...x
Executive Summary... xi
Introduction ... xiii
1. Background ...1
1.1 Natural Resource Base ...1
1.1.1 Topography and Soils ...1
1.1.2 Vegetation ...2
1.1.3 Water, climate, hydrology ...4
1.1.4 Biodiversity...6
1.1.5 Mineral deposits and energy ...7
1.2 Overview of environmental issues ...9
1.2.1 Land degradation ...9
1.2.2 Biodiversity loss/ loss of genetic resources ...11
1.2.3 Climate Change...11
1.2.4 Coastal Zone Issues...12
1.2.5 Solid Waste ...12
1.2.6 Biosafety...12
1.2.7 Regulating Use of private lands bordering protected areas...13
1.2.8 Water Resource Management ...14
1.2.9 Multilateral Environment Agreements...14
1.3 Socio-economic issues ...14
1.3.1 Population and Demographics...14
1.3.2 The Incidence of Poverty in Dominica ...16
1.3.3 Labour and Employment...18
1.3.4 Health...18
1.3.5 The Structure of the Economy ...19
1.3.6 The State of the Economy ...20
1.3.7 Cultural aspects...23
1.3.8 Land Tenure...24
1.4 Emerging Issues...24
1.4.1 Food Safety...24
1.4.2 Food Security...25
1.4.3 Decline in Domestic Food Production ...25
1.4.4 Lifestyle & Food Consumption Patterns...25
1.4.5 Repositioning / recreating Dominica’s image ...26
1.4.6 Market Access ...27
2. Importance of natural resource base ...28
2.1 Historical dependence on agriculture ...28
2.2 Emergence of Tourism...29
2.3 Inter-relationship between agriculture and tourism ...31
2.4 Organic Island Concept ...31
2.5 Preservation of natural resource base...32
2.6 What is organic agriculture?...33
2.6.1 Scope of the Organic Island Concept...36
2.6.2 Consequences of Organic Island ...38
3. Overview of elements of the strategy ...40
3.1 Organic island elements ...40
3.1.1 National or regional standards and regulations ...40
3.1.2 Establishing organic island image...41
3.1.3 Managing the process of converting existing banana production to organic bananas 43 3.1.4 Identifying viable organic produce opportunities and managing the conversion process...46
3.1.5 Identifying new and emerging markets for organic produce and establishing appropriate marketing and distribution systems ...48
3.1.6 Establishing good postharvest handling infrastructure and logistics for fresh produce trade...51
3.1.7 Assisting in establishing good and reliable relations with year round supermarket trade for organics...52
3.1.8 Policy support for establishing input agencies ...53
3.2 Wellness Tourism Elements...53
3.2.1 Analysis of core competencies ...54
3.2.2 Defining the product, product mix, and target clientele...55
3.2.3 Product Development...56
3.2.4 Identification of stakeholders partners for sub sector development ...56
3.2.5 Establishing market process ...57
3.2.6 Wellness tourism infrastructure and training ...60
3.2.7 Incentives for Bringing about Organic Dominica...60
4. Strategic Plan 2006-2015 ...61
4.1 Objectives...61
4.2 Methodology ...61
4.2.1 Data gathering ...61
4.2.2 Data analysis ...63
4.3 Organic Island and Wellness Tourism...63
4.3.1 Develop Marketing Analysis to identify potential new markets, target groups and popular organic products ...63
4.3.2 Identifying legal policy and institutional framework required to support the transition to an organic island ...64
4.3.3 Designing organic crop programme for Dominica along ICM Principles – farm level focus ...76
4.3.4 Design comprehensive marketing strategies ...77
4.3.5 Potential, social and economic benefits ...83
5. Proposed Projects for Transforming Dominca into an Organic Island ...86
5.1 Develop Products...89
5.1.1 Develop new product from existing essential oils and spices...89
5.1.2 Develop organic inputs from indigenous materials to support organic crop
production...89
5.1.3 Acquire qualified staff and equip organic applied science and technology laboratory...89
5.1.4 Carry out ethno-botanical research for wellness products ...89
5.2 Improve post harvest handling and packaging...89
5.2.1 Utilise essential oils for post harvest treatments...89
5.2.2 Develop handling protocols for organic products...89
5.2.3 Develop appropriate packaging...90
5.2.4 Provide facilities for handling, storage, and processing organics ...90
5.3 Build institutional capacity for organics...90
5.4 Knowledge management including appropriate legislation...90
5.4.1 Demonstration Training Centres for training farmers and extension personnel ...90
5.4.2 Cost of productions studies ...90
5.4.3 Market intelligence...90
5.4.4 On-farm trials to demonstrate productivity and engender confidence in methodologies ...90
5.5 Promotion/Media Campaigns that target domestic, regional and international clientele...90
5.5.1 Multi-media...90
5.5.2 Different audiences...90
5.5.3 Domestic and external markets ...90
5.6 Integrating Women and Youth into Organic Agriculture and Wellness Tourism...90
5.7 Long-term operational and financing options including credit facility...90
References...91 Appendices
List of Tables
Page Table 1 Communities of natural vegetation types of Dominica 2 Table 2 Ten most important tree species in the forests of Dominica 6
Table 3 Classes of biodiversity found in Dominica 6
Table 4 Expected outcome from production of geothermal power 8 Table 5 Characteristics of agro-ecological zones of Dominica 10
Table 6 National parks and reserves by area 13
Table 7 Summary of selected MEAs signed by Government of Dominica 14 Table 8 Population change in Dominica from 1981 to 2001 15
Table 9 Population by age and sex, 2002 15
Table 10 Births and deaths for the period 1995 to 2003 16
Table 11 The incidence of poverty in Dominica 17
Table 12 Comparative poverty indicators 17
Table 13 Comparative health indicators 19
Table 14 Percent contribution of GDP by economic activity in basic
current prices 21
Table 15 Contribution of GDP by economic activity in basic
current prices 22
Table 16 Number of visitors to tourist attraction sites (1998-2000) 27 Table 17 Percentage change in tourist arrivals for the period 1986-2003 30 Table 18 Potential organic commodities for the development of organics 47 Table 19 Profile of eight watershed catchment areas in Dominica 63 Table 20 A summary of critical issues affecting the transformation to
organic agriculture 66
Table 21 The existing institutions and relevant legislation governing
agricultural development in Dominica 70
Table 22 An assessment of the existing legal and institutional
arrangement affecting the agricultural sector in Dominica 72 Table 23 Legal and institutional elements required to support the
transformation to organic agriculture 73
List of Figures
Page
Figure 1 Map of the Commonwealth of Dominica 1
Figure 2 Ecological zones of Dominica 2
Figure 3 Rainfall distribution in Dominica 5
Figure 4 Agro-ecological zones of Dominica 10
Figure 5 Age distribution for the years 1991 and 2002 16
Figure 6 Household poverty by Parish 18
Figure 7 The marketing channels of Dominica 50
Figure 8 Diagram of the marketing structures in the produce market 50 Figure 9 Visual representation of the integrated planning and
implementation process – organic Dominica marketing strategy 65
Executive Summary
The Commonwealth of Dominica is an island-state located between 15012’ and 15039’ North Latitude and between 61014’ and 61029’ West Longitude (Figure 1). The landmass of Dominica is twice as long as it is wide and measures 48 km along its north-south axis and 24 km from east- west at the widest point of the island. The land area of Dominica is 750.6 km2, with 153 km of coastline, adjoining a 715 km2 coastal shelf, all of which sit approximately midway between the islands of Guadeloupe (to the north) and Martinique (to the south) in the Caribbean Sea.
Historically, Dominica has relied on agriculture, particularly banana crop production for export as the mainstay of the economy. Dominica’s economic and agricultural history has been one of monocrop boom and bust, starting with sugar some 300 years ago and continuing through coffee, limes, vanilla to bananas. All of these activities have relied on the country’s natural resources for their success, land being the most important.
This concentration on monocropping has reduced crop diversity and increased vulnerability to natural disasters and international markets. At the same time it has meant that a considerable portion of the foreign exchange earned from the export crop goes to finance imports of food items. It has also led to limiting the focus of, for example, extension services, bank credit and infrastructure programmes. Finally, it has reduced the decision-making requirements of farmers, leaving them less adaptable to change.
In an attempt to cushion the effects of the decline of the banana industry the government redoubled its efforts at building a viable tourism industry. Dominica does not have the standard tourism attribute of white sandy beaches for which the Caribbean is best known. Therefore the tourism strategy had to be based on the emerging niche of eco-tourism. Eco-tourism demands the sustainable use of natural resources and is in fact the type of tourism that fits most naturally with Dominica’s resource base. This type of low impact environmentally conscious tourism fits in well with agriculture in general, but even better when agriculture is practised organically and is allied to the concept of wellness or health maintenance for the visitors and the hosts alike. The marriage of organic agriculture with ecotourism/wellness tourism provides the ideal mix for a sustainable use of Dominica’s natural resources and the attainment of “organic island” status.
The new concept for the island of Dominica will coalesce the food, the activities, the eco-tourism and agro-tourism opportunities into a high end unspoilt image of the country. Implementing organic production and marketing systems that are sustainable and that do not require an excessive amount of natural resources is the basis of the concept.
Under this concept, standards of operation will be implemented for primary food production through food handling operations all the way up to the final processing operations. The development and implementation of the standards will occur in a phased manner to reduce the discomfort to the market and producers, and to maximise the level of compliance with the dictates.
“Organic Dominica” encompasses accelerated and sustainable use of natural resources including but not limited to, socio-cultural and indigenous community knowledge-based assets, forest
products, non-timber forest products, food and agriculture, water and renewable energy, to transform the social and economic development of the country over a period of 10 years.
“Organic Dominica” is based on the fact that better use of the marketing process in rural tourism can help create more sustainable forms of development. This will result through reducing provider isolation, utilising resources more effectively and allowing the rural tourism product, the opportunity to connect with the flow of international tourists. This statement is consistent with the critical concerns of Small Island Developing States (SIDS). The Barbados Plan of Action (BPoA) remains valid as the key framework for SIDS efforts towards sustainable development. The importance of the tourism industries and cultural enterprise to sustainable development was emphasised at the Mauritius meeting.
The integrated strategy will be built on not just producing the primary high quality product but certifying that product at the handlers throughout the distribution system. In the newly designed tourism policy, 2015, the Government of Dominica undertakes to increase revenues and employment generation by increased investment, promotion and marketing.
The Organic Dominica 10-year plan will cost US$6 million. Seven projects have been identified to meet the objectives of the plan and are as follows:
! Product development
! Post harvest handling and packaging
! Institutional capacity building
! Knowledge management
! Promotion/media campaigns
! Integrating women and youth into organic agriculture and wellness tourism
! Long-term operational and financing options
The plan requires enactment of enabling legislation for Organic Dominca to become a reality as well as a reformation of attitudes and mainstreaming of the organic island and wellness tourism concepts into the productive and service sectors.
Introduction
Dominica proposes to embark on a 10-year programme of action to establish the country as an
“Organic Island” and wellness tourism destination. The objectives of this strategic development are to:
• Establish a sound and sustainable basis for economic and social development;
• Reverse declining agricultural sector employment;
• Reverse the trend in decreasing agricultural revenue by establishing Dominica as a world leader in the production of organic agricultural products;
• Increase employment opportunities and reverse the loss of trained and qualified specialists from the country;
• Address pressing environmental and natural resource management issues through the establishment of agricultural practices that will reduce the introduction of harmful substances into rivers and soils and promote sustainable land management;
• Implement key elements of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan;
• Establish an agricultural export market based on products that are free from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) thereby giving support to Dominica’s commitments under the Cartagena Protocol
• Improve rural development through the establishment of improved land management practices that support organic production.
It is proposed that technical assistance be sought to assist the Government of Dominica in the design of this 10-year programme, and the mobilisation - within the framework of an international donor’s meeting – of necessary resources (human, technical, financial) for effective implementation.
Dominica’s majestic and breath-taking volcanic beauty has earned her the well-known title of
“The Nature Isle” of the Caribbean. Of all the islands in the Caribbean, Dominica is widely reported as maintaining the highest amount of forest cover. Historically, Dominica has had a strong tradition of conserving its land and land base resources, however, the introduction of plantations and the associated large scale land clearing, together with infrastructure development, have threatened land resources. Concerns gave rise to the 1950s Forest Ordinance, authorising the establishment of forest reserves, which today cover over 14% of Dominica’s land area. Other environmental and resource management laws were enacted to regulate use of land resources.
Despite these laws, agriculture and expansion in other economic sectors have and continue to have a strong influence on land degradation on the island, raising environmental concerns.
Dominica is heavily reliant on the agricultural sector with respect to economic survival, even though only 30% of land is suitable for agriculture. Agriculture contributes 19% to GDP, 30% of employment, 37.5% of exports, and provides about 60% of the food needs of the population on average. Dominica faces socio-economic challenges such as high unemployment, a diminishing agricultural sector, and reduction in exports, a decline in foreign investment capital, limited higher education institutions and a relatively large public debt to service.
Organic agriculture and wellness tourism are key to the thrust to diversify away from bananas and introduce new economic dynamism in Dominica. This report provides strategic planning options on the way forward. The report is organised into five principal sections. Section one
provides background information on the natural resource base of Dominica, and examines environmental issues, socio-economic issues and emerging issues that impact the natural resource base. Among the emerging issues is the repositioning and recreating of the Dominica’s image. Section two stresses the importance of the natural resource base to Dominica’s survival embracing the historical importance of agriculture, the emergence of tourism and what it means to the economy, the inter-relationship between agriculture and tourism. The concept of organic island is introduced and discussed as a means to preserve the natural resource base.
Section three examines elements of the bifurcated strategy for the organic island concept and for wellness tourism. This section sets the stage for section four’s discussion on the 10-year strategic plan for transforming Dominica into an organic island through organic agriculture and wellness tourism. The final section, section five, identifies the projects and funding requirements to implement the plan towards achieving the main objective.
This consultancy was made possible through the initiative of the Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica and the Small Island Development States (SIDS) Unit of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The SIDS unit put together a project design team comprising experts from the Caribbean Region who, during a one-week in-country mission, undertook a detailed evaluation of the project scope and needs, defined key elements of the 10- year strategic plan, and prepared this detailed project document and budget for presentation at an international donor’s meeting.
The team composition and areas of responsibilities were as follows:
1. Team Leader: Dr. Patrick Chesney
Area(s) of specialisation: Certification, biodiversity organic production systems and practices specialization:
The Team Leader was responsible for:
• The overall technical management of the Team and allocation of responsibility
• Managing the relations between the Team and the Government of Dominica.
• Handling policy issues which might arise during the assignment.
• The coordination of the inputs and finalization of the report of the assignment and coordinating any responses, which might necessary either form the Government of Dominica and UNEP.
In addition to your responsibilities as Team Leader, the consultant will be responsible for addressing issues relating organic production systems and practices, certification and biodiversity.
2. Ms. Joan Petersen
Area(s) of specialisation: Designing of and Development of Organic Crop Programme for Dominica particularly at the farm level.
The consultant was responsibile for:
• Identification of the inputs necessary for the designing of an Organic Crop Programme for Dominica along Integrated Crop production principles
• Identification of sites and crops which could offer a potential for organic production
• Identification of the inputs (i.e. financial, technical, human resources development) required to operationalise the Organic Crop Production Programme for Dominica.
• Preparation of a detailed work programme for the implementation of the Organic Crop Production Programme for Dominica.
3. Mr. McCarthy Marie
Area(s) of specialisation: Agricultural diversification and economic development.
The consultant was responsible for:
• The qualification of the economic and social benefits which are likely to result from an organic production strategy for Dominica taking into consideration the changing patterns of international trade.
• Exploring the potential for organic food processing as a critical component of transforming Dominica into an organic island.
• Provide the economic and social inputs as may be required with respect to other areas of the assignment (i.e. organic production systems at various levels)
• Examine the economic and social dimensions of the transformation process to organic production.
• Developing incentives to promote organics 4. Ms. Olive St. Ville
Area(s) of specialisation: Market structure, marketing strategies.
The consultant was responsible for:
• Examination of the current marketing structure in place for products being produced in Dominica with the view of recommending changes which will be required for organic products.
• Designing of a comprehensive marketing strategy for Dominica Organics (i.e. products, eco-tourism, etc.) taking into consideration the change patterns of international trade (i.e.
human resources, etc)
• Identification of the inputs required to support the comprehensive marketing strategy.
• Development of a marketing analysis to identify potential new markets, target groups and already existing popular organic products.
5. Mr. Derrick Oderson.
Area(s) of specialisation: Legal, Institutional and Environmental support The consultant was responsible for:
• Analyse the legal, policy and institutional framework needed to support a transition to an organic island
• Suggest and provide draft guidelines for facilitating the transition to organics
• Provide initial draft of any legislation, which might be required to support the policy shift to organics in the short, medium and long term.
• Address any legal and/or institutional issues which might be raised by other members of the team
• Ensure harmonization between the policy framework for organics with natural environmental laws and international legal instruments of which Dominica may be a Party of likely to become a Party.
• Promote a multilateral agreement among relevant institutions in order to support project goals.
6. Mr. Al-Mario Casimir
Area(s) of specialisation: National Consultant/Organic Specialist
The consultant provided the local technical knowledge on Dominica and provided guidance to the team of local cultural norms, among other things.
1. Background
1.1 Natural Resource Base 1.1.1 Topography and Soils
The Commonwealth of Dominica is an island-state located between 15012’ and 15039’ North Latitude and between 61014’ and 61029’ West Longitude (Figure 1). The landmass of Dominica is twice as long as it is wide and measures 48 km along its north-south axis and 24 km from east- west at the widest point of the island. The land area of Dominica is 750.6 km2, with 153 km of coastline, adjoining a 715 km2 coastal shelf, all of which sit approximately midway between the islands of Guadeloupe (to the north) and Martinique (to the south) in the Caribbean Sea.
Figure 1. Map of the Commonwealth of Dominica
The topography of Dominica is mountainous with characteristic lush green, very rugged and steep terrain extending above 1500 m in elevation over much of the country. The dominant land formations are Morne Diablotin (1730 m), in the northern half of the island and a chain of mountains including Morne Trois Pitons (1424 m), in the southern part of the island and extending to the coast. More gently sloping areas can be found primarily in the river valleys, the coastal areas of the northeast and the Bell’s Wet Area in the centre of the island.
Dominica's rock formations are mainly volcanic andesite and rhyolite, with fallen boulders and sharp-edged protrusions peppering slope bases. Although scores of mostly mild seismic shocks were recorded in 1986, volcanic eruptions ceased thousands of years ago. Sulphuric springs and steam vents, largely concentrated in the central and southern parts of the island, remain active, however. One of the largest springs, Boiling Lake, is located in the National Park. Soils are mainly of volcanic origin comprising mostly young, unconsolidated and friable, light- to dark- hued clayey and sandy soils, derived from the rocks and decomposed vegetation. Soil types can
be classified into eight major groups: Hydrogenic soils, Protosols, Young soils, Allophanoid clay soils, Kandoid soils, Smectoid clay soils, Unstable soils and “other clay” soils.
1.1.2 Vegetation
Forests dominate the landscapes of Dominica (Table 1). Sixty-five percent (51,151 ha) of Dominica’s land area is covered by natural vegetation ranging from natural scrub woodland on the west coast to lush, tropical rainforest in the interior (Figure 2). The natural vegetation is delineated into seven communities, namely: Coastal swamp, Littoral woodland, Dry scrub woodland, Deciduous/semi-evergreen forest (including grassland and savannah sub-types), Rainforest, Montane rainforest, and Elfin woodland. Fumarole vegetation associated with geothermal areas is also present.
Figure 2. Ecological zones of Dominica Table 1. Communities of natural vegetation types of Dominica
Vegetation Type Area
(ha)
Percent of Landmass
Coastal swamp 29.6 0.1
Littoral woodland 138.4 0.2
Dry scrub woodland 6167.6 7.9
Deciduous/semi-evergreen forest 7086.8 9.1
Rainforest 33172.5 42.5
Montane rainforest 4388.5 5.6
Elfin woodland 168.0 0.3
TOTAL 51151.4 65.7
In Dominica it is possible to find the following montane formations: "Thickets", "Elfin Woodlands" and "Montane Rain Forest". These vegetation types occur at high elevations. The tree stratum here is severely reduced as a result of wind exposure. Characteristic species are Richeria grandis, Byrsonima martinicensis, Podocarpus coriaceus with Heliconia bihai, and the tree ferns Cyathea imrayana and Hemitelia spp. (The Caribbean Conservation Association, 1991). The "elfin woodland" is the highest of the montane formations and occurs at the summits and on the upper slopes of the principal peaks. It consists of a low, gnarled, impenetrable growth of small trees with rambling branches and distorted trunks, loaded with moss and epiphytes.
Clusia venosa is the dominant species and grows in large pure patches interlaced with its aerial roots. These patches are mixed with Didymopanax attenuatum, Charianthus corymbosus, Weinmannia pinnata, Hibiscus tulipiflorus, Euterpe globosa, Ilex sideroxyloides and others. Also present is the endemic palm Geonoma hodgeorum. The trees are covered with mats and festoons of moss. Common epiphytes include Hillia parasitica and Psychotria pendula (Beard, 1949).
Spindly trees dominate “Montane thickets”, which are transitional between elfin and montane forests,, about 12-15 m high, with small canopies. The most common tree species found on steep slopes is Podocarpus coriaceus, the island´s only native conifer. In flatter areas, the main tree is Amanoa caribaea (Protected Areas Programme, 1997).
"The montane rain forest" grows above 610 m and is frequently in cloud cover or fog. The species composition is similar to that of mature rain forest, yet much reduced in stature. Non- vascular epiphytes cover most montane rain forest plants."Mature rain forest" grows below 460 m. This zone contains the most luxuriant growth and is dominated by Dacryodes excelsa, Sloanea spp. and Licania ternatensis. (Protected Areas Programme, 1997).
The rainforest vegetation types occur toward the interior of the island where there are only a few periods without precipitation, usually between April and June. The mature forest is dense and closely ranked, with dominant trees from 27 to 33 m tall. The canopy is dominated by the typical Dacroydes excelsa-Sloanea massonii forest alliance. This is mostly a sub-montane rain forest with Dacroydes excelsa, Sloanea massonii, Licania ternatensis, Amanoa caribaea and Chimarrhis cymosa dominant in the upper canopy and a middle story of trees usually dominated by members of the Lauraceae, especially of the genera Nectandra and Ocotea. The undercanopy may also include other species, e.g. Tovomita plumieri, Tapura antillana and numerous epiphytes and lianas. Secondary rain forest occurs in areas disturbed by logging and shifting agriculture. It usually consists of vestigial old stands surrounded by smaller re-growth characterized by Miconia species (Miconia mirabilis in particular), Cecropia schreberiana and, in the smaller gaps, Simaruba amara. Canopy climax forest trees such as Sloanea spp. are often present but are not dominant. (Beard, 1949) Secondary communities include palm break, secondary rain forest and dry scrub woodland. "Palm break" occurs on the loose upper slopes of some of the younger mountains. The palm break is composed principally of Euterpe globosa and E. dominicana.
Montane thickets are found on firm slopes with red earth, podsol or rocky soil, while palm break covers steep slopes of loose ash where landslides continually occur. It is considered to be a seral stage leading to montane thicket. A number of small trees that form the montane thicket or elfin forest are also present, such as Richeria grandis, Byrsonima martinicensis, Marila recemosa and
Hedyosmum arborescens. In the secondary rain forest, vestigial old stands often remain, surrounded by smaller regrowth. Common species include Cyathea spp., Miconia guianensis, Simarouba amara and Chimarrhis cymosa. The dry scrub woodland is distinctly xerophytic vegetation. The crowns carry abundant epiphytes such as bromeliads, Anthurium spp., orchids and ferns. Lonchocarpus benthamianus is often found along with Tabebuia pallida. Other large trees include Bursera simaruba, Pisonia fragans, Citharexylum spinosum, Cedrelm mexicana, Ficus crassinervia, Ceiba occidentalis, Cordia glabra and Spondias mombin (Beard, 1949).
"Swamps and wetlands" are restricted to an area immediately east of the Cabrits Peninsula in the northwest part of the island where there is a seasonal supply of fresh water. Characteristic species are Pterocarpus officinalis, Laguncularia racemosa and Avicennia germinans (The Caribbean Conservation Association, 1991). Beard (1949) reported that there is no mangrove in Dominica.
"Littoral woodland", immediately fronting the sea, consists of a dense, matted and interlaced woody growth of gnarled shrubs, usually of distorted form, that rises rapidly in height inland where trees up to 18 m tall can be found. The crowns of the trees are matted and windswept, but where the woodland is high enough it is open below and largely devoid of ground vegetation.
The tree canopy is subjected to constant onshore winds, producing asymmetrical tree crown development. The principal species are Coccoloba uvifera, Chrysobalanus icaco, Terminalia cattapa, Tabebuia pallida and Calophyllum antillanum. (The Caribbean Conservation Association, 1991).
FAO (1990) estimates that forest cover change between 1990 and 2000 is 333 ha per year (7%/year). Estimates were made by linear extrapolation of the change between 1979 and 1984 up to 2000. The total area under forest cover suffered a downtrend of about 1600 ha between the two studies. This could be partly due to increased demand for land for agriculture: the banana industry brings in significant foreign exchange earnings. As many land surveys state, almost all the agricultural areas were formerly forest areas (FAO, 1990). Forests have not been managed for productive purposes and there are no large-scale forest/timber based industries: the island's difficult topographic and climatic environment does not easily lend to an extensive economic harvesting of its abundant timber resources. In the last century no less than five outfits have attempted to harvest the timber; each attempt has failed within three years of starting. However, timber resources utilization is continuing on a low scale for local craft, for constructing houses and for furniture production; wood is also harvested for the production of charcoal. Wood utilized for the these purposes are drawn mostly from private lands and some state lands; there are many instances of illegal felling of round wood from state owned forests, particularly the unallocated state lands. Important forest tree species will eventually disappear if not given the opportunity to grow and develop in a well planned managed programme (FAO, 2000).
1.1.3 Water, climate, hydrology
Dominica has a maritime tropical climate, which is characterised by little seasonal or diurnal variation. The climate is influenced by the northeast trade winds. The island’s rugged topography results in micro-climatic variability within very short distances. The main climatic characteristics are:
o A relative humidity of about 95% with little seasonal, or diurnal variation;
o High rainfall, annual average of 4375 mm, which is distributed between the wet season (between July and December) and the dry season (between February and June). Rainfall increase from the leeward side eastward towards the central parts of the Island, where it reaches approximately 10,000 mm annually (Figure 3). The high rainfall makes the country susceptible to landslides, particularly in the more mountainous regions;
o Average air temperature is 27 0C; maximum temperatures are 33 0C and 27 0C during the day on the coast and in the interior, respectively; minimum temperatures are 18 0C and 12 0C during the night on the coast and interior, respectively.
Figure 3. Rainfall distribution in Dominica: (source: adapted from Lang, 1967, as reprinted in Shankland Cox and Associates, 1971).
Dominica is situated in the tropical Atlantic hurricane belt. Every 3.82 years, the country receives a direct strike or close range hit (within 60 miles) by cyclonic storm system. The frequent hurricanes have had an important impact on the social and economic infrastructure of the country.
Dominica’s interior contains an extensive network of surface and underground water and is interspersed with rivers, lakes and waterfalls. There are many rivers of which the ten most important have annual flows of 10 million gallons per day. A number of significant watersheds have been identified including the Layou, Roseau, Castle Bruce and Hampstead river basins.
There are three most significant freshwater ecosystems in Dominica. They are:
o Freshwater lake in the Morne Trois Pitons National Park;
o Indian River wetlands, which are brackish and contain marshes, and feshwater swamps, which provide a habitat for migratory and resident birds;
o Cabrits wetlands in the Cabrits National Park, which contains patches of mangrove forest, a freshwater swamp and marsh. These wetlands provide habitat for migratory and resident bird species.
1.1.4 Biodiversity
There are 155 plant families, 672 genera and 1226 species of vascular plants of which 11 are endemic (Nicolson 1991). The latter group include Sabinea carinalis, (Bwa Kwaib) the national flower of Dominica. Ten species of trees comprise about 90% of total volume (Table 2).
Table 2. Ten most important tree species in the forests of Dominica
Common Name Botanical Name Percentage of Total Volume
Gommier Dacroydes excelsa 22
Caraysite Amanoa caribaea 14
Bois cote Tapura latifolia 14
Chataignier Sloanea spp. 12
Mahot cochon Sterculia caribaea 10
Bois diable Licania ternatensis 7
Bois riviere Chimarris cymosa 4
Mauricif Byrsonima martinicensis 3
Sub-total 86
Other species 11
TOTAL 97
Dominica is home to arguably the most diverse assemblage of wildlife species remaining in the Eastern Caribbean. There are 175 species of birds including the two endemic parrot species (Amazona imperialis, A. arausiaca), 18 species of wild terretrial mammals, 19 species of reptiles, 9 species of amphibians, and an undetermined number of fish and invertebrates (Table 3). Some 60 of Dominica’s wildlife are included on the IUCN Red List (Appendix 1). Dominica has a varied marine and coastal environment that includes beaches, river estuaries and wetland areas and coral reefs. The species diversity comprises:
• Fish
• Turtles
• Marine Mammals
• Invertebrates
• Cnidarians
• Crustaceans
• Lobster
• Porifera
• Echinoderms
• Mollucs
• Conch
• Welks
• Marine Algae
Table 3. Classes of biodiversity found in Dominica
Class of Biodiversity Number of Known Species Noteworthy Species Flora
Pteridophytes 194
Gymnosperms 1
Monocotyledons 518
Dicotyledons 1445 Bwa Kwaib (Sabinea carinalis)
Fauna
Birds 175 Sisserou (Amazona imperialis)
Jaco (A. arausiaca)
Mammals 18
Reptiles 19
Amphibians 9 Mountain chicken (Leptodactyllus fallax)
Fish n.a. Include species of shrimps and crabs
Invertebrates n.a. Include species of butterflies and phasmids
n.a. not available
1.1.5 Mineral deposits and energy
Dominica is built on a broad submarine ridge of (probably) Early Tertiary age (that is about 60 million years ago) or perhaps even older deposits. It is one of the Volcanic Caribees, the more western line of a double island-arc, the other line of which is mainly built of limestone.
Dominica is almost entirely composed of volcanic rocks.
Activity during the historic period has been mainly of the form of phreatic and phreato-magmatic explosions, (phreato meaning that water draining from the surface was involved), the last having been located in the Valley of Desolation in 1880, often-leaving maare (lakes like that at Woodford Hill) or craters (e.g. Du Mas Estate, top end of Morne Prosper). Present activities are:
o Soufrieres (Soufriere, Roseau Valley, Morne aux Diables, Valley of Desolation) o Hot springs (Check Hall, Layou, Titou, etc)
o Geysirs (Wotten Waven) o Boiling Lake
o Seismic activity (mainly in the south, especially La Plaine area Main rock types:
o Basaltic lavas (Antrim)
o Andesitic tuffs, (some welded) and ashes, (some dacitic) and agglomerates (widespread, but dacitic materials which include little quartz crystals of diamond shape are confined to the NE, eg Calibishie)
o Dacitic andesitic lavas (Micotrin, Trois Pitons) [also microdiorite, (Imray's)]
o Reef limestones and conglomerates (west coast) Marketable forms of economic geology:
o Geothermal power (potential high, twice that of St Lucia) untapped o Aggregate, including lightweight (pumice) some exported
o Minor accumulations of minerals (low grade sources) o Copper and gold, exploration is about to start for
o Minor diatomaceous earth, impure clays, low grade thin layer alumina and limestone o "Sponge" which holds and guides water to our very productive rivers
Dominica is plagued with very high cost electricity. Over 55% of the power generated depends on imported diesel fuel, which comes at a high cost (approximately US$0.22/kWh)1. The balance is produced from hydroelectric generators. This dependency stifles the country’s economy by hindering investment and crippling enterprises and industries. Recently the cost of fossil fuel has taken a steep rise and the outlook is for continued price increases. It is therefore imperative that the country reduces its reliance on fossil fuel for generating electricity and embarks on renewable alternatives. Unlike the conversion in agriculture from conventional to organic, conversion from fossil fuel to renewables is not only environmentally friendlier, but also cheaper. Dominica will be unable to make a credible claim to Organic Island status if it continues to rely on polluting diesel generators as its main source of power. The conversion to non-polluting green power source(s) is a necessary part of the matrix of activities that would define organic Dominica.
1 Source: Internal document of the Clean Energy Corporation
The current power plants burn light fuel-oil (LFO) which emit greenhouse gases resulting in the deterioration of air quality, especially in areas adjacent to the diesel turbines. On a global scale, this contributes to global warming and environmental degradation.
Dominica is bountifully blessed with at least four natural sources of energy – geothermal, wind, water, and solar. While the cost of solar electricity generation is still relatively high, and hydro and wind outputs are variable, geothermal offers constant, cheap energy (approximately US$0.055/kWh) with over 92% availability (Table 4). Therefore, it is the most suitable renewable source for base load power generation.
Development of Dominica’s geothermal resources can supply all of Dominica’s energy needs at a much cheaper cost with the added benefit of exporting surplus energy and earning vital foreign exchange. Geothermal fields suitable for commercial production of electricity have been identified in three areas of Dominica, namely Wotten Waven, Soufriere, and the Valley of Desolation. Judicious development of these geothermal fields has the potential of producing 40MW of geothermal electric power within five years, and 100MW in ten years. Even if domestic requirement rises from 13MW peak to 20MW, surplus energy, not counting production from parallel hydro and wind, will still be available for export. See Box 1 for information on environmental impact.
Table 4. Expected outcome from production of geothermal power
Geothermal Power Generation 40 MW 100 MW 200 MW
Energy Produced 322 GWh 806 GWh 2360 GWh
Royalty Earned by the Government of Dominica @ 0.5 US cents per kWh
EC$4.3M (US$1.6M)
EC$10.8M (US$4M)
EC$33M (US$12M)
Energy Exported 282 GWh 725 GWh 1450 GWh
Value of Energy Exported (@ 8.5US cents per kWh)
EC$64M (US$24M)
EC$163M (US$61M)
EC$328M (US$123M)
Source. Clean Energy Corporation
In fact a project for the exploitation of Dominica’s geothermal resources is underway. The project known as the Geo-Caraibes has already completed geochemical and geophysical studies at Wotten Waven. The next phase is the establishment of exploratory wells to confirm the resource followed by drilling of production wells and the actual power plant. If the timetable is kept this component of Organic Dominica will be achieved in the ten-year time frame.
BOX 1
Environmental impact2
The utilisation of geothermal resources for electricity generation greatly reduces greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, SO2). Land use for the extraction of geothermal resources (wells, pipelines) is relatively small. The plants can be placed some distance away from the source and the pipes are subterranean.
Geothermal power plants easily meet the most stringent clean air standards because they emit little carbon dioxide (fossil-fuel power plants produce roughly 1000 to 2000 times as much), no nitrogen oxides, and very low amounts of sulphur dioxide. Steam and flash plants emit mostly water vapour. Binary power plants run on a closed-loop system, so no gases are emitted.
2 Source: Clean Energy Corporation internal document.
Many of these impacts can be controlled with technology that re-injects waste gases or fluids back into the geothermal well. The area of land impacted by a geothermal development is relatively small and such developments can usually co-exist successfully with other land uses.
The average geothermal power plant requires a total of only 400 square meters of land to produce a gigawatt of power over 30 years. No storage and transportation are required.
In the long term the availability of abundant cheap electricity provides Dominica with the opportunity to eliminate the importation of hydrocarbon based fuels for use in vehicles by using the cheap electricity to produce hydrogen for use in fuel cells. A fuel cell works by combining hydrogen with oxygen from the air in a chemical process to generate electricity, which can then be used to power vehicles. Hydrogen is extracted through a process called
"electrolysis," which splits water into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The only by-products are heat and pure water.
1.2 Overview of environmental issues 1.2.1 Land degradation
Dominica is a volcanic island with an estimated 86% of its land falling on slopes 20 degrees or greater. A large number of rivers traverse the rugged terrain. The majority (60% or 31,062 ha) of the land under natural vegetation in Dominica is privately owned.
Forest: The lush tropical rain forest in Dominica is increasingly coming under direct and indirect threats that include:
• The forest cover is slowly degrading from a siviculture perspective due to regeneration of high value species combined with unsustainable logging practices
• Clear felling for agricultural use
• Production of forest products for example charcoal, firewood, wooden posts
Agricultural Land Use: Dominica has an agrarian economy and agriculture contributes 19% of the GDP, 30% employment, 37.5% exports, 60% food needs and 60% of the population reside in the rural areas. Dominica is divided into seven agro-ecological zones (Figure 4, Table 5). The following agricultural issues contribute to sustainable land management issues affecting Dominica:
• 70% of the land resources are classified as being unsuitable for agricultural production
• 99% of the agricultural land is rain-fed irrigated
• there is an increasing amount of unregulated agricultural development
• change from traditional land use practices
• there is an increase in alien species, for example Citronella spp. (lemon grass), on abandoned agricultural land
• clearing of steep slopes without utilising proper soil conservation measures
• change from shifting cultivation by small land holders to settled farms often on steep lands
• change from multi-cropping and use of ground cover to clean cultivated mono-crops, for example bananas
Urban Land Use: There has been an increase in pressure for land by non-agricultural uses such as tourism, manufacturing, housing, and other urban uses.
External Threats:
• Disasters and other natural hazards including – hurricanes, storm surges, droughts, landslides, floods, earthquakes, volcanoes
• International Trade
Figure 4. Agro-ecological zones of Dominica (refer to Table 5) Table 5. Characteristics of agro-ecological zones of Dominica
Zones Natural Vegetation
Soil Types Soil Horizons
Soil
Temperature Regimes
Moisture Regimes
Elevations (m)
Rainfall (mm) A1 Savannah Smectoid Mollic,
Umbric
Iso-
hyperthermic
>22 0C
Ustic 150-300 1240-2500
A2 Dry scrub Smectoid
Kandoid latosolics Alluvium
Mollic Umbric
Iso-
hypethermic
>25 0C
60-300 1240-2500
C Dry scrub
Tropical/
subtropical rainforest
Alluvium Kandoid latosolics Young soil
Umbric Argillic Mollic
Iso-thermic 15-22 0C
Udic 0-60 1240-2500
D1 Tropical/
subtropical rainforest
Allophanic latosolics Podsolic Young soils
Umbric Argillic Histic Spodic
Iso-
hyperthermic
>22 0C Iso-thermic 15-22 0C
Udic 450-900+ 6500-7500
D2 Tropical/
subtropical rainforest
Allophanic latosolics Kandoid latosolics Podsolic Young soils
Argillic Umbric Oxic
Iso-
hyperthermic iso-thermic 15-22 0C
Udic 150-900 5000-6500
D3 Tropical moist forest
Kandoid latosolics Allophanic latosolics Young soils
Oxic Argillic Umbric
Iso-thermic 15-22 0C
Udic 150-450 2555-5000
E Dry scrub/
moist forest
Kandoid latosolics
Umbric Mollic
450-900 1240-5000
Source: CARDI 1984
1.2.2 Biodiversity loss/ loss of genetic resources
Dominica is fairly rich in biodiversity both terrestrial and marine (see section 1.1.4).
Terrestrial Biodiversity
The terrestrial biodiversity of Dominica is being threatened by a number of factors:
• Deforestation
• Agrochemical pollution
• Natural disasters
• Hunting and Capture of Wildlife
• Squatting
Marine Biodiversity
The marine biodiversity of Dominica is being threatened by a number of factors, which include:
• Human threats – these include physical alterations, marine pollution, unsustainable exploitation, alien exotic species, and climate change
• Transboundary movement of marine species 1.2.3 Climate Change
Global climate change presents one of the major environmental threats to small island development states (SIDS) like Dominica. The two main driving forces associated with climate change (variability) are expected to be extreme weather events and sea level rise. Several important sectors in Dominica will be adversely affected by the impacts from climate change including human health, agriculture and forestry, tourism, fisheries, coastal zone development, urban development, and freshwater resources. The critical climate change challenges facing Dominica include:
• Increase in the frequency and intensity of weather events – hurricanes, precipitation, temperature, storm surges
• Agriculture – decline in agricultural productivity, destruction of coastal fisheries and fisheries infrastructure, negative impacts on biodiversity including loss of species diversity, and encroachment on agricultural lands, protected areas and other sensitive ecosystems
• Health – reduction in potable water supplies, increased vector-borne diseases
• Social Impacts – relocation of coastal communities and critical infrastructure, reverse migration, displaced/unemployed groups such as farmers, youth
Economic Impacts – (a) damage to coastal and other infrastructure including roads, ports, utilities, telecommunication, and fishery complexes, (b) costs associated with introducing mitigation measures such as sea defences, and relocation of coastal infrastructure, (c) loss of
houses and related human settlement, and (d) the economic impacts on sectors like agriculture, tourism, health, and fisheries.
1.2.4 Coastal Zone Issues
Dominica has 153 km of coastline, adjoining a 715 km2 coastal shelf. The continental shelf is narrow on the west coast and fairly large on the east coast. On the west coast, water plummets to depths over 200 feet very close to the shore making this part of the island world class diving destination. The many rivers of Dominica flow from the rugged mountains into the Caribbean Sea on the west coast and into the Atlantic Ocean on the east coast.
The coastal waters contain an abundance of varied aquatic flora and fauna, and about 48 species of corals. According to the Dominica Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP), the corals are in a healthy state. Threats to corals are confined to the west coast in sedimentation from quarrying operations from Point Michel to Colihaut. Beaches are quite diverse ranging from light colour on the east and north-eastern coast to sandy to stony on the west coast. Threatened coastal and marine species include the White Sea urchin (cause unknown), marine turtles (illegal harvesting and loss of habitat and nesting grounds), sea grass (siltation) and red fish and coastal pelagics (habitat destruction). The Dominica BSAP discusses the negative anthropogenic impacts on biodiversity.
1.2.5 Solid Waste
According to the Dominca BSAP, solid waste generated by the manufacturing sector consists of plastics, cardboard and carton boxes, broken wooden palettes, pepper, grapefreuit and lime residues, metal, plastic drums, broken glass, scrap aluminium, stainless steel, copper, galvanised metal and fibre glass. Organic material wastes, including grapefruit and lime residues, are utilised for animal feed and for other agro-products. All other materials are disposed at the landfill sites.
1.2.6 Biosafety
Biosafety is one the emerging issues affecting Dominica. The Government of Dominica ratified the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety on July 13, 2004 and is in the process of developing a national framework to address biosafety issues. The Government has prepared a draft Biosafety and Biotechnology Management Act to make provision for:
(a) the safe handling, transport, use, transfer and release of any genetically modified organisms so as to prevent or reduce risks to biodiversity, the environment and human health;
(b) the promotion and management of research and development in the field of biotechnology;
(c) the implementation of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Section 12 of the Dominica BSAP addresses biotechnology and biosafety issues for Dominica.
The BSAP identified the following strategic actions
• develop comprehensive national biotechnology legislative regime
• establish a technical coordinating committee to oversee the implementation of the Cartagena Protocol – including coordinating a national; biosafety programme, foster greater alliance and cooperation with regional and international institution, work with government, non-governmental organizations, and other agencies and institutions to foster a national culture of awareness on safety, co-ordinate the development and implementation of public education, awareness and training programmes at all levels on issues of biotechnology and biosafety;
• develop and implement a national policy on biotechnology 1.2.7 Regulating Use of private lands bordering protected areas
There is no comprehensive land use policy or map for the island to show the distribution of land among the various sectors such as residential, settlement, commercial, industrial, agricultural, tourism, and recreational. According to the 1995 Agricultural Census3, of the 49,900 acres (19,960 ha) enumerated, the distribution was as follows
1. 29,300 acres (11,720 ha) were under temporary crops 2. 600 acres (240 ha) were fallow for one year and less 3. 14,800 acres (5,920 ha) (28.3%) were classified as forest
4. The remaining 5,200 acres (2.080 ha) (10%) were classified as other which included 2,500 acres (1,000 ha) that were fallow between 1- 3 years, 1,700 acres (680 ha) were in pasture and 1,000 acres (400 ha) were of non-agricultural areas (waste land, construction)
Between 1961 and 1995, there was a recorded decrease of 23.98% for registered acreage under farms. This decrease may be attributed to a loss of farmland due to subdivision, abandonment, change of use to forest, tourism, etc. or they no longer exist. In 1995 there were some 824 landless farms, which represented an increase of 80% over 1961.
Forty-eight per cent of Dominica’s total land area of 197,500 ha has been classified as unutilized, with approximately 9 % being classified as agricultural lands.
The National Parks and Forest Reserves utilize some 13,730 acres (5,488 ha) of land (Table 6).
Table 6. National parks and reserves by area4
Park and Forest Year Established Area in acres
Morne Trois National Park 1975 16,984
Cabris National Park 1986 260
Morne Diablotin National Park 2000 8,242
Central Forest Reserve 1952 1,013
Northern Forest Reserve 1977 13,730
Some of the main land use issues are:
• Improper land use practices, including agricultural production systems
3 Commonwealth of Dominica Environmental Statistics report, p18 (2002) – Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Finance and Planning.
4 Commonwealth of Dominica Environmental Statistics Report, p22 (2002) – Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Finance and Planning
