Faculty of Economics and Business MSc Thesis Supply Chain Management Master Thesis

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Faculty of Economics and Business

MSc Thesis Supply Chain Management

Master Thesis

The influence of information communication technology on

cross-cultural supply chain relations

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ABSTRACT

Purpose: The purpose of this research was to explore how information communication

technology (ICT) affects the buyer-supplier relationship (trust and collaboration) under different cultural characteristics (uncertainty avoidance and individualism).

Method/Design: A multiple case study consisting of eight interviews from eight different

companies was conducted. In total, seven different cross-cultural supply chains were examined and studied.

Findings: This study showcases that the influence of ICT on supply chain relationships can differ

under different cultural backgrounds. When members have higher uncertainty avoidance levels and feel their supply chain partners are not trustworthy, ICT can help increase the level of trust. On the contrary, when members have lower uncertainty avoidance levels, they tend to have higher trust in their partners. In this situation, the advantages of ICT are difficult to detect. Moreover, it was discovered that ICT can provide less interaction which can ultimately negatively affect the collaboration of collectivistic cultures.

Originality/value: Previous studies are mainly quantitative. This study contributes to current

knowledge by conducting a multiple case study and reveals the impacts of information communication technology by answering what and how questions.

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1.

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, it is common to see organisations around the world seeking to cooperate with international firms and develop a cross-culture supply chain network. For instance, many companies offshore their plants in order to achieve different benefits, such as to lower costs, reach skills and knowledge or proximity to market (Ferdows, 1997). However, the national cultural background may influence people’s behaviours and their values (Gupta & Gupta, 2019). Existing research examines the possible influence national culture has on the various aspects of the supply chain. For example, trust and performance on long-term orientation (Joseph et al., 2010), the decision making process (Pagell, Katz, Sheu, 2005), and the potential cost that may be incurred due to different cultural backgrounds (Stringfellow, Teagarden & Nie, 2008).

Supply chain performance may be influenced by national culture, as a result of differing cultural characteristics. In some cases, cultural norms and attitudes may increase the complexity of supply chain management (SCM) (Eckerd et al., 2016). As a result, this may eventually modify operational performance (Wiengarten et al, 2011). In addition, supply chain partners from different countries often have to reconcile cultural differences when working with others in order to improve their performance level. It is therefore important to understand how to manage a multicultural supply chain network (Gupta & Gupta, 2019).

In this study, there will be a focus on two aspects within supply chain relationships: trust and collaboration. Collaboration with supply chain partners such as information sharing, collaborative forecasting, and joint new product development enable companies to establish competitive advantages over their rivals (Qu & Yang, 2015). Therefore, an increasing number of companies are starting to be aware of the advantages of supply chain collaboration.

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track record (Chen et al., 1998), to prove their professional abilities. On the other hand, supply chain members can obtain affect-based trust when “partners have formed a social-emotional bond that goes beyond a regular business or professional relationship (Chen et al., 1998). Furthermore they find that the characteristics of national cultures also influences affect-based trust. According to the aforementioned studies, the willingness to trust and cooperate will eventually affect supply chain performance. As a result, a distinct increase in the study of cross-culture supply chains based on trust and collaboration can be seen.

It is noticed that trust and collaboration between SC members is influenced by the ability and efficiency of information delivery (Chen et al, 1998, Albuloushi & Algharaballi, 2014, Qu & Yang, 2015). Moreover, the role of information and communication technology (ICT) in SCM has become more prevalent (Shavazi, Abzari & Mohammadzadeh, 2009). Research has found evidence of a positive relationship between inter-organisational ICT and supply chain performance (Zhang, Van Donk, & van der Vaart, 2016, Cao et al., 2018). It can also be noted that the productive use of ICT can have a positive impact on the performance level of a supply chain. When discussing the relationship between ICT and cultures, it is imperative to note that cultural differences also have an influence on communication preferences (Gupta & Gupta, 2019). Additionally, national culture may also affect the level of assistance that ICT provides in buyer-supplier relationships (Zhang & Lai, 2016). Nearly two decades ago, Ross (2001) highlighted that workplaces were starting to become more virtual and that the use of digital technology may amplify the issues that arose due to differences in cultures.

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supply chain relations in order to prevent the possible negative effects. However, the level of influence of ICT on the impact of cultural differences within the international supply chain is also yet to be determined (Gupta & Gupta, 2019).

In order to contextualize this research gap further, it is necessary to examine the influence of ICT on other scenarios. Thus, during this research, we would like to examine the influence of information and communication technology on the relationship between national culture and buyer-supplier relationships, in order to effectively define the performance level. This leads to the following research question: what is the influence of information communication technology on the trust and collaboration of cross-cultural supply chains?

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2.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The first section of theoretical background will focus on communication methods which will be distinguished in ICT and direct communication. The next section will elaborate on national cultures and the impacts on buyer-supplier relationships.

2.1 Information and Communication Technology

In this section, virtual communication methods via ICT and face-to-face interaction will be introduced. The definition and concepts of these communication methods, and their effects on supply chain communication will be discussed. Furthemore, the conceptual differences between virtual and physical communication will be introduced. Lastly, the relationship between ICT and the effects caused by cultural differences on supply chain relationships will also be discussed. 2.1.1 Virtual communication through ICT

Bhakoo and Choi (2013) stated that ICT is “the technology-based infrastructure that acts as a conduit for facilitating transactions, sharing information with trading partners, coordinating activities and establishing governance structures between firms”. This virtual communication conduit based on ICT plays a key role in eliminating geographic distance, transaction time and the travel cost associated with information sharing between people or organisations (Thulin & Vilhelmson, 2005).

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It is noted that trust and collaboration behaviours are not only related to individual or cultural characteristics, but are also dependent on the effectiveness and reliability of information transferring (Chen et al, 1998, Albuloushi & Algharaballi, 2014, Qu & Yang, 2015). In addition to the advantages of information sharing via ICT, research has also shown that the function of recording conversations and transactions can reduce uncertainty and allow for more effective ways to reconcile conflicts (Ambrose et al. 2008). Hence, it can be deduced that virtual communication via ICT can positively impact trust and collaboration within supply chain relationships.

2.1.2 Face-to-face communication

Ambrose et al. (2008) found that face-to-face (FTF) is one of the most commonly used communication methods between buyers and suppliers. Members who join physical meetings can observe each others’ voice and facial expressions, as well as body gestures. These visualisations allow for a more coherent level of understanding. Moreover, FTF meetings also allow for instant responses and feedback. Research also shows that communicating FTF makes it easier for supply chain members to get familiar with each other and to have a better understanding of the expected responsibilities. As a result, this medium of communication is often utilised in the beginning of a new buyer-supplier relationship as a means of transferring knowledge (Ambrose et al. 2008). It is imperative to note that FTF communication cannot provide records of meetings as ICT does. This may lead to decreasing certainty within relationships, which may eventually erode buyers’ level of trust. However, research has surprisingly found that supply chain members tend to have FTF meetings within a matured and closed relationship. This is due to the fact that FTF communication can deliver precise information and reduce the possibility of misunderstanding (Ambrose et al. 2008).

2.1.3 Virtual versus face-to-face communication

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communication can achieve as powerful and clear information sharing as FTF communication. It appears that FTF communication provides the greater advantages. However, alternative research has mentioned specific advantages that can only be reached through the medium of ICT (Piccoli & Ives 2003, Martins, Gilson & Maynard, 2004).

Rhoads, M. (2010) reviews existing research and discusses the differences between FTF and ICT communication across several areas. From previous studies, it is shown that FTF communication provides advantages of interactions and knowledge transfer in communication. On the other hand, communicating through ICT offers benefits such as the ability to record, reducing geographical distance and time barriers. In the succeeding paragraphs, the following conceptual differences between virtual and physical communication will be introduced:

i. Interactions

ii. Knowledge transfer

iii. Geographical distances and time barriers iv. Record function

i. Interactions

The convenience of ICT allows organisations to exchange information without the need for extra interaction and communication (Robert, Denis & Hung, 2009). Information and data can be easily shared to many individuals through ICT mediums, even if the parties involved have never met before. However, Blackburn, Furst & Rosen (2003) proposed that the lack of interactions will make it difficult for virtual team members to establish a common vision or values. Due to the lack of understanding others' background and shared value, communication through ICT mediums may perceive a higher degree of risk within the collaboration. Research shows that this effect can be reduced and minimised when members acquire moderate personal knowledge of one another (Robert, Denis & Hung, 2009). Seabright (2010) argues that FTF interactions within groups lead to a higher cohesion between group members, and consequently this results in a lower risk of opportunism within relationships.

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the conversation, in comparison to how they might during FTF communication (Martins, Gilson, & Maynard, 2004). In addition, research has found that communicating via ICT channels can help to reduce the perception of specific statuses, which can potentially help to reduce status inequalities (Sproull & Kiesler, 1986, Dubrovsky, Kiesler & Sethna, 1991).

ii. Knowledge transfer

Rhoads (2010) argues that traditional FTF communication is more efficient when transferring tacit knowledge. They also stated that “research from communication, evolutionary biology, psychology, and anthropology suggests that FTF communication provides the social signals necessary for individuals to engage in crucial economic and social exchange, like collaborative work.”. People cannot observe others directly when they are not communicating FTF (McQuail 2000), therefore the effectiveness of communication may decrease due to the lack of conversational clues.

iii. Geographical distances and time barriers

Communicating through ICT can overcome the distances and time barriers between different geographical locations (Piccoli & Ives 2003, Martins, Gilson & Maynard, 2004). This provides a better opportunity for organisations to establish global connections. Moreover, the erosion of geographical distance may allow for cross-cultural teams to be more aware of their cultural differences. Blackburn, Furst, & Rosen (2003) presented an example of the Sabbath in Israel. In this case, team members in the United States noticed that members in Israel would not be able to join conferences on the Sabbath. The awareness of cultural differences can help teams to adjust their actions and expectations, in order to overcome communications barriers.

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iv. Record function

As a result of the ability to keep a record of conversations and documents, communicating through ICT mediums can reduce the uncertainty level within buyer-supplier relationships (Ambrose et al. 2008). The record functions of ICT mediums allow organisations to monitor the teamwork activities and the working processes. Team leaders can distinguish the contribution levels of members by monitoring their work. In addition, by reviewing past records, the team can make better decisions in future situations (Blackburn, Furst & Rosen, 2003, Martins, Gilson & Maynard, 2004).

Conceptual

Differences Influence Aspects

Interactions

A higher degree of interaction can help establish a common vision or values, and reduce the risk of opportunism. Communicating via ICT channels can help to reduce status inequalities and allow all participants to share their opinions to a greater extent.

Knowledge transfer The effectiveness of communication may decrease when_{people cannot observe others directly.}

Geographical distances and time barriers

When communicating via ICT, the erosion of geographical distance may allow cross-cultural teams to be more aware of their cultural differences.

The ability of ICT to overcome geographical distances and time barriers offers team members greater flexibility to join a meeting.

Record function

The ability to keep a record can reduce the uncertainty level within buyer-supplier relationships.

Reviewing past records can help teams make better decisions in future situations.

Table 2.1. Overview of Conceptual Differences

2.1.4 ICT and the effects of culture in a buyer-supplier relationship

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conducted through ICT may make people aware of cultural differences and the adjustments that need to be taken. Brandon Jones et al. (2014) examined the relationship between information sharing and connectivity, among other variables. This relationship had a positive effect on the resilience and robustness of the supply chain, as a result of a successful culture of collectivism and collaboration. In addition, the communication abilities between buyer and supplier can effectively increase the trust of buyers to their suppliers (Graca & Barry, 2016). Existing research evidently showcases that ICT can affect the impact of cultural characteristics within supply chains (Mathias Doetzer, 2020). However, it is important to note that in order to achieve this, all members of the supply chain involved must contribute equally (Kim, Ryoo & Jung, 2011).

On the contrary, research has found that cultural characteristics also have an impact on the effectiveness of ICT in buyer-supplier relationships (Zhang & Lai, 2016). For example, language barriers, public perception and mistrust (Li, 2009) have an immediate influence on cultural perception. In addition, Graca & Barry (2016) stated out that the effectiveness of communication depends on whether the supplier provides clear information to the buyer, and the buyer’s perception of information clarity is affected by cultural and social norms.

2.2 National Culture

According to Hofstede (2011), “Culture is the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others”. Schwartz (2014) stated that the sharing of values or normative systems within a society are believed to be the core factor of culture. There is not a single or common type of culture (Gupta & Gupta, 2019), thus making each culture group differ from each other (Schwartz, 2014). In addition, different values and characteristics of culture may lead to different behaviours (Gupta & Gupta, 2019).

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& Gupta, 2019). Misunderstanding, misconception, and miscommunications often occur within the interactions between members with different cultural backgrounds, thus, the interaction and communication process of different cultures can be difficult (Lin, 2004). There is existing literature already discussing the possible influences of different culture characteristics to buyer-supplier relationships (Tallman & Shenkar, 1994, Chen et al., 1998, Hewett & Bearden, 2001). In this research, we will focus on two perspectives, which are collaboration and trust. Hofstede (1980) has proposed a framework which includes four dimensions. Two of which, uncertainty avoidance and collectivism, have been selected for this research based on previous research that revealed their effects on buyer-supplier relationships (Tallman & Shenkar, 1994, Chen et al., 1998, Hewett & Bearden, 2001, Morris, 2005). More specifically, previous studies also found that uncertainty avoidance and collectivism have an impact on trust within the relationship and whilst also affecting the motivation of collaboration of the supply chain members (Joseph et al., 2010, Kull & Wacker, 2010).

In the following sections, we will introduce two dimensions of culture, which are uncertainty avoidance and individualism/collectivism. After that, we will focus on the impact of uncertainty avoidance and individualism/collectivism on the buyer-supplier relationships. The conceptual framework of this study is shown in Figure 1.

2.2.1 Uncertainty Avoidance

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societies who feel less anxious when facing uncertain situations and they are more likely to accept informal or unarranged actions.

2.2.2 Individualism/Collectivism

According to Hofstede (2011), individualism and collectivism refer to the levels to which people are integrated into groups within a society. People from individualism culture often have loose connections with others in the society. An individualist takes priority of an individual's goal before group achievements. Moreover, when facing a conflict between self-interest and group-interest, individualists are more likely to consider their own interest first. On the contrary, collectivism culture describes people who have strong connections and are loyal to their groups. They will take group goals and group-interest as priority. Moreover, the employees of an individualism culture have to be responsible for their own actions. On the other hand, collectivism culture’s employees depend more on emotional relationships.

2.3 Impacts of national cultures on Trust and Collaboration

2.3.1 Impacts on Trust

In terms of uncertainty avoidance, Albuloushi & Algharaballi (2014) revealed that the culture of uncertainty avoidance can affect the level of trust between supply chain partners. This is due to the fact that higher uncertainty avoidance cultures are less likely to tolerate risk, and as a result may be anxious when facing uncertainty. However, the ability to take risks has an immediate effect on the strength of trust within relationships (Cook et al., 2005) and it is hard to achieve trust when members feel anxious (Potocan, 2009). In addition to cultural characteristics, the conveying of competence and reliability documents is also important in order to improve the level of trust between supply chain members (Chen et al, 1998, Albuloushi & Algharaballi, 2014).

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2.3.2 Impacts on Collaboration

It is generally believed that collectivism culture leads to better collaboration with others. However, Chen, Chen, & Meindl (1998) proposed that under differing conditions, both collectivism and individualism can activate higher levels of collaboration. They revealed that people from collectivism culture have a higher level of collaboration as they often have a strong group identity. In addition, collectivists communicate more and share common goals to improve overall performance while working in the same team. On the other hand, individualists are willing to cooperate with others as long as there is personal gain involved. In this study, we aim to find out if organisations can erode the influence of collectivism and individualism by using different communication mediums.

Furthermore, uncertainty avoidance culture can affect an organisation’s willingness to cooperate. Qu & Yang (2015) stated that collaboration can often be risky to organisations, for two reasons. Firstly, unilateral investments may increase the opportunistic behaviors within the supply chain. Secondly, when exchanging information, some members within the supply chain may exploit others in order to benefit their own interests. Due to the probability of potential opportunism, high uncertainty avoidance cultures are less likely to be cooperative. Therefore, it is important to explore how the characteristics of virtual communication via ICT affect people’s willingness to cooperate.

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3.

METHODOLOGY

This section will introduce the research design, case selection, data collection and the method of data analysis required in order to conduct valid and reliable research.

3.1 Research Design

The purpose of this research is to understand how ICT can mediate the level of influence of cultural differences within supply chain relationships. It remains unknown how ICT interacts on the cultural effects and it is a relatively new area of research (Gupta & Gupta, 2019). Hence, the focus of our research question is to discover the patterns and links between two variables: ICT and cultural differences. The unit of analysis that will be utilised is the buyer-supplier relationship; this provides the opportunity to study the impact of cultural differences and the impact of ICT use.

According to Yin (1993), a case-study method is designed in order to understand certain phenomena in depth, in real life contexts. In addition, multiple cases allow for a study and comparison between cases, in contrast to a single-case study. The analysis between multiple cases will also increase the external validity, therefore, a multiple-case study was applied to this research. Existing research on the influence between culture and supply chain is mainly quantitative and illustrated by investigating the degree of influence from different angles. By adopting a case study method, this research was expected to analyse the causality in a small number of cases and can provide insights into a wider range of cases (Gerring, 2007). Thus, this study focuses on qualitative research that adds value to existing research by answering how, why and what questions (Yin & Robert, 2009) to gather an in-depth view of how ICT plays a role on the influence of cultural factors on buyer-supplier relationships.

3.2 Case Selection

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the aforementioned studies are cross-culture business-to-business relationships. A single case from a supplier’s perspective was selected as a means to better understand the differences between the supplier and buyer aspects. An overview of the cases is provided in Table 3.1.

This method of case selection allowed for both literal and theoretical replication. Similar results are expected from literal replication cases, while we expect contrasting results for predictable reasons from theoretical replication. All of the cases are more collectivist than their supply chain partners. Therefore, the cases were assigned to three main clusters based on the cultural characteristics of uncertainty avoidance. One cluster of cases has a higher uncertainty avoidance level than their supply chain partners, one cluster that has a similar uncertainty avoidance level, and the other cluster of cases has a lower uncertainty avoidance level than their supply chain partners (see Table 3.2). Differences are expected between the contrasting clusters, however, it must also be noted that there is a possibility of differences occurring within a cluster. If contrasting results occur, the data gathered will be analysed in order to examine the cause of these differences and provide insights. In order to find the possible factors that may cause the different results, the positions of the interviewees will also be collected. Information regarding the interviewees’ position will also include their job responsibilities and company size (see Table 3.3).

Case Interviewee’s Country SC Partner’s Country Length (mins)

1 Taiwan China 67:23

2 Taiwan Korea 44:37

3 Taiwan Japan 35:02

4 Taiwan China 38:33

5 Taiwan Puerto Rico 42:49

6 Taiwan Germany 84:56

7 Taiwan UK 61:43

8 China Germany 82:03

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Country Individualism Level Uncertainty Avoidance Level China (CN) 20 30 Germany (DE) 67 65 Japan (JP) 46 92 Korea (KR) 18 85 Puerto Rico (PR) 27 38 Taiwan (TW) 17 69 UK (UK) 89 35 Cluster Case A: higher UA 1: TW→CN 4: TW→CN 5: TW→PR 7: TW→UK B: similar UA 6: TW→DE C: lower UA 2: TW→KR 3: TW→JP 8: CN→DE

Table 3.1: Overview of Cultural Characteristics Source: (Hofstede Insights, 2021)

Case Position of Interviewee Job Responsibilities Company size*

1 Supply Planner Supply planning and forecasting Larger

2 Project Manager Negotiating the price, specifications of_{the product with suppliers} Larger 3 Senior Manager Development of logistics and_{warehousing business} Similar

4 Project Manager Project management Similar

5 Strategy Procurement Procurement planning of component and

material Larger

6 Customer Relationship_Management Negotiating the price, specifications of_{the product with buyers} Smaller

7 Director Business development and management Smaller

8 Procurement Manager Deal with supplier issue and supplier_negotiation Smaller Table 3.3: Overview of Relationship Characteristics

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3.3 Interview Protocol

The interview protocol was designed based on the knowledge that was acquired and introduced previously in the theoretical background. The protocol was divided into four sections: general background questions, communication mediums, experiences of cultural differences and the influence of communication methods on cultural differences. Following these sections, a closing question was asked in order to collect extra information related to the research question. Table 3.3 provides a brief overview of the interview protocol.

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Section Purpose Example Questions General Background To collect background_{information of interviewees.}

Please give a brief description of your company; Please give a brief description of your supplier.

Communication mediums

To understand the behaviour of communicating

What communication medium do you usually use to contact suppliers?

Experiences of cultural differences

To understand the experiences of cultural differences

interviewees might have encountered

How do cultural differences affect the interaction between you and the supply chain partners?

Influence of communication methods on cultural differences

To understand how the

difference between ICT and f2f will affect the impact of culture on BSR

What do you think is the biggest difference between communication via ICT and direct communication?

Table 3.3: Overview of Interview Protocol

3.4 Data Collection and Analysis

Within this research, semi-structured interviews were conducted. Generally, the interviews followed the previously stated interview protocol. Additional questions were also asked in order to collect any auxiliary information that relates to this research that may have been previously overlooked. Overall within this study, the aim was to find evidence of how ICT would affect the impact of national culture on the supply chain relationship.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all of the interviews were conducted online. Furthermore, each case was interviewed separately in order to avoid any potential influence from others. The research background and the interview questions were provided to our interviewees ahead of the interviews to ensure that they had a preliminary understanding of the questions. During each interview, the entire process was recorded in order to gather the information and conduct analyses on the results.

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protect their privacy. In addition, a short explanation of this study was provided to interviewees in order to help them understand our research. Permission was requested and subsequently granted by each interviewee, which allowed for the entire interview process to be recorded.

After the collection of data, the interviews were transcribed and coded utilising Excel. Firstly, the information that provided sufficient answers to the research question were identified and furthermore classified. For example:

“The advantage of using communication media is that the dialogue can be fully recorded and traced back in the future. In China, it is easy to agree on everything before the case is dealt with; after the case is negotiated, execution is another matter. Therefore, the dialogue records collected by communication software are often tools that aid in asking suppliers to fulfill their promises.” -C5. In this situation, the interviewee stressed the importance of being able to review the records. Interpretation codes were developed for each phenomena observed, which in the above example has been named as “record keeping”.

Lastly, the pattern codes highlighted the key concepts and the roles they played in the overall picture. The initial structure of the coding tree is shown in Table 3.4. A coding tree was developed, and as a result the findings and core concept of the impacts of ICT on national culture in buyer-supplier relationships were identified.

Dimension Second order First order

Collaboration Interactions Shared value Participation Background understanding Building up cohesion Knowledge Transfer Knowledge Transfer

Language barriers

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Time Barriers Acknowledge cultural Record Function Progress monitoring

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4.

RESULTS

Within this section, the results of the collected data are provided. An overview of the main findings are discussed in the first part, followed by the impact of conceptual difference between FTF and ICT communication which were previously introduced in the theoretical background. The influence interactions, knowledge transfer, geographical distances and time barriers, opportunity to participate, and record function have are also discussed.

There are numerous uses and preferences regarding interaction methods for different stages of supply chain relationships. In Table 4.1, the main findings of each case have been stated.

Case Main Finding

1 The record function of ICT allows members to monitor progress and make_{adjustments based on records.} 2 The conversational clues that can only be observed during direct interaction has_{an influence on the willingness of collaboration.} 3 It is easier to exchange extra information in FTF meetings.

4 FTF interaction helps increase affect-based trust, whereas records kept on ICT can_{increase cognition-based trust.} 5 After the partnership is stabilized, the ability of the supply chain partners to deal

with problems becomes more important than the interactional experience. 6 When a problem occurs, ICT communication can aid in the creation of a time

buffer which allows for a more effective solution to be developed. 7 Written documents are essential in every business relationship.

8 Informal communication during coffee breaks is an efficient way to collect information.

Table 4.1: Main finding of single case

4.1 How culture affects trust

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chain partners in person, like the chinese saying ‘meeting in person leaves a better impression.’ After we met in person, I always felt closer with my supply chain partners.” -C8.

When the interviewees cultures have a higher uncertainty level than their supply chain partners, they often think that their supply chain partners are exaggerated and their words are not trustworthy. “During the negotiation, they often say yes to our request. However, the quality of end products may not meet the requirements.” -C4. Because they feel that their supply chain partners cannot be trusted, the interviewees have different ways to decrease the uncertainty and make the progress more trustworthy. For example, getting to know their supply chain partners better. “I used to spend extra time talking with my supply chain partners. This helps me to understand them, so I know how much I can trust their words.” -C1.

There is no effect on trust observed from the case when different cultures have a similar uncertainty avoidance level. However, the cases that have a lower uncertainty avoidance level usually have higher degree of trust to their supply chain partners. “Our suppliers always try their best to solve the problem. Usually they do a great job, and we can trust them.” -C2.

Cluster Relationship Explanation

All Low Idv → High Idv

They are team-players. And they tend to maintain harmonious relationships and create affect-based trust by FTF interaction. A

High UA → Low UA

Lower trust level because of the feeling that their supply chain partners are unrealistic, exaggerated, and may fail to meet their requirements.

B Similar UA N/A

C Low UA →

High UA

They trust their supply chain partners and believe that their partners are able to solve problems when they encounter ones. Table 4.2: Overview of how culture affects trust

4.2 How culture affects collaboration

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actions mentioned above, it can also be told from the arrangement of meeting schedules. “Japanese suppliers will not attend conferences in overtime working hours, so do the western countries. Therefore sometimes we have to work the entire day to communicate with our suppliers around the world.” -C3.

When the interviewees cultures have a higher uncertainty level than their supply chain partners, they will adjust their working methods to lower the uncertainty in the collaboration. For example, one interviewee shared that they remind their suppliers regularly. In addition, they will adjust the timeline to reserve time for suppliers to meet the deadline. “During the progress, in order to let our suppliers know the urgency, we will highlight our request. …. And we will provide our suppliers with a more flexible timeline.” -C5. However, sometimes the problem caused by cultural differences cannot be solved, they can only passively accept the results and change their behavior to cooperate with each other. “There is a high rate for our suppliers to deliver wrong products. They do not take it seriously, and think that it is fine to deliver tomorrow. All we can do is accept and ask them to lower the error rate.” -C7.

Cases that have a lower uncertainty avoidance level than their supply chain partners shared that they will adjust their actions to cooperate with others. “For example, you need to be punctual, you should not keep postponing your appointment. You have to plan ahead, instead of calling them on spot.” -C8. However, it often takes extra time for high uncertainty avoidance cultures to react to the issue that occurred. This situation also happens when both parties have similar high levels of uncertainty avoidance. “Sometimes the decision making process will be long because both parties want to understand the situation better, and they are afraid to take a risk.” -C6.

Cluster Relationship Explanation

All Low Idv →_{High Idv} They are team players, they are willing to collaborate, and these_{cases tend to change themselves rather than ask others to change.} A High UA →_{Low UA} Higher flexibility and higher frequency of reminder are implied_{in order to increase the certainty of the collaboration.} B Similar UA When problems or issues occur, it takes longer to react and come

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cultures want to avoid the risk and reduce possible influences. C Low UA →_{High UA} _{Supply chain partners have extra requirements, therefore}

interviewees of this cluster usually follow their partners. Table 4.3: Overview of how culture affects collaboration

4.3 How ICT interactions influences the effect of culture on trust and collaboration

All of the cases shared that FTF communication provides a closer interaction with their supply chain partners. One of the reasons is that people are more patient and willing to listen to others and understand others' needs during the FTF meeting. “During the face-to-face meeting, people will be more patient to listen to your words and to understand your concern.”. -C2. Furthermore, many cases highlighted the advantages of casual conversation during their FTF interactions. A casual conversation can make the relationship closer and provide an opportunity to exchange information. “When you are face-to-face, you can ask any question directly, and it is easier to joke. Both of these help our relationship become closer.” -C2; “The culture of coffee time allows us to have chit-chat and other social contact, while during the online conference, members just want to finish the discussion as soon as possible.” -C8. It is especially important for the suppliers' salespeople to maintain and strengthen buyer-supplier relationships through regular visits. “There is a higher chance to win the order if the buyer feels that he has seen you before and is familiar with you.” -C6.

Besides the higher chance of interaction, direct communication increases the conversation quality by the help of facial expressions and body language. “It is easy to discuss many things when you see each other. At the same time, it is easier to observe the others body movements or expressions when communicating face-to-face. And this can help determine how much other people agree with the content of the conversation.” -C4. In addition, it is more important for the cases that both buyer and supplier are communicating through the third language. With body language, members can understand others better and the conversation can be more efficient. “Since both my supplier and I are not English native speakers, body language plays an important role in our conversation.” -C2.

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interaction where members are able to observe others' attitudes. “For example, some of others' physical actions will make me see if this person is impatient or something. Knowing the characteristics of the person makes me feel more trustworthy.” -C4. However, affect-based trust can also be established and further developed through personal ICT communication mediums. “Through casual phone calls, it provides a chance to get to know my supply partner individually and personally. And this will increase the level I trust this person.” -C1.

Cognition-based trust can be built through the use of written electronic documents as the impact of language differences and subjective feelings will be lower, and this can decrease the uncertainty level. “In different cultural backgrounds, some proprietary words or terminology can easily cause misunderstanding. Using email will be relatively convenient for communication and reading, so I think this part of the difficulty can be eliminated.” -C7. However, cases from cluster A shared a downside of ICT communication of video conferences. Which is, although people can turn on their camera during online conferences, it can be difficult to check if their full attention is on the task at hand. “I think the main difference is that during a video conference, it is hard to know if others are doing other stuff outside the camera.” -C4.

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For the cases of cluster C, the building of trust rely more on direct F2F interactions compared to communicating through ICT. Most of them shared that the affect-based trust increased after members have a better understanding about others' background beyond the regular business relationships. “It is easier to construct a connection after the chit-chat during coffee break. Where we can talk about traveling, children, wine and other stuff. All of these can show your understanding or appreciation of others cultures.”-C8. The impression during the interaction will influence the trust level one has towards another person. The impression that is gained will assist in shaping future interactions. “During the face-to-face meeting I can get to know this person more easily. Because after all, you can directly see his body language and his attitude, and this will affect how much I want to trust this person. So if there is a misunderstanding in our work, and if I had a great impression of the person during the past meets, then I may think there should be some misunderstanding, and ask the problem again. But if I felt that this person was unreliable when we met, then I would be suspicious of things after him.” -C2.

Besides affect-based trust, cognition-based trust can be built by visiting factories or companies and acknowledging the abilities of supply chain partners. “After visiting their factory, and knowing their working conditions, checking that their productions meet our requirements. After all this, we trust them more.” -C2. The direct FTF interaction also benefits the collaboration that there may be a greater flexibility or benefit offered by supply chain partners after they have a closer relationship. “We visit our Japanese supplier regularly and this provides us a chance to get close to them. After we have a closer relationship, it gives us a greater flexibility during our cooperation. For example, there will be a bigger discount when we deal with the price.” -C3. However , it is observed that casual phone communication is helpful when constructing personal relationships. “Formally, we connect via email the most. But with several closer suppliers, we have kept in touch privately through social media such as WeChat or Line.” -C3.

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can be negatively affected when there is less clue for people to observe whether others are going to talk. “During the face to face meeting, you may know who is going to talk by looking at the facial expressions. However in Asia, for example Singapore, Korea, Japan or China, normally people do not turn on their camera. Multiple people may speak at the same time. I don’t think turning on the camera will help, because I think the feeling of people wanting to talk is a very subtle change. So I think speaking face-to-face is more comfortable, and then more opportunities to talk.” -C2.

4.4 How ICT knowledge transfer influences the effect of culture on trust and

collaboration

Most cases shared the knowledge of the business abilities shown during the FTF visitations can efficiently increase the cognition-based trust of supply chain partners. “How much you know your supplier will affect the scope of your cooperation. For example, it takes a long time to understand the abilities and the equipment our supplier has that can meet our requirements, and sometimes these cannot be told through videos. But if you visit their site, it is clear and fast to know what they can do.” -C3. In addition to proving one’s abilities, the visiting of factories or companies provides supply chain partners a chance to exchange tacit knowledge and extra information. “Face-to-face communication is more effective since it usually provides more details and there is less chance of misunderstanding. For example during the face-to-face conference, we are able to ask more detailed information directly to the person who is responsible for a certain department.” -C5.

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them, or sending email to double check the contents.” -C1.

Besides trust level, cluster A claimed that transferring information through ICT can also help increase the certainty level of the collaboration by sharing clear information. “The conference host always shares his screen during the online conference. Which includes the meeting minutes, tracking of progress, and the follow up items.” -C1. This phenomenon happens in cluster B as well, where it is easier and more clear to transfer numerical information through email. “When my buyer asks me for numerical data, I cannot reply to them immediately and I have to send them an email after the meeting.” -C6. However, when communicating through ICT, it is not easy to convey one's feelings during the collaboration. And supply chain members have to make more effort when there is an emergency issue. “Supplier cannot feel our urgency. We have to keep a high frequency of updating the current situation to understand their progress.” -C5.

Cases of cluster C shared that both FTF and ICT communication bring different benefits to the trust level within their relationships. Facial expressions and body language that can be observed during FTF communication can help supply chain partners feel more comfortable to trust each other. Furthermore, it provides a chance to exchange the information that is not suitable to share on digital platforms due to data-privacy concerns. “Sometimes it is not allowed to share information such as the historical data of previous customers through the internet. However, we can share this information during the face-to-face meeting.” -C3. On the other hand, when communicating via ICT, everyone must comply with the above rules and requirements when the contract is established, and this significantly reduces the uncertainty in cooperation. “Most of the time we communicate through email since it is the most formal way. And it is easy to misunderstand my supplier due to the accent they have. So I feel that it is more convenient to communicate through written words.” -C2.

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These conversation clues that can help members understand others better especially when they are not communicating via their native languages. “With the help of facial expressions and body language, these provide clues to understand what others are trying to say. It can decrease the influence of accent, and reduce the chance of misunderstanding.” -C2.

Besides the tacit knowledge, it is also easier for members to exchange extra information during the casual conversation in FTF meetings. The time of casual conversation provides a chance for members to ask for detailed data that may not be essential but can make the collaboration become more efficient. “During the face-to-face meeting, it offers us a chance to ask for extra information that may not be the most important but is helpful for us to understand the ongoing project.” -C5. Apart from internal knowledge, supply chain members can collect the external market information that can help to increase the competitiveness of companies. “The supplier will share how’s their business, and what they struggle with recently during the coffee break. This information is important for us (buyer) because we can use it in the future negotiation and it will strengthen our buying power.” -C8.

4.5 How ICT overcome geographical distances and time barriers influences the

effect of culture on trust and collaboration

The impact of overcoming geographical and time barriers on trust level cannot be observed from the interviews.

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Although FTF meetings are relatively hard to arrange, interviewees from all the clusters shared that the discussions during FTF meetings are usually more effective than online meetings. Because it can make sure that members are focusing on the same topic, while members are easier to be distracted in the online conference. “During the face-to-face meeting, attendees have to be focused on the discussion. However, during the online meeting, we cannot force everyone to turn on their camera. Even for myself, sometimes when the discussion goes to the part that is not my responsibility, I will not pay much attention to it. In the online meeting after a pandemic, we often hear people asking ‘can you repeat your question?’, which I think is not an effective way to communicate.” -C8. This is because the problems and issues can be discussed immediately in FTF meetings, while it takes more effort to track the progress through ICT mediums. “During the face-to-face meeting, it is more possible to ask our supply chain partner to solve certain problems immediately. On the other hand, when communicating through email or phone, it is hard to check if the supply chain partner is starting to work on the issue.” -C1.

Cluster A shared that they value the flexibility and timeliness provided by ICT abilities of overcoming geographical distances and time barriers. “It is not possible to have weekly face-to-face meetings with suppliers from foreign countries. During the project progressing, online communication is more efficient when we take both time and cost into account..” -C1. While the cases of cluster C shared that although ICT communication is more efficient in terms of time and cost, they used to have more direct visiting before the pandemic period. "Email is the most used in day to day communication. However, we usually use tele-conference when we meet an urgent or critical issue. And there were more chances to visit sites before corona." -C8.

4.6 How ICT record function influences the effect of culture on trust and

collaboration

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same-culture conferences. The bullet point of the agreements or discussions in the meeting will be sent to everyone in order to check if there is misunderstanding and review in the future.” -C5. The records of conferences can reduce the opportunities for miscommunication, and it can also become a tool to monitor progress. “The transparent communication can help us understand the actions our supplier is going to take or what problems they face that we might be able to help with. By knowing the statue of our supplier, we feel more reliable and trustful of them and the ongoing project.” -C5.

The supply chain members can monitor if the supply chain partners fulfill their obligations by reviewing the records. “The advantage of using communication media is that the dialogue can be fully recorded and traced back in the future. In China, it is easy to agree on everything before the case is dealt; after the case is negotiated, execution is another matter. Therefore, the dialogue records left by communication software are often tools to ask suppliers to fulfill their promises.” -C4. Tracking the progress through ICT can urge suppliers to carry out their responsibilities, and let them know that buyers are paying attention to their performances. "Sometimes, our suppliers will cut corners when they think you are not paying attention to it. When they know that we will check, they will do better to meet our requirements." -C4.

Besides the ability to monitor, electronic written documents can also help to reduce the negative influence caused by personal characteristics. “We have to review and monitor our progress regularly. By doing this, I can have a better understanding of my supplier’s actions. What is done and what still has to be done. So this helps me to decrease the uncertainty that may be caused by an individual's working attitude and personality.” -C1. The records increase the certainty of the cooperation. After the agreements and contracts are written down in email, this means both parties agree with them, and must be adhered to by supply chain members. “Email is formal and legally binding for business.” -C7.

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to make sure the production is progressing on time. “It requires a high frequency for us to monitor the working progress by sending follow-up email.” -C8.

Supply chain partners can adjust their methods of cooperation based on the records kept. Moreover, electronic written documents allow members to double check the contents and agreements clearly. This can help to decrease the influence of cultural differences and speed up the break-in period at the beginning of supply chain relationships. “The records will speed up the running-in period. Because you will have a chance to review and get a better understanding of the meaning of what he said. Some people may have said it, and you have also written it. And in the next meeting he said he didn't mean that, so you can take the records and ask him what exactly he meant.” -C2. The meeting minutes record the agreements and the goals clearly, this can encourage suppliers to update their progress. “Meeting minutes is very important for us to follow up the projects. For example, the actions taken and the deadline are very clear after we kept meeting minutes with our German supplier. They always update their progress and reply to the problems weekly. But in the past, when we were not used to meeting minutes, although they had done many things, they would not share with us. And it was often to lose tracking on their progress for one or two months.” -C8.

Trust

Cluster Influence Conceptual_differences How

Low Idv ↓ High Idv Value affect-based trust

interactions - Relatively hard to establish affect-based trust when communicating through ICT.

+ Causal connection can help to strengthen the relationships.

knowledge

transfer - Through ICT, it is relatively hard to observe one's reaction and the site's abilities. record function + Overall, the records kept by ICT mediums decrease the uncertainty in the_{relationships. This makes supply chain members obtain higher trust levels.}

A Lower trust

interactions - Less chance to get to know others. The lack of interaction makes it harder to trust_others.

knowledge

transfer + Non-synchronize ICT mediums (e.g. email) help to increase certainty since all theinformation is clearly written down.

record function + Non-synchronize ICT mediums (e.g. meeting minutes) help to increase certainty bykeeping the records that can easily be reviewed. It can also be used to monitor the progress and make sure supply chain partners meet the requirements.

C Higher trust interactions =

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knowledge

transfer + Non-synchronize ICT mediums (e.g. email) help both parties to understand the rulesand requirements.

Collabo -ration

Cluster Influence Conceptual_differences How

Low Idv ↓ High Idv

High willingness to collaborate

interactions = Both FTF and ICT communication do not affect the level of willingness to_collaborate.

knowledge

transfer - Less chance to observe one's attitude. It is harder to know if others arewilling to accept the task or they are not even focused on the topics.

geographical

and time + Online conferences are easier for members to join.

A

Higher flexibility and higher frequency of reminder are implied

interactions - Less information will be shared online when people are not familiar with_others.

knowledge

transfer + The information can be shared clearly and immediately, this helpscollaboration more smoothly.

geographical

and time + ICT provides greater flexibility and immediate response

B When problems or_{issues occur, it} takes longer to react and come up

with a solution

interactions - FTF communication helps to higher flexibility within the relationship.While members usually follow the strict rules when communicating through ICT.

C

knowledge

transfer - Less chance to exchange extra information. Especially the information thatcannot be shared online. Interviewees of

this cluster usually follow their

partners.

geographical

and time - They will only focus on certain topics and there is less connection whencommunication through ICT.

record function + The records kept on non-synchronize ICT mediums (e.g. meeting minutes)_{enable members to review and adjust their working methods.}

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5. DISCUSSION

5.1 General Discussion

This master thesis aims to discover the impact of using ICT as a communication medium for cross-cultural supply chain management. The importance of efficient communication channels are not only represented by the cost and time spent, but can also be seen on the overall performance of the supply chain (Zhang, Van Donk, & van der Vaart, 2016; Cao et al., 2018). In addition, this topic has become more pertinent as a result of the COVID pandemic, a period during which organisations had no choice but to work remotely. The pandemic stopped people from traveling, and furthermore accelerated the adoption of communication through ICT mediums.

During this study it was identified that depending on different cultural characteristics, ICT may cause both positive and negative influences on trust and collaboration of the cross-cultural supply chains.

Firstly, it is not surprising that the record function of ICT mediums, especially the non-synchronised mediums such as email and meeting minutes, have positive effects on trust and collaboration performance by increasing the levels of certainty. It can be noticed from the research results that although the overview shows the same trend, the main reasons for driving the results differ under each cultural characteristic.

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Secondly, it must be noted that ICT cannot provide interaction as much as FTF, which negatively affects trust and collaboration on all kinds of relationships. It was noticed that the emotional bond within a relationship is valued by the members of collectivist cultures. Collectivists prefer to work as a team and establish strong connections with their co-workers. FTF meetings usually tend to be flexible and have the opportunity for informalities, whereas meetings conducted through ICT are usually fixed to a single topic and have set time limits. Moreover, there is less chance or sometimes even no chance for members to build up emotional bonds with each other as there is no opportunity for casual conversations.

The lack of interactions results in weak relationships and ultimately negatively affect the relationships regardless of whether the members have low or high uncertainty avoidance. One of the main downsides is the reduction in extra information exchanged between supply chain members. Members who have higher uncertainty avoidance levels are less likely to exchange information through ICT, as FTF communication allows for the reduction of uncertainty by interacting and getting to know one another in person. On the other hand, members who have lower uncertainty avoidance levels exchange less information as they have higher levels of trust. Furthermore, when these members communicate through ICT, there are less opportunities available to informally exchange information (e.g. casual conversations).

Thirdly, the knowledge transfer through ICT also causes both positive and negative impacts on supply chain relationships. It can be divided into two aspects for discussion: synchronised (e.g. video conference, phone call etc.) and non-synchronised mediums (e.g. email, meeting minutes, etc.). From our findings, it was noticed that the main advantage of ICT communication is that the information and transfer of knowledge increases the certainty. More specifically, transferring information via written documents of non-synchronous mediums are more clear and contain less ambiguity, which results in a lowered chance of creating a grey area. This is especially beneficial for the supply chain members that have higher uncertainty avoidance levels as it allows them to trust their supply chain partners more.

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of the recordings do not necessarily make it easy for members to obtain the information needed. The connection quality may also affect the efficiency of knowledge transferring. Therefore, the synchronised ICT mediums do not provide an as advantageous means of information transferring in comparison to non-synchronised ICT mediums. Moreover, although people are able to turn on their camera to experience the similar condition of FTF, the subtle movements and changes are hard to observe. Furthermore, within video calls, unlike FTF situations where there is automatically the opportunity to have casual conversations, members have to take initiative to contact other people in order to gather extra information.

The findings of this thesis make several important contributions to existing SCM theory and they will be further discussed in the next section.

5.2 Theoretical Implications

Current research mainly focuses on examining whether or not there is an existing relationship between cultures and supply chains, and furthermore discusses the extent to which different cultures may have an affect (e.g. Chen et al, 1998; Qu & Yang, 2015). Existing literature has also studied the reasons as to why cultures influence supply chain relationships (e.g. Cook et al., 2005; Albuloushi & Algharaballi, 2014). Our findings contribute to existing research by studying what the impacts of cultures are on supply chain relations and how these cultures interact within supply chains. In this study, it was found that different situations of cultural differences will lead to different attitudes towards supply chain relationships. More specifically, different uncertainty avoidance levels will lead to contrasting initial trust levels between supply chain partners, which in turn affects their level of cooperation.

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National cultural backgrounds and the extent to which they interact with ICT and supply chain performance has also been discussed (Zhang & Lai, 2016; Lockström et al, 2010). Instead of classifying the cases by emerging economies or developed world countries, our study provides a view based on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, which increases the generality of our findings. Moreover, by taking cultural differences into consideration, our findings provide an explanation to the research that claims that there is no relationship between ICT usage and supply chain collaboration (Albuloushi & Algharaballi, 2014). A positive correlation between ICT and collaboration is found when members have lower uncertainty avoidance levels than their supply chain partners. The findings of this research highlight how relations between cultures and ICT exist, and furthermore suggests that supply chain members should take cultural backgrounds into account when choosing the most appropriate methods of communication.

5.3 Managerial Implications

It appears as if online contact is an efficient way to connect with others and it is becoming more widely used as it alleviates costs and travel-times. However, the findings of this study also reveal the negative downsides of ICT communication. As it is no longer permitted for companies to visit their supply chain partners due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the results of this thesis may act as a helpful tool for managers to further understand the potential influence digital communication methods can have on their SCM relationships.

This research also includes the influence of cultural characteristics on supply chain relationships. Therefore, the results of this study provide meaningful insights on how cultural differences influence supply chain relationships, especially on the level of uncertainty avoidance. Our findings show that when cooperating with lower uncertainty avoidance partners, members usually rely on ICT as a means to increase the certainty of their relationships. Whereas when members have lower uncertainty avoidance level, they tend to already trust their partners, and the use of ICT will actually reduce the performance of cooperation. In this situation, managers must think about how to compensate for the lack of interaction when using ICT to communicate.

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effects of ICT communication and the reasons for the effects, managers are able to consider the cultural background of their supply chain partners, and take those factors into consideration and subsequently adjust their future approach, if necessary.

5.4 Limitations and Further Research

It is important to note that there are several limitations to the research conducted. Firstly, all cases interviewed within this study are from Confucian Asia. As this is a study of international supply chains, the cases selected limited the generalisability of the findings. Future research should be conducted with a higher diversity of cultural backgrounds in order to provide more comprehensive results.

Secondly, this study only encountered cases that have lower individualism levels than their supply chain partners. As collectivists are more likely to cooperate with others and put their partners’ interests above their own interests (Hofstede, 2011), the cases in this study tended to have higher levels of collaboration initially. Thus, it would be interesting to further understand how ICT may have a different influence on cases with higher individualism.

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Faculty of Economics and Business MSc Thesis Supply Chain Management Master Thesis