1
A segmentation study into male consumer behaviour in buying
and using male grooming products in the Netherlands
Why some Dutch men buy and use male grooming products and others do not.
2 Title: A segmentation study into male consumer behaviour in buying and using male grooming
products in the Netherlands.
Subtitle: Why some men buy and use male grooming products and others do not.
Name: Diederik Kok (s1272608)
Address: Govert Flinckstraat 198-3 1073 CB Amsterdam Phone: +31 (0)6 29106696
Email: diederik_kok@mac.com
Department:
University of Groningen
Faculty of Economics and Business Master Thesis Marketing Management
Supervisor: Debra Trampe (Faculty of Economics and Business) Co-assessor: Mirjam Tuk (Faculty of Economics and Business)
Company:
L’Oréal Netherlands Scorpius 1
Hoofddorp
3
Preface
This Master thesis is the result of an intensive period of research on the Dutch male population. This report is second first part of the research and is the final report for completion of the Masters Degree in Business Administration, Marketing Management at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands.
As a student trying to complete both a Bachelors Degree in Psychology and a Masters Degree of Business Administration at the same time, the past months have been very challenging. Although it was hard work and the progress was at some points slower than expected, the combination of psychology and marketing made it a very exciting learning experience. Furthermore, conducting the research confirmed my passion for marketing and especially consumer behaviour.
In conclusion, I experienced this graduation project as a great learning experience and an excellent preparation for my professional life. For this reason, I would like to thank all the people who
contributed to the project. First of all, I would like to thank L’Oréal for giving me the opportunity of an internship, which forms the basis of this research. I would also like to thank my two University supervisors, Debra Trampe and Kai Epstude, for their constructive feedback and support. And finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their help, interest, encouragement and patience.
Diederik Kok
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Table of Content
SUMMARY... 6
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT ... 7
§1.1 PREFACE... 7
§1.2 BACKGROUND... 7
§1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT... 8
§1.4 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY... 9
§1.5 RESEARCH SET-UP... 10
§1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS... 10
CHAPTER 2. THEORY: MARKET SEGMENTATION ... 11
§2.1 INTRODUCTION... 11
§2.2 WHAT IS MARKET SEGMENTATION?... 11
§2.3 WHICH METHOD CAN BEST BE USED TO SEGMENT THE MALE GROOMING MARKET?... 12
§2.4 SUMMARY... 14
CHAPTER 3. THEORY: CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR ... 15
§3.1 INTRODUCTION... 15
§3.2 WHAT IS MALE CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR?... 15
§3.3 WHICH VARIABLES INFLUENCE MALE CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR? ... 15
§3.4 INDIVIDUAL... 17
§3.5 PEOPLE... 18
§3.6 ENVIRONMENT... 19
§3.7 PRODUCT... 20
§3.8 SUMMARY... 20
CHAPTER 4. RESEARCH DESIGN ... 22
5
CHAPTER 5. RESULTS 1: SEGMENTATION MALE GROOMING MARKET ... 30
§5.1 DEMOGRAPHICS RESPONDENTS... 30
§5.2 REPRESENTATIVENESS OF THE SAMPLE... 31
§5.3 RELIABILITY MEASUREMENT SCALES... 32
§5.4 FACTOR ANALYSIS... 32
§5.5 CLUSTER ANALYSIS... 36
§5.6 SUMMARY... 39
CHAPTER 6. RESULTS 2: DESCRIPTIONS SEGMENTS ... 40
§6.1 INTRODUCTION... 40
§6.2 RESPONDENT DISTRIBUTION SEGMENTS... 40
§6.3 SEGMENT 1: ‘SHIFTING MAN’ ... 40
§6.4 SEGMENT 2: ‘MODERN MAN’... 41
§6.5 SEGMENT 3: ‘HEALTHY MAN’... 41
§6.6 SEGMENT 4: ‘TRADITIONAL MAN’ ... 42
§6.7 SEGMENT 5: ‘IMAGE MAN’... 42
§6.8 SEGMENT 6: ‘METROSEXUAL MAN’... 43
§6.9 SUMMARY... 43
CHAPTER 7. RESULTS 3: DIFFERENCES MALE CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR SEGMENTS ... 45 §7.1 INTRODUCTION... 45 §7.2 INDIVIDUAL... 45 §7.3 PEOPLE... 47 §7.4 ENVIRONMENT... 49 §7.5 PRODUCT... 51 §7.6 SUMMARY... 53
8. CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND FURTHER RESEARCH... 54
9. REFERENCES ... 59
6
Summary
The goal of the research is to give greater insight, by means of market segmentation, into the complex target group for male grooming products. Men differ in their consumer masculinity and male consumer behaviour. To further investigate these differences, the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1981), is applied as a theoretical framework. Male consumer behaviour is influenced by the individual himself, the people around him, the environment and the product. Therefore, aspects such as gender identity, self-esteem, conformity to masculine norms, store image, and product and brand image are investigated.
The data for the research was collected in a two-week period by making use of an (online) questionnaire, that consisted of several questions and statements, concerning the respondents’ demographics, product usage, lifestyle and the variables influencing male consumer behaviour. In analysing the results of the questionnaire, it appears that young highly-educated men living in an urban area in the Western region of the Netherlands are over-represented in the sample, which limits the results and conclusions to this specific sample. The skewness in the distribution is probably the result of starting the snowball method of distributing the online questionnaires among friends.
Based on the factor and cluster analysis, six segments in the male grooming market are determined and presented in detail:
• The shifting man is a light user of male grooming products and uses the more generally accepted grooming products regularly.
• The modern man is a medium user of mainly premium brands, to which he is very loyal. The modern man uses a large and diverse range of male grooming products.
• The healthy man is a light user of male grooming products, and only uses deodorant often. • The traditional man is sceptical of the quality of expensive male grooming products and is,
therefore, probably a light user, and only uses deodorant regularly.
• The image man is a medium user of, more or less, all male grooming products. • The metrosexual man is a heavy user of all male grooming products
These different segments in the male grooming market show considerable differences in their male consumer behaviour. Aspects within the individual, the people around him, the environment and the product are influencing men in their behaviour. The level of acceptance of ‘cross-over’ behaviour, for example buying and using male grooming products, depend on the norms existing in the social group the respondent is in or wants to belong to. Especially the ‘Traditional man’ is sceptic towards the rise of male consumer behaviour. ‘Metrosexual man’ on the other hand are more open-minded. These differences can be found in for example the perception of the femininity of certain stores, products or even brands.
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Chapter 1. Introduction and problem statement
§1.1 Preface
“After the looks-oriented-metrosexual introduced by David Beckham in 2002, and the subsequent macho übersexual, this year seems to be the year of ‘The Modern Gentlemen’. The modern man anno 2009 is stylish, charming, well-groomed and combines self-esteem with a powerful attitude and distinguished taste.”(Laan, 2009)
These modern men belong to subcultures, adopting a lifestyle that includes excessive grooming and an interest in fashion, not typically regarded as masculine behaviour (Clarkson, 2005). Whereas this behaviour has traditionally been labelled as too feminine and taboo for heterosexual men, a shift in the acceptable notions of masculinity has resulted in the rise of the above-mentioned subcultures.
According to Lowrey (2008) this shift of gender roles and consumption patterns in today’s society is due to a variety of social changes, such as the increase in working women, the delay of first marriages and the rise of single parent households headed by men.
With this shift in gender roles and men’s changing views concerning their masculinity, new markets have emerged, and marketers have been responding fast. The changing landscape of men as avid consumers poses an incredible opportunity for companies to expand their target markets and go after the lucrative male consumer (Lowrey, 2008). The male grooming market is a good example of this new potential. The male grooming business worldwide is currently worth €16.4 billion, which is forecasted to increase to €19.3 billion within four years (Euromonitor, 2008). In the Netherlands, with a total turnover of €322 million in male grooming products, the male population had an18.6% share in the total cosmetics turnover in 2008 (AC Nielsen, 2008).
Yet, it is still a small percentage of the male population that demonstrates this traditionally feminine behaviour and buys male grooming products, and this raises interesting questions: Why do some men demonstrate feminine behaviour and others do not? What do these men think of different types of feminine behaviour? What kind of consumers are these men? What do they like? What do they buy? All these questions form the basis for this segment study regarding male consumer behaviour in buying and using male grooming products in the Netherlands.
§1.2 Background
The sex role prescriptions and stereotypes of both women and men have apparently
8 fashion and cosmetics. According to Clarkson “consumer masculine men are a new subculture of heterosexual males that are adopting a lifestyle that includes excessive grooming and interest in fashion, not typically regarded as masculine behaviour” (Conseur et al., 2008, p. 549).
According to Alreck (1994) the sex role prescriptions for women and men were quite narrow and distinct from one another until the 1960s, especially if the behaviour was part of the role prescription for the other sex. Since that time, sex roles have apparently broadened considerably. Where the traditional sex role prescriptions permitted or advocated many things for one sex and prohibited others, the modern sex role prescriptions show a substantial relaxation of these prohibitions, allowing a “crossing over”, or engagement in what is usually associated with the opposite sex role (Settle et al., 1981). That is not to say they have been completely abandoned, however.
Research indicates that, while there are important changes in sex role adherence, the vast majority in today’s society still adheres to the core requirements (Alreck, 1994). Where people from various demographic groups differ sharply in their adherence to sex roles, they differ almost entirely regarding the prohibitions against cross-over. They differ about whether or not it is appropriate for those of one sex to engage in behaviour more typical of the other. Those who are more relaxed about sex role adherence typically feel that it is okay for men or women to engage in something that, traditionally, falls into the realm of the opposite sex, so long as they adhere to the core requirements of their sex role.
Today, diversity has replaced homogeneity. Some people in contemporary society adhere to the traditional model. Others have a different idea of what an ideal man or woman should be today. Still others do not advocate compliance with any sex roles at all (Alreck, 1994).
The increasing popularity of male grooming products has contributed to the idea of changing traditional values of masculinity. In other words, products that used to fall in the feminine category are nowadays more regarded as practical solutions. However, this change in perception of traditionally feminine products is driven by different factors for different types of men. According to Parry (2005),
motivations and attitudes towards male grooming products vary, making men a complex target group. Insights into this complex target group can help producers of male grooming products, such as L’Oréal, in the future.
§1.3 Problem Statement
The research will extend knowledge and insight about this complex target group of male grooming products by segmenting the Dutch male grooming market and look for differences in male consumer behaviour.
§1.3.1 Research goal
9 goal is to determine the differences in consumer behaviour between different customer segments of the male grooming market. The results will give insights into current and potential consumers and can, therefore help producers of male grooming products, such as L’Oréal, to improve their future marketing strategies.
§1.3.2 Research question
What are the differences in male consumer behaviour between different customer segments in the male grooming market?
Theoretical research questions: What is market segmentation?
Which methods can be used to segment a market?
Which method can best be used to segment the male grooming market? What is male consumer behaviour?
Which variables influence male consumer behaviour?
Empirical research questions:
Which factors are relevant for segmenting the male grooming market?
Which different customer segments can be defined in the male grooming market? How do the men in these segments vary in their consumer behaviour?
§1.4 Relevance of the study
§1.4.1 Scientific relevance
Research with regard to consumer behaviour is mainly concentrated on people in general, or is focussed on women. Research specifically focussing on male consumer behaviour is, in spite of the changing sex roles the past decades, hard to find. Furthermore it will be valuable to determine the relevance of using this specific segmentation method in the male grooming market or more generally in the fast moving consumer goods industry. This is because similar studies that have been conducted are business-to-business studies and those that have been conducted business-to-consumer are mostly outdated.
§1.4.2 Practical relevance
10 §1.5 Research set-up
The research will make use of primary and secondary data. The first section presents a literature overview regarding the different ways of segmenting markets and an exploration of the different variables influencing male consumer behaviour. This scientific background is used as input to determine the method of segmenting the male grooming market and to identify the different variables of influence on the male consumer behaviour. The second section is the empirical section and will be conducted using a quantitative research method, making use of questionnaires distributed to Dutch men.
§1.6 Structure of the thesis
The theoretical background forms the subject of the next two Chapters, with Chapter Four until Seven forming the empirical part of this thesis. The final Chapter, Chapter Eight, gives conclusions, discusses the research and will suggest interesting fields for further research. Figure 1.1 shows this structure of the thesis, the top section focusing on segmentation and the bottom on male consumer behaviour.
FIGURE 1.1: STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
• Chapter Two discusses the process of segmenting markets, the different methods of segmention, and how an appropriate method for segmenting the male grooming market will be determined. • Chapter Three describes male consumer behaviour and the different variables influencing it. • Chapter Four concerns the research design. This describes the set-up of the research, the
measurement scales of the variables, the way in which all the data is analysed.
• Chapter Five will show the results of the factor and cluster analyses. The results of the statistical analyses that are being used in this research will be discussed in this Chapter.
• Chapter Six concerns the descriptions of the different segments, which will lead from the analyses in Chapter Five. Each segment will be described on different aspects: lifestyle, demographics and product usage.
• Chapter Seven will describe the differences in male consumer behaviour of those segments. • The final Chapter, Chapter Eight, presents the conclusions of the research, some recommendations
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Chapter 2. Theory: Market segmentation
§2.1 Introduction
As diversity increases in contemporary society it becomes more difficult to target the right market segment. Segmentation is therefore an essential part of a marketing strategy: it helps to locate and effectively target market segments. This makes selecting the right segmentation basis and an
appropriate segmentation method important. In this chapter, after introducing the market segmentation concept, the method of segmentation used in this research is determined and presented.
§2.2 What is market segmentation?
§2.2.1 History market segmentation
Since its introduction by Wendell Smith, the concept of market segmentation has received much analytical attention (Plank, 1985; Smith, 1956). Smith (1956) argues, that, because of technological developments, the diversity of competitors, the scope of organisations and the supply-side is no longer as homogeneous as was assumed in the classic theory of perfect competition. Different target groups have different wishes and needs with regard to products, services and buying behaviour (Dibb and Simkin, 1997; Kara and Kaynak, 1997; Smith, 1956; Wind, 1978). For organisations to chose which segments to serve or not, Smith (1956) proposed two strategies: product differentiation and market segmentation. Market segmentation identifies the heterogeneous needs and buying behaviour. By comparing an organisations resources with the different market segments, the organisation’s resources can be targeted towards the different segments (Dibb and Simkin, 1997): focussing on specific target groups instead of mass marketing focus (Kara and Kaynak, 1997).
§2.2.2 Definition market segmentation
Although most authors have their own description of segmentation (Dibb and Simkin, 1997; Fennel and Saegert, 2000; Kotler, 1991; Plank, 1985), they agree that segmentation is about segmenting a market on the basis of some variables. Kotler’s definition (1991) is most commonly used and has also been adopted for this thesis. According to Kotler’s definition, segmentation is an analytic method for segmenting the market: identified segments are evaluated and the best segments selected for target marketing. This definition shows that segmentation is an analytic tool, in which the segmentation process, and the process of assigning resources to the different segments are two distinct phases.
12 In literature, the market segmentation process is usually described as having three distinct phases (Kotler, 1997). The three different phases all consist of two core points (Figure 2.1).
This thesis limits itself to the first phase of the market segmentation process. Addressing the complete segmentation process would be too immense a task to handle within the context of this thesis.
§2.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages market segmentation
Whether to segment or not should be decided considering economies of scale, the costs for developing a single market strategy, the homogeneity of the needs of the market and the possible assets (Hooly and Saunders, 1993). Considering the heterogeneity of the male grooming market, segmentation might result in some interesting insights. Segmentation is often applied; possibly because markets became more heterogeneous, but also because market segmentation has advantages (Wind, 1978; Hooly and Saunders, 1993; O’Connor and Sullivan, 1995; Dibb and Simkin, 1997). However, there are also disadvantages (Table 2.1).
TABLE 2.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES MARKET SEGMENTATION
Advantages Disadvantages (Hooley and Saunders, 1993)
Market segmentation
• refreshes an organisation’s view of already existing core markets;
• provides insights in the needs and the buying behaviour of the target groups;
• shows the most attractive segments;
• helps to divide company resources so that the most resources are directed to the most important segments; • helps to develop appropriate marketing programmes; • makes the organisation more market focused; • makes transformations more visible; • helps to exploit the competitive advantage; the
organisation is capable of choosing segments that best fit the own resources.
Market segmentation
• reduces the advantages of large scale production • leads to a ‘Tunnel vision’; too much attention for one
segment results in no attention for potential other profitable segments;
• creates extra costs; the development of a (new) strategy for each selected segment.
§2.3 Which method can best be used to segment the male grooming market?
A segmentation model needs to be set up to be able to segment the market and to profile the segments (Wind, 1978). The segmentation-variables that will be used to segment the market are identified and selected; important decisions, because these variables determine the further course of the research. In literature a distinction is made between consumer segmentation variables and business-to-business segmentation variables. Kotler (1991) distinguishes four different categories of segmentation criteria within the consumer segmentation:
1. Geographic variables
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2. Demographical variables
Segmentation in this category is based on variables such as age/life phase, gender, children, income, occupation, education, religion and nationality. These are variables that coincide closely with people’s needs and wishes and therefore are widely used in segmentation.
3. Psychographic variables
In this category such variables as social class, lifestyle and personality are registered. Lifestyle is based on different measurements: the way people spend their leisure time, what interest them, and what is important to them.
4. Attitudinal & Behavioural variables
This category enables segmentation based on such variables as:
• Purchase occasion / use-moment (regular, occasional, special occasion) • Benefits sought (quality, service, economy)
• User status (non-user, ex-user, potential-user, first time-user, regular user) • Usage rate (light user, medium user, heavy user)
• Loyalty status (none, medium, strong, absolute)
• Readiness state (unaware, aware, informed, interested, desirous, intending to buy) • Attitude towards product (enthusiastic, positive, indifferent, negative, hostile)
Consumer segmentation must follow and mirror the changes in society to achieve effective marketing results. The Netherlands, just like every country in the world, is changing continuously. Two notable recent changes are that diversity among people has increased, together with individualism and a shift in gender roles. Interests and lifestyles also change with time. The basis on which to segment must be adapted to these changes. This means that variables such as social class, level of education, income class etcetera, are no longer sufficient. To really get to know the target group, more lifestyle features such as interests, opinions and activities of consumers need to be considered. Insights into these attributes lead to a better understanding of the consumer and enable more effective and efficient marketing campaigns.
The influence of consumers’ lifestyle on purchasing decisions has attracted researchers’ attention as a distinct and formalized basis for segmentation itself (Berkmans and Gilson, 1974). Lifestyle
segmentation is considered a good choice for markets within the Fast Moving Consumer Goods Branch. Lifestyles of consumers are good predicators for buying behaviour, media-consumption and sensitivity to communication.
14 processing of different forms of marketing and communication (Vyncke, 2002): the concept of lifestyle has become the core of a special kind of segmentation research called ‘psychographics’.
Using the statistical technique of cluster analysis “psychographics” will produce useful lifestyle typologies. For a lot of lifestyle segmentation research AIO (Activities, Interests and Opinions) surveys are used. Wells and Tigert (1971) formulated 300 different AIO items. Good items arrive through intuition, gut feeling, conversations with colleagues and friends, research, international company reports, reading and interviews. The statements used in this research are listed in Table 4.1 (Chapter 4). The items are grouped into expected ‘lifestyles’. Whether these are the right ‘lifestyles’ will be
determined by means of factor analysis. In this research, the main focus is on psychographics, and especially on lifestyle, as a targeting criterion, because these data are of most value for Brand and Communication Managers: “the more we know about people’s lifestyle, the more effectively we can communicate with them” (Hornik’s (1989) basic premise of psychographics).
Fine-tuning the segmentation of the market on the basis of male consumer behaviour into different profile outlines, will give a more complete picture of the target groups per segment. The more complete the profile outlines, the easier the marketing strategy is to define. Secondary information for fine-tuning in different profile outlines can be suggested by other segmentation variables, such as demographic or geographic variables, or others that complete the profiles. In this research the fine-tuning will be done by looking at demographic variables, product use and especially male consumer behaviour.
§2.4 Summary
15
Chapter 3. Theory: Consumer behaviour
§3.1 Introduction
As mentioned previously, individualism and therefore the diversity between individuals has increased in contemporary society. This diversity is not only apparent between women and men, but a large diversity also exists within the male population. There is, for example, diversity in the way in which the change in perception regarding traditionally feminine products is driven by different factors for
different types of men.
This causes some men to perceive certain formerly feminine products, for example grooming products, as still being products for women, whereas other men perceive the same products as being acceptable for men; resulting in some men buying and using male grooming products and others not. Increased diversity means increased individualism, making each individual unique in his or her personality, attitudes and behaviour. These are, in short, the subjects of consumer behaviour and therefore the subjects of this Chapter.
§3.2 What is male consumer behaviour?
As mentioned in the introduction, in today’s society there is not only a shift in gender roles but also in consumption patterns. Whereas some behaviour has traditionally been labelled as too feminine and taboo for heterosexual men, a shift in the acceptable notions of masculinity has resulted in the rise of consumer masculine men. “Consumer masculine men are a new subculture of heterosexual men that are adopting a lifestyle that includes excessive grooming and interest in fashion, not typically regarded as masculine behaviour” (Conseur et al., 2008, p. 549). Attwood states that self-expression of style has become an important means for men of “producing social and cultural relations, articulating the class position and aspirations of individuals and groups (Attwood, 2005, p. 89). In conclusion, male consumer behaviour has become a way of self-expression; showing what type of man you are. The different customer segments of the male grooming market will, therefore, probably vary on different aspects of male consumer behaviour.
§3.3 Which variables influence male consumer behaviour?
§3.3.1 Factors influencing behaviour
Explaining human behaviour in all its complexity is a difficult task and can be approached at different levels, ranging from physiological processes to social institutions. This research focuses on an intermediate level, “the fully-functioning individual whose processing of available information mediates the effects of biological and environmental factors on behaviour” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 179). The descriptions of individuals in this research are based on fictive typical members of different groups of men. These different groups of men are based on the customer segments for male grooming products.
According to Ajzen “concepts referring to behavioural dispositions, such as social attitude and
16 p. 179). The predictability of behaviour in specific situations on the basis of general dispositions such as personality and attitudes is, however, questioned in some studies, which can be resolved by making use of the aggregation principle. Many studies have demonstrated that, by making use of the
aggregation principle, general attitudes and personality traits do, in fact, predict behaviour. “The principle of aggregation does not explain behavioural variability across situations, nor does it permit prediction of a specific behaviour in a given situation. It was meant to demonstrate that general attitudes and personality traits are implicated in human behaviour, but that their influence can be discerned only by looking at broad, aggregated valid samples of behaviour” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 180). This research makes use of the aggregation principle.
Broad attitudes and personality have their impact on specific behaviour by indirectly influencing some of the factors more closely-linked to behaviour. These behaviour-specific factors form the framework of the Theory of Reasoned Action, developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Azjen in 1980 (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1981). The core structure of TRA can be presented as the relationship between beliefs,
normative structures, attitudes toward behaviour, subjective norms, behavioural intentions and actual behaviour. To put TRA into simple terms, a person’s behaviour is predicted by his attitude towards that behaviour and how that person thinks other people would view them if he performed the behaviour. A person’s attitudes, combined with subjective norms, form his behavioural intention. And, if a person intends to behave in a particular way then it is likely that the person will do so (Sukato & Elsey, 2009).
17 As shown in Figure 3.1 different variables influence the theoretical framework. The individual himself, people around him, the environment and the product influence a man in his consumer behaviour. In the following paragraphs several theories about these variables will be discussed.
§3.4 Individual
§3.4.1 Personality
The research is about male consumer behaviour towards a traditionally feminine product and
explaining differences between men in this behaviour. As personality traits influence all the factors of the theoretical framework of male consumer behaviour (Figure 3.1) the differences between men might be caused by a difference in personality traits, and especially the femininity of those traits. According to Palan (2001) the relationship between gendered personality traits and consumer behaviour can be investigated by gender identity, the degree to which an individual identifies with masculine and feminine personality traits. “Gender identity can be described as the essential psychological attributes distinguishing males from females and includes the characteristics associated with the traits of
femininity (e.g. emotional and nurturing) and masculinity (e.g. competitive and instrumental) that exist within each individual” (Bem, 1981, p. 355). Therefore gender identity also describes levels of femininity and masculinity within the same sex, being men in this research.
According to Palan (2001) men and women exist within a culture and what it means to be a man or woman is heavily influenced by that culture. At the individual level, this combined influence of culture and biological sex can be captured by gender identity (Schertzer et al., 2008). Thus, beyond only the biological distinction, gender identity is used to connote the cultural norms, values and beliefs associated with men and women’s roles.
Gender identity, which stems from schema theory (Bem, 1981), suggests that a person’s sexual self-concept has a significant effect on how that person processes and interprets information. “Gender schema theory posits that individuals acquire and display traits, attitudes, and behaviours consistent with their gender identity, so gender identity is predictive of broad gender-related constructs” (Palan, 2001, p. 1). In conclusion, the fact that a certain group of men is buying and using male grooming products and another group is not, may also mean that they differ in their gender identity.
§3.4.2 Self-esteem
18 personal appearance. This attention to his personal appearance may be reflected in clothing, but possibly also with the use of male grooming products.
§3.4.3 Demographics
Individual differences cause men to respond differently to changes in contemporary society, for example the differences in response to changes in social society. According to Alreck (1994) not everyone adheres equally to sex role prescriptions. While there are important changes in sex role adherence, the vast majority of today’s society still adheres to the core requirements (Alreck., 1994). However group differences may also cause this. “Research indicates that, aside from the purely individual differences, there are strong, systematic differences among various demographic groups” (Alreck, 1994, p. 10). When people of various demographic groups differ sharply in their adherence to sex roles, they differ almost entirely regarding the prohibitions against cross-over. They differ about whether or not it is appropriate for those of one sex to engage in behaviour more typical of the other sex.
In other words, as Martineau said: “The friends we choose, the neighbourhoods we live in, the way we spend and save our money, the educational plans we have for our children are determined to a large degree along social class lines. A rich man is not just a poor man with more money. He probably has different ideals, different personality forces, different church membership, and many different notions of right and wrong, all largely stemming from social class differentials. With its disciplinary pressures of approval and disapproval, belonging versus ostracism, social class is a major factor shaping the individual’s style of life” (cf. Rich & Jain, 1968, p. 41). In conclusion, demographic variables influence the way a man reacts to the shift in gender roles and, therefore, whether he will or will not adjust to the new subcultures of men being interested in fashion and grooming products.
§3.5 People
§3.5.1 Conforming to masculine norms
Despite the growing individuality in contemporary society, as mentioned above, the behaviour demonstrated by people in certain situations, within certain groups or towards certain subjects, is often very similar to that of other people. According to Hogg and Reid “groups and situations have their own behavioural attributes that regulate the behaviour of people in the situation or belonging to the group. These attributes are norms that sharply map the contours of different situations and different groups, and pattern social experience not into different unique individuals but into different unique groups and situations” (2006, p. 7). Depending on whether a person wants to belong to or differentiate from a certain group, people use these group norms to act upon the corresponding behaviour.
19 1986). According to Mahalik (2003) the gender role norms, specific rules and standards that guide and constrain masculine and feminine behaviour, are believed to have the same properties as social norms.
As mentioned several times now, social norms change over time, making some traditional feminine behaviours more accepted for men in contemporary society. However, whether an individual conforms to those changing norms is a different question. Mahalik defines this conformity to masculine norms as “meeting societal expectations for what constitutes masculinity in one’s public or private life” (Mahalik, 2003, p. 3).
According to Fisher and Arnold, people’s conformity to gender roles depends on their gender-role attitude. “People with more traditional attitudes tend to conform to norms that prescribe involvement in gender-traditional activities and prohibit involvement in less traditional activities” (2007, p. 335). When men stick to their traditional attitudes and conform to norms that prescribe involvement in gender-traditional activities they will demonstrate less feminine behaviour. This means that the level to which men conform to masculine norms depends on the group with which men would like to be associated.
§3.6 Environment
Another important influence on the male consumer behaviour is the store environment. The image of the store is of great influence on how people perceive the products being sold there and besides that on the decision of them where to buy certain products. According to Evans et al, “a shopper’s decision to select a particular shopping complex may be influenced by others’ implied or expressed opinion of the complex” (Evans et al, A research of Aarts and Dijksterhuis (2003) even concluded that, in certain circumstances, the environment alone is sufficient to automatically activate mental representations of normative behaviour and the behaviour itself. Meaning that people respond automatically in certain circumstances because of unconscious processes triggered by just the environment. The focus of this research is however especially on the influence of the store image on male consumer behaviour towards male grooming products.
20 An attribute deserving some special attention is the influence of the sexe of the shop assistant on the male consumer behaviour. According to research (Otnes and McGrath, 2000) men still are, despite the shift in gender roles and the rise of male consumer behaviour, very senstitive towards feminine shopping environments. This sensitivity is caused by the fact that most men are feeling uncomfortable in such an environment. The sexe of the shop assistant is of great influence on that feeling. Assistance of a female shop assistant when buying male grooming products might cause men to feel
uncomfortable but on the other hand it might also ceate a feeling of trust, based on knowledge about grooming products.
§3.7 Product
The last variable influencing the male consumer behaviour towards male grooming products is the product itself. The behaviour of men is influenced by social norms regarding perceived femininity of different male grooming products or even the brand of the products. Marketers are using this
phenomenon, through what is called ‘gendering’ of a product or brand. “Gendering a product or brand simply means imbuing it with a masculine or a feminine image and identity” (Alreck, 1994, p. 6).
“The words and symbols that will identify the product or brand with one sex – those that give it a masculine or feminine image – depends mostly on the nature of the gender roles that culture and society ascribe to each sex” (Hawkins and Coney, 1976). With the shift in gender roles the accepted feminity of some products and brands is changed. However, as already mentioned, every man responds differently towards this shift in gender roles and, therefore, in his opinion about the femininity of certain products and brands. This difference in opinions is especially towards gendered products.
“With gendered products, the basic characteristics of the goods are acceptable by either sex, but the visible design features, advertising, promotion, and perhaps distribution of the product are modified to include symbols which identify it mainly or exclusively with one sex” (Alreck, 1994, p. 6). According to Alreck for successfully gendering a product, the product or brand must be designed or modified to appeal to the stereotypical man, and be given a gender image that is strongly associated with the masculine or feminine sex role through advertisement and promotion. In conclusion, the different segments will probably differ in their opinion about the femininity of certain male grooming products and, therefore, will perceive these products to be acceptable for men to use or not.
§3.8 Summary
22
Chapter 4. Research design
§4.1 Introduction
This Chapter forms the beginning of the empirical part of this thesis. It will give an overview of the data collected, how these are collected and how these are analysed.
§4.2 Research design
The start of the research was, as described in Chapter 3 and 4, a literature study into the best way of segmenting the male grooming market and, in addition, exploring the variables influencing male consumer behaviour. Following the literature study, a quantitative research is conducted, making use of a questionnaire. The questionnaire was used to collect the data for segmenting the male grooming market and the data for further explorations into the differences in male consumer behaviour between those segments. The details of the research design will be described in this Chapter and the results of the analyses of the data will be discussed in Chapter 5, 6 and 7.
§4.3 Quantitative Research
Quantitative research, conducted by questionnaire, gives number-based insights and answers to questions that can be expressed in quantities (Malhotra, 1999). The results of this quantitative research are shown in tables, graphs and percentages.
§4.3.1 Online questionnaire
The research was conducted using an online questionnaire for several reasons. Firstly, because of time limitations, data collection needed to be fast and flexible. In addition to being able to distribute the online questionnaire quickly, there is also a significant advantage in terms of data-processing speed (Malhotra, 1999). Secondly, an online questionnaire was easily distributed using the snowball method, asking all the respondents to forward the questionnaire to all their male friends and family. It was expected that this method of distribution would result in a group of respondents with a large variety of demographic variables. And finally the online questionnaire was used because of the user-friendliness. The respondents can decide when they take part in the research.
§4.3.2 Questionnaire
23
§4.3.3 Target group and scope of the sample
As previously discussed, the goal of this research is to define different customer segments in the Dutch male grooming market and indicate differences in male consumer behaviour between those segments. The target group of this online questionnaire can thus be defined as: Dutch males between the ages of 18 and 65. These age limits are chosen because these men are all adults and most of them will have a busy professional and social life, which will affect the way they perceive the world and other males around them. These men are conscious of their personality and behaviour and, therefore, provide the most relevant data. Besides that, this age group is the most interesting for the producers of male grooming products, for example L’Oréal, based on their expenditure pattern. Furthermore, the target group had to be as diverse as possible, because this diversity in contemporary society is at the heart of this research.
§4.4 Data collection
The research data was collected over a two-week period via an (online) questionnaire. Using the snowball effect, the questionnaire was distributed to different groups of men, comprising different ages, different educational levels, different geographical areas, different living circumstances and different relationships. Furthermore, the questionnaire was distributed quite easily which improved the response rate. Another method used to increase the response rate was to enter all respondents completing the questionnaire into a lottery with various prizes on offer. The exact nature of the prizes was only given on completion of the questionnaire to minimise any possible influence on respondents’ answers.
§4.5 Variables
§4.5.1 Lifestyle statements
Wells and Tigert (1971) formulated 300 different AIO (Attitudes, Interests, Opinions) items in their research. Based on these items, previous studies in the grooming market (Classified Report L’Oréal, 2008) and commen sense the statements for this research are formulated (Appendix 4.1). The statements are formulated for 5 different lifestyles, as shown in (Appendix 4.1).
§4.5.2 Measurement scales variables individual
Gendered Personality Traits Scale
24 categorised according to either being more masculine or feminine, based on their scores on both scales. If the masculine score is higher than the feminine score, a respondent is more masculine and if the masculine score is equal or smaller than the feminine, then a respondent is more feminine.
TABLE 4.1: EXAMPLES MASCULINE AND FEMININE SCALE STATEMENTS Q8.1 I have leadership skills
MASCULINE SCALE
Q8.9 I am competitive
Q8.6 I am sensitive to the feelings of others FEMININE SCALE
Q8.14 I am a gentle person
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
The respondents’ self-esteem is measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1989). The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) is a widely-used measure of global self-esteem. Each individual item (Table 4.2) will be measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree, to 5 = strongly agree. Some of the items are reversed items (Appendix 4.2) to prevent that the respondents complete the questionnaire too quickly without reading it thoroughly.
TABLE 4.2: EXAMPLES ROSENBERG SELF-ESTEEM SCALE STATEMENT Q9.1 In general I am satisfied with myself
ROSENBERG SELF-ESTEEM SCALE
Q9.6 Sometimes I feel useless [REVERSED]
Demographic Variables
As mentioned in Chapter 1, several studies have found significant influence of social class on
behaviour. Therefore different demographic variables will be examined: age, education, residential area, profession, relationship, and living conditions.
Feminine Behaviour Score
In question 11 and 12 of the questionnaire (Appendix Z), the feminine behaviour of the respondents will be measured. Each respondent will be given a feminine behaviour score, defining the extent to which the respondent is behaving in a feminine way.
First of all, the respondents will be asked to rank ten different behaviours (Table 4.3) on their femininity (Appendix Z). These rankings will determine the way in which men view different behaviours and their relative femininity. Based on the rankings of all the respondents together, an end-ranking will be made, a end-ranking of feminine behaviours with corresponding femininity scores. The most feminine behaviour will get a score of 10 and the least feminine score will be 1.
25 TABLE 4.3: FEMININE BEHAVIOURS
1. Cooking
2. Going to the hairdresser 3. Shopping
4. Buying grooming products 5. Talking about grooming products 6. Being interested in your body image 7. Talking about clothing
8. Going to the beautician 9. Being interested in fashion 10. Using grooming products
Shopping behaviour
Question 31 (Appendix) is focused on the respondents’ shopping behaviour for male grooming products. Almost 2/3 of male grooming products are bought by women (Classified Report L’Oréal, 2008). This question will give insights into which men are buying their own male grooming products and which men let their partners buy them.
§4.5.3 Measurement scales variables people
Conforming to Masculine Norms Inventory
The Conforming to Masculine Norms Inventory of Mahalik et al. (2003) provides the insights as to how a respondent conforms to the masculine norm. Results from studies of Mahalik et al indicated that the CMNI has strong internal consistency estimates and good differential validity comparing men with women. The CMNI is based on 11 distinct factors: Winning, Emotional Control, Risk-Taking,
Violence, Dominance, Playboy, Self-Reliance, Primacy of Work, Power Over Women, Disdain for Homosexuals, and Pursuit of Status (Appendix Z, Question10). Each of the factors will be measured by two items, one of them reversed (Appendix 4.3), on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree, to 5 = strongly agree (Table 4.4). By totalling these scores, each respondent is given a CMNI score indicating the extent to which the respondent conforms to masculine norms.
TABLE 4.4: EXAMPLES CONFORMING TO MASCULINE NORMS STATEMENTS Q10.1 In general I will do everything to win
WINNING
Q10.2 I am not wasting any energy trying being better than somebody else [REVERSED] Q8.6 I will do everything to be successful in my career
PURSUIT OF STATUS
Q8.14 I am not wasting any energy trying to get respect [REVERSED]
Comparison social groups
26 Based on these questions, it can be determined whether a man is able to accurately judge himself based on his behaviour, judge others and give an indication of the reason behind his behaviour.
TABLE 4.5: MALE SOCIAL GROUPS 1. Traditional men
2. Modern men
3. Men who like looking good 4. Men who take care of themselves 5. Price-oriented men
Image social groups
Based on the rankings of Question 19 (Appendix Z) the perceived femininity of the different male social groups is determined. These rankings will determine the way in which men view different male social groups and their relative femininity. Based on the rankings of all the respondents together, an end-ranking will be made, a ranking of male social groups based on their perceived femininity.
Attitudes towards male grooming products
To measure specifically the respondents’ attitude towards male grooming products there are three statements concerning this subject in the questionnaire. Question 13.32, Question 13.33 and Question 13.35 are those statements and are measured with a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree, to 5 = strongly agree (Appendix Z).
§4.5.4 Measurement scales variables environment
Store visiting
The results of question 32 (Appendix Z) will show which stores the respondents visit for buying male grooming products. The list of stores is based on all the places in which male grooming products can be bought. Most of the grooming products are bought in the drugstore, perfumery or department store (Classified Report L’Oréal, 2008). Therefore, the most well known stores in each of these categories are mentioned by name.
Store image
27 TABLE 4.6 STORES
Store segment Store name
Trekpleister Cheap drugstore
Kruidvat DA More expensive drugstore
ETOS Douglas Parfumery ICI Paris XL De Bijenkorf Department store V&D
In 15 statements (Appendix Z, Question 33) the respondents are asked to indicate which store corresponds the most with that statement. By summing up the answers of all the respondents together the image of these stores can be determined. This image can give an indication of the reason a respondent is visiting a particular store.
Shop assistants
Research indicates that the sex of the shop assistant can influence the behaviour of the consumer. Question 13.31 (Appendix Z) is a statement measuring respondents’ agreement with this influence, using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree, to 5 = strongly agree. Men agreeing highly with this statement prefer to be helped by a female shop assistant when buying male grooming products.
§4.5.5 Measurement scales variables product
Product usage
Question 20 (Appendix Z) measures the respondents’ usage rate of male grooming products by asking him the frequency with which he uses different male grooming products. The products used in this research were chosen based on the fact that they had to be gendered products (see paragraph 3.7), for example shavingfoam is excluded. Furthermore to give a more broad view on this subject a wide range of different products is chosen, ranging from face wash and deodorant to aftershave balm and anti-aging cream (Table 4.7).
TABLE 4.7: MALE GROOMING PRODUCTS 1. Aftershave balm
28 Based on the frequencies (1 = never; 2 = incidental; 3 = 1-3 a week; 4 = daily) of all products each respondent ends up with a Product Usage Rate (PUR) ranging from 10 to 40, categorising him into a light user (PUR = 10-20), medium user (PUR = 21-30), or heavy user (PUR = 31-40). In addition to this, Question 20 also indicates what kind of products the respondents use most.
Furthermore in Question 21 and Question 22 (Appendix Z) the respondent is asked to judge their friends’ product use of male grooming products and that of the typical Dutch man. These questions will give an indication of the masculine norms towards these products.
Product image
The perceived femininity of the different products is determined using the rankings in Question 23 (Appendix Z). These rankings will determine the way in which men view different products and their relative femininity. Based on the rankings of all the respondents in the segment together, an end-ranking will be made; a end-ranking of male grooming products based on their perceived femininity.
Brand awareness
Brand awareness is a marketing concept that refers to a consumer knowing of a brand’s existence and is measured in two different ways in this research. First of all, Question 25 (Appendix Z) measures the brand recall, by asking respondents to recall as many male grooming product brands as possible, to a maximum of five. Secondly, the brand recognition is measured in Question 26 (Appendix Z), by presenting a list of male grooming product brands and asking them which of these brands they know. The combination of these questions gives insights into how well-known certain male grooming product brands are among the respondents. The brands chosen for the list for brand recognition are based on the market leaders (AC Nielsen Report, 2008) of the products used in this research (Table 4.7).
Brand usage
In Question 27 (Appendix Z), the respondents are asked to indicate the male grooming product brands they have used within the last 12 months. Furthermore, Question 28 and Question 29 (Appendix Z) the respondent is asked to judge the use of male grooming product brands of their friends and the typical Dutch man. The results of these questions will indicate the popularity of the different male grooming product brands.
Brand image
29
Product versus environment
Question 24 (Appendix Z) makes the connection between products and the environment. Both these variables will influence each other and are therefore combined in this question. The results will show which products are bought mainly in which store, and makes the connection between norms towards products and norms towards stores.
§4.6 Methods of data-analysis
§4.6.1 Factor analysis
To indentify the underlying variables with which to group the customer segments for the male grooming market, factor analysis will be used. The procedure of factor analysis is primarily used to reduce and summarise data. “Relationships among sets of many interrelated variables are examined and represented in terms of a few underlying factors” (Malhotra, 2006, p. 609). Any statements that do not differentiate will be removed before cluster analysis.
§4.6.2 Cluster analysis
Following the factor analysis, the respondents can be grouped into customer segments for the male grooming market, by making use of cluster analysis. Like factor analysis, cluster analysis examines an entire set of interdependent relationships. The primary objective of cluster analysis is to classify objects into relatively homogeneous groups based on the set of variables considered (Malhotra, 2006).
§4.6.3 Analyses of masculine consumer behaviour variables
By making use of ANOVAs (Analysis of Variance) the differences in consumer behaviour between the segments is determined. ANOVA is a statistical method to determine whether the mean scores of two or more groups is significantly different. In other words, by making use of ANOVAs, it can be determined whether the differences between segments is due to coincidence or not.
§4.7 Summary
The data for the research was collected in a two-week period by making use of an (online)
30
Chapter 5. Results 1: Segmentation male grooming market
The questionnaire was completed by 352 respondents. 21 respondents did not complete the questionnaire fully, so they had to be removed from the database. 5 respondents gave contradicting answers, contradicting in the way that answers on one questions did not match with answers on another. For example, a respondent indicating that he never uses male grooming products, but further in the questionnaire indicating he does. These respondents are alse removed. The results are, therefore, based on a population of 326 Dutch men.
§5.1 Demographics respondents
In this paragraph a few typical characteristics of the research sample will be described. As already mentioned, the complete sample consists of Dutch men aged between 18 and 65. In Table 5.1 a complete overview of the sample is given.
TABLE 5.1: DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE 326 RESPONDENTS
Count Subtable N % 18 - 35 195 59,8% 36 - 50 60 18,4% AGE 51 - 65 71 21,8% VMBO 28 8,6% HAVO 10 3,1% VWO 14 4,3% MBO 38 11,7% HBO 70 21,5% EDUCATION WO 166 50,9%
NORTHERN REGION OF THE NETHERLANDS 108 33,1%
EASTERN REGION OF THE NETHERLANDS 36 11,0%
SOUTHERN REGION OF THE NETHERLANDS 36 11,0%
RESIDENTIAL AREA 1
WESTERN REGION OF THE NETHERLANDS 146 44,8%
URBAN AREA 238 73,0% RESIDENTIAL AREA 2 RURAL AREA 88 27,0% ENTREPRENEUR 38 11,7% GOVERNMENT 24 7,4% COMMERCIAL COMPANY 150 46,0% OCCUPATIONALLY DISABLED 4 1,2% UNEMPLOYED 12 3,7% RETIRED 14 4,3% OCCUPATION STUDENT 84 25,8% NO 92 28,2% YES, GIRLFRIEND/WIFE 224 68,7% RELATIONSHIP YES, BOYFRIEND/HUSBAND 10 3,1%
LIVING ALONE (WITHOUT PARTNER) 82 25,2%
STUDENT ACCOMODATION 92 28,2%
LIVING WITH PARENTS 16 4,9%
LIVING WITH PARTNER 100 30,7%
LIVING CIRCUMSTANCES
31 By far the largest section (59.8%) of the sample are men between 18 and 35 years. Almost ¾ of the sample has completed higher education, with 50.9% of the respondents having some kind of University degree. Almost half of the sample (44.8%) lives in the West of the Netherlands and 73.0% in an urban area. Most of the men (46.0%) are employees of commercial companies, followed by 25.8% of the sample being students. Most of the respondents (71.8%) are in a relationship and 3.1% of these are gay. The way in which the respondents live is quite divided, 30.7% lives together with a partner, 28.2% lives in student accommodation and 25.2% lives alone.
§5.2 Representativeness of the sample
This paragraph will examine whether the study is representative. This means the extent to which the results of the study can be generalised to other situations or settings. This sample does not seem to be representative, the results can not be generalised to the Dutch male population in general. Therefore, the results and conclusions only apply to this specific sample. The age distribution of the respondents is not a normal distribution (Appendix 5.1) and the figures indicate a large number of young respondents. This same effect can be seen if the respondents are categorised based on their age.
Figure 5.1 and Table 5.2 indicate the age distribution in categories for the sample and the population. Figure 5.1 clearly shows that the age distribution of the sample does not compare with the age distribution in the population. The number of men in the sample between the ages of 18 and 35 is far higher than in the general population, and the number of men in the other categories is under-represented in the sample.
FIGURE 5.1 AGE DISTRIBUTION SAMPLE AND POPULATION
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 18 - 35 36 - 50 51 - 65 SAMPLE POPULATION
TABLE 5.2: AGE DISTRIBUTION SAMPLE AND POPULATION
SAMPLE POPULATION*
N % N %
18 – 35 195 59.8% 1,821,000 34.2%
36 – 50 60 18.4% 1,933,000 36.2%
51 – 65 71 21.8% 1,580,000 29.6%
* Centraal Bureau van de Statistiek Nederland, 2008
32 mainly highly-educated men and men living in the Northern or Western regions of the Netherlands; these being the regions in which the snowball distribution method started.
Starting the snowball distribution method among friends has probably resulted in quite a large group of respondents with similar characteristics. Almost 23% of the respondents are highly-educated young men between 18 and 35 years, living in urban areas in the Western region of the Netherlands. Although, since it focuses mainly on younger, more highly-educated men, the sample may not be representative of the Dutch male population, it will give some interesting insights. The representativeness of the sample will need to be considered carefully when drawing conclusions.
§5.3 Reliability measurement scales
Several measurement scales, based on statements, are used in this research. Table 5.3 shows the reliability of these scales as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha. Since they all are α>.6 (generally accepted as a sufficient level of reliability), this indicates a satisfactory internal consistency reliability for all of the measurement scales.
TABLE 5.3 INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
Measurement scale Question Cronbach’s
alpha
Number of items
Lifestyle statements Q13.1-Q13.30 .608 30
Gendered Personality Traits Scale Q8.1-Q8.16 .865 16
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale Q9.1-Q9.10 .909 10
Individual
Feminine Behaviour Score Q11 .847 10
Conforming to Masculine Norms Inventory Q13.1-Q13.30 .812 22 People
Attitudes towards male grooming products Q13.32, Q13.33, Q13.35 .928 3
Environment Store image Q33.1-Q33.15 .910 15
Product usage Q20.1-Q20.10 .745 10
Product
Product versus environment Q24.1-Q24.10 .925 10
§5.4 Factor analysis
In this paragraph the factor analysis will be described by following the steps of factor analysis as described by Malhotra (2006).
§5.4.1 Problem formulation
As mentioned in the research design the variables included in the factor analysis are based on AIO items of Wells and Tigert (1971), previous studies in the grooming market (Classified Report L’Oréal, 2008) and common sense. The variables are measured by asking the respondents’ their degree of agreement with 30 lifestyle statement using a 5-point Likert scale (Appendix 4.1).
§5.4.2 Correlation matrix
Kaiser-33 Meyer-Olkin (KMO) is a measure of sampling adequacy, ranging from 0 to 1. A value of 0 indicates that the sum of partial correlations is large relative to the sum of correlations, indicating diffusion in the pattern of correlations, meaning that factor analysis is then likely to be inappropriate. A value close to 1 indicates that patterns of correlations are relatively compact, and so factor analysis should yield distinct and reliable factors. According to Malhotra (2006), a KMO value greater than .5 is desirable. As shown in Appendix 5.2 the variables in this research indicate a KMO value of .827 which, being greater than .5, is an acceptable level for a factor analysis. In conclusion, the factor analysis may be considered an appropriate technique in this research for analysing the correlation matrix.
§5.4.3 Method of factor analysis
As the primary concern is to determine the minimum number of factors that will account for maximum variance in the data the principal component analysis is being used, as recommended by Malhotra (2006). Appendix 5.2-5.7 show this application of principal components analysis to the data. The communalities (Appendix 5.3) show the amount of variance a variable shares with all the other variables being considered. Based on the fact that all the communalities are reasonably high, all the variables seem to be relevant for determining the factors.
§5.4.4 Number of factors
The number of factors to be taken into account can be based on: a priori determination, ‘eigenvalues’, scree plot, or variance. In the approach based on ‘eigenvalues’, only factors with ‘eigenvalues’ greater than 1.0 are retained; the other factors are not included in the model. From the inspection of Appendix 5.4 it is apparent that, in this research, 7 factors have an ‘eigenvalue’ greater than 1.0 and are, therefore, retained. Looking at the scree plot, (Appendix 5.5) however, 6 factors seem to need to be taken into account. Experimental evidence indicates that the point of the distinct break of the slope, in this case component number 6, denotes the true number of factors. The number of factors taken into account are, however, based on ‘eigenvalues’ and, therefore, 7 will be the number of factors used.
§5.4.5 Rotate factors
The rotation method used, is the orthogonal rotation with a varimax procedure. This method minimizes the amount of variables with high factor loadings on a factor, thereby enhancing the interpretability of the factors. The component matrix (Appendix 5.6) contains the coefficients used to express the standardised variables in terms of factors. These coefficients, factor loadings, represent the correlations between the factors and the variables. A coefficient with a large absolute value indicates that the factor and the variable are closely related. The correlations greater than .4 (generally accepted as a sufficient level of correlation in factor analysis) are marked in Appendix 5.7. When a variable correlates with more than one factor, the highest correlation is marked.
34 in Appendix 5.8 the KMO of the variables in the model without Q13.3 and Q13.6 is now .824 and, therefore, still satisfies the level of .6. All the communalities also remain relatively high. The biggest change in the model is, however, the number of factors being taken into account. Based on the ‘eigenvalues’ approach, mentioned before, Appendix 5.9 shows there are 6 factors that will be taken into account.
TABEL 5.4: ROTATED COMPONENT MATRIXa
Component
1 2 3 4 5 6
Q13.1 I think it’s important others don’t see me as being feminine .052 .369 -.183 -.209 .706 .126 Q13.2 Shopping is a typical female activity -.222 .354 -.127 -.284 .603 .046 Q13.4 I would rather search for information on my own about grooming products
than ask .030 .000 -.079 -.050 .790 -.261
Q13.5 I feel uncomfortable in a feminine environment -.191 .299 -.127 -.295 .513 -.543 Q13.7 I don’t mind what other men think of me -.093 -.442 -.090 .525 -.112 .124 Q13.8 It’s important to me to look well-groomed .466 -.322 .018 .550 -.158 .466 Q13.9 I use several male grooming products .433 -.148 .096 .798 -.086 .027 Q13.10 I sometimes talk about male grooming products with my friends -.030 .055 .201 .806 -.200 -.115 Q13.11 I like it when a sales lady can advise me about the right male grooming .437 -.161 .046 .656 -.209 .103 Q13.12 I do visit a drugstore or perfumery to buy products for own use .492 -.247 .071 .630 -.157 .064 Q13.13 I think it’s important how other people think about me .263 .055 .639 .025 -.196 .502 Q13.14 I like showing others the brands I wear or use .011 .062 .809 .051 -.303 -.014 Q13.15 Premium brands are always better than other brands .131 -.151 .804 .067 -.142 -.102 Q13.16 I only use the best male grooming products .245 -.308 .778 .139 .059 .052 Q13.17 I am very loyal to certain brands .387 -.258 .533 -.064 -.303 .235 Q13.18 I don’t need any assistance choosing my male grooming products -.036 -.265 .576 .196 .118 .531 Q13.19 I consider myself to be healthy .527 .142 -.045 -.118 .017 .703 Q13.20 I will do everything to look young .536 .132 .128 .027 -.046 .291 Q13.21 My skin needs regular care .853 -.029 .123 .119 -.040 .014 Q13.22 I think it’s very important that the male grooming products I use match my
skin type .830 -.069 .160 .243 .091 .034
Q13.23 My body looks well looked after .574 -.209 .020 .000 -.059 .597 Q13.24 I believe in the effectiveness of some male grooming products .774 -.033 .177 .279 -.108 .153 Q13.25 I worry a lot about money -.158 .778 -.029 -.082 .191 -.122 Q13.26 The price of a product is of great importance to me -.004 .859 -.087 -.016 .021 .286 Q13.27 I buy a lot of special offers .214 .770 -.119 -.017 .214 -.115 Q13.28 The quality of male grooming products does not depend on their price -.100 .145 -.370 -.310 .575 .124 Q13.29 When I buy/would buy male grooming products, the price would matter a
lot -.082 .875 -.173 -.192 .057 -.031
Q13.30 I would never visit a perfumery, because everything is more expensive -.183 .639 -.182 -.241 .145 -.211
35
§5.4.6 Interpret factors
Now the number of factors is determined is the next step to identify with which statements the factors correlate the most. The correlations greater than .4 (generally accepted as a sufficient level of correlation in factor analysis) are marked in Table 5.4. When a variable correlates with more than one factor, the highest correlation is marked. When inspecting Table 5.4 it is apparent that the 6 factors correlate with quit similar statements. Based on the highest corresponding statements of the factors the following lifestyle factors can be defined:
Factor 1: Skincare
This factor consists of statements all referring to looking after yourself. A belief in the effectiveness of grooming products and a determination to choose the right product are examples of this.
Factor 2: Price-oriented
All the statements of this factor are money related and focused on prices, offers, and not wanting to pay too much.
Factor 3: Appearance
This appearance factor is based on statements all referring to image. What other people think is important and there is a focus on certain brands.
Factor 4: Grooming
This factor focuses especially on the use of grooming products.
Factor 5: Traditional
Traditionally male sex role statements together form this traditional factor. Also a sceptical attitude towards the price of products is part of this traditional factor.
Factor 6: Health-oriented
Both the statements forming the health-oriented factor concern matters linked to a healthy lifestyle.
§5.4.7 Reliablity factor analysis
Finally, to determine the reliability of the used factor analysis a quick look is given into the reliability. Table 5.5 shows the reliability as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha of the factors resulting from the factor analysis. Independently of each other, all the factors show a high Cronbach’s alpha. Since they are α>.6 (generally accepted as a sufficient level of reliability), it indicates a satisfactory internal consistency reliability of all factors.
TABLE 5.5: RELIABILITY STATISTICS FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factor Cronbach’s alpha Number of items
