Career opportunities in sustainability-related fields
by Elize Hattingh
Thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Sustainable Development in the Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences at Stellenbosch
University
Supervisor: Prof Mark Swilling
2 Declaration
By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained is my own, original work, that I am the owner of the copyright thereof (unless to the extent explicitly otherwise stated) and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification.
Date: March 2014
Elize Hattingh
Copyright © 2014 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved.
3 ABSTRACT
The impact of the econom ic turndown in 2008, brought sustainability issues to the forefront of public debate as the realities of climate change, and society’s response to it, gain higher visibility. As a result, t he green economy is gaining global traction as it is evident i n South African policy frameworks and investment. In this new environment, human or social capital is fast becoming the foundation of sustainable businesses. The pursuit of green jobs is seen as a key economic driver in the 21st century, creating a green pathway out of poverty. Shifting the economy from business as usual to a low carbon, resource efficient, resilient and inclusive sustainable economy will involve large scale investment in new technologies, equipment, buildings, and infrastructure, research and development and skills training and could thus be a major stimulus for much-needed employment (UNEP, 2008:3).
The focus of this to study is to investigate, career opportunities for graduates of the programme in Sustainable Development, offered by the School of Public Leadership (SPL) at Stellenbosch University. The question is asked if future careers in sustainability-related fields are secured for these graduates. The problem statement was formulated to determine possible challenges that graduates might face from advancing in their careers. I have aimed to address this problem by exploring the prospects for employment in various sustainability-related fields. The re search objectives are to: a) attain clarity regarding graduates` understanding and awareness of available careers in sustainability-related fields; b) to investigate attempts, tools and processes through which graduates could develop careers in the sustainability-related fields; and c) To confirm the graduates` employment status, pre-and post-graduation. My study will aim to demonstrate that more research needs to be conducted related to career guidance to prepare a new workforce, with skills and career knowledge to enter career opportunities in green economy.
4 SAMEVATTING
Die impak van die wêreld ressessie in 2008 het volhoubare ontwikkelingskwessies skerper na vore gebring. Dit het die noodsaaklikheid van `n groen ekonomie verder beklemtoon. In hierdie omgewing word menslike kapitaal belangriker vir be sighede wat wil oorskakel na die groen ekonomie. Die soektog na groen werk word gesien as `n hoof ekonomiese aandrywer in the twintigste eeu, wat `n uitweg uit armoede kan bied. Die skuif van `n huidige besigheidsmodel na `n lae koolstof, effektiewe hulpbron gebruik, weerstandige en inklusiewe, volhoubare ekonomie vereis `n besondere gro ot investering in nuwe tegnologie, toerusing, geboue, infrastruktuur, navorsing en onwikkeling, en vaardigheidsopleiding. Hierdie beweging kan moontlik `n stimuli wees vir broodnodige werkskepping (UNEP, 2008:3).
Hierdie studie ondersoek die onderlinge verband tussen die ontstaan en ontwikkeling van die groen ekonomie in Suid Afrika en werksgeleenthede wat moontlik daaruit mag voortvloei vir gegradueerdes van die program in volhoubare ontwikkeling by die Skool vir Publieke Leierskap by die Universiteit van Stellenbosch. Die vraag wat ek gestel het is of toekomstige beroepe in volhoubare ontwikkelingsgebiede bestendig is vir hierdie gegradueerdes. Die probleemstelling was geformuleer om die volgende navorsings doelstellings te ondersoek: a) gegradueerdes se huidige en toekomstige beroeps verwagtinge, begrip en bewustheid van beskikbare beroepe in volhoubare onwikkelings verbandte velde b) pogings, gereedskap, en metodes waarmee gegradueerdes hulle beroepe in volhoubare ontwikkelings velde sou kon ontwikkel; en c) om gegradueerdes se werksnemings status vas te stel voor en nadat gegraduering plaasgevind het.
My studie poog om te demonstreer dat meer navorsing gedoen moet word rakende beroeps opleiding om so`n nuwe werksmag voor te berei met vaardighede en kennis wat hulle in staat stel om werksgeleenthede in die groen ekonomie te kan betree.
5 Acknowledgement and dedication
I dedicate this study to the Alumni of the BPhil and MPhil Programme in Sustainable Development at the School of Public Leadership at the University of Stellenbosch for t heir passion and commitment in our shared journey to create positive change inspired me! My appreciation goes towards their willingness to participate in the research survey.
My sincere gratitude goes towards Bea trix Steenkamp, the programme administrator at the Sustainability Institute, for her administrative support to gather contact information and for distributing the surv ey to the gradu ates. Professor Mark Swilling a nd Eve Annecke, I acknowledge your values-based leadership, insight and contribution to sustainable development in theory and in practice. I am also thankful that the Sustainability Institute provided me with the opportunity to participate in their programme, the staff enriched my awareness of the daily challenges that we face in the world and in ourselves. Lastly, I would like to thank my husband, Heinrich Hattingh, for believing in my capabilities to successfully complete my studies and to develop my own career in sustainability-related fields.
6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration……….… 2 Abstract………... 3 Opsomming……….... 4 Acknowledgements………... 5 Table of contents………... 6
List of acronyms and abbreviations……….………... 8
List of tables………... 10
List of figures………. 11
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 12
1.1 BACKGROUND 12
1.2 MOTIVATION AND REFINING THE RESEARCH TOPIC 13
1.2.1 My research journey and professional evolution 13 1.2.2 Refinement of research topic, approach and methods 15
1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES 18
1.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 19
1.5 GLOSSARY 20
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 23
1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 24
1.8 CONCEPTUAL LITERATURE ANALYSIS 25
1.9 ASSUMPTIONS 26
1.10 THESIS STRUCTURE 27
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 28
2.1 INTRODUCTION 28
2.2 THE GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS 28
2.3 THE DUAL-CRISES IN SOUTH AFRICA:GIVING RISE TO THE EMERGING GREEN ECONOMY 30
2.3.1 Social crisis 32
2.3.2 Ecological crises 32
2.3.3 A green pathway out of poverty 33
2.4 THE TRAJECTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA`S GREEN ECONOMY 34
2.4.1 National policy framework 36
2.4.2 Provincial initiatives 46
2.5 KEY RESEARCH REPORTS RELATED TO GREEN JOBS AND SKILLS 52
7
2.5.2 Green Jobs: An estimate of direct employment potential of a greening South African economy 54 2.5.3 Green Skills: Skills for green jobs in South Africa: unedited background country study 61 2.5.4 South African Green Economy Modelling (SAGEM) 63
2.5.5 The Green Accord 64
2.6 GREEN CAREERS, GREEN JOBS AND GREEN COLLAR WORKERS 67
2.6.1 Defining green jobs: shades of green 68
2.6.2 Green-collar workers 69
2.7 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THESIS RESEARCH 72
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN 77
3.1 RESEARCH STEPS 78
3.2 RESEARCH STRATEGY 78
3.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES 83
3.4 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK AND QUESTIONS 84
3.5 RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS 84
3.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 84
3.6.1 Research method and research tool 85
3.6.2 Data gathering process 86
3.6.3 Sampling 87
CHAPTER 4: DATA RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 88
4.1 RESULTS AND SUCCESS OF SAMPLE RESPONSES 88
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS 89
4.3.1 Quantitative data 91
4.3.2 Quantitative data 95
4.3SUMMARY OF RESULTS 102
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 107
5.1 DISCUSSION 107
5.2 RESEARCH RESULTS 108
5.3 LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES 111
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 112
ANNEXURE 113
8 List of acronyms and abbreviations
BAU Business As Usual
BAU2% Business-as-usual 2% scenario BPhil Bachelor of Philosophy
CDM Clean Development Mechanism CGE Computable General Equilibrium CMD Clean Development Mechanism
CRSES Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies DBSA Development Bank of South Africa
DEA Department of Environmental Affairs
DEDT Department Economic Development and Tourism DME Department of Minerals and Energy
DTI Department of Trade and Industry EDD Economic Development Department EPWP Expanded Public Works Programme GBCSA Green Building Council South Africa GCRO Green Strategic Programme for Gauteng GCW Green Collar Workers
GETS Green Economy Target Specific scenario GGND Global Green New Deal
ICT Information and Communications Technology IDC Industrial Development Corporation
ILO International Labour Organisation IRP2 Integrated Resource Plan
KZNDEDT KwaZulu-Natal Department of Economic Development and Tourism MCJC Million Climate Jobs Campaign
MPhil Master of Philosophy
MTEF Medium Term Expenditure Framework NDP National Development Plan – Vision for 2030 NFSD National Framework for Sustainable Development
9 NGP National Growth Plan
NRCS Natural Resource Conservation Service
NSSD1 National Strategy for Sustainable Development and Action Plan PCS Premier's Council on Skills
PGWC Provincial Government of the Western Cape PSDF Provincial Skills Development Forum REC Research Ethics Committee
REIPPP Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Programme SAGEM South African Green Economy Modelling Report
SD Sustainable Development
SETA Sector Education and Training Authority SPL School of Public Leadership
STATS SA Statistics South Africa TIPS Trade Industrial Policy Strategies TWG Technical Working Group
UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WCG Western Cape Government
10 List of Tables
Table 1 : Chronological overview of South African policies related to the green economy and green jobs. Source: Montmasson-Clair (2012).
Table 2 : Green economy key focus areas and related programmes. Source: DEA (2011). Table 3 : Green project focus areas and job creation and skills development programmes.
Source: DEA (2011).
Table 4 : Unfunded green economy projects. Source: DEA (2011).
Table 5 : Green jobs potential in renewable energy generation over the long term. Source: Table 01 in IDC-DBSA-TIPS (2011:8).
Table 6 : Green jobs potential in non-renewable energy generation over the long term. Source: Table 01 IDC-DBSA-TIPS (2011:8).
Table 7 : Summary of net direct employment potential associated with insulation, lighting and windows. Source: Table 4.1 in IDC-DBSA-TIPS (2011:88).
Table 8 : Summary of net direct employment potential associated with solar water heaters. Source: Table 4.3 in IDC-DBSA-TIPS (2011:92).
Table 9 : Summary of net direct employment potential associated with rainwater harvesting. Source: Table 4.4 in IDC-DBSA-TIPS (2011:97).
Table 10 : Policies supporting funding to get green jobs off the ground. Source: UNEP (2008:4).
Table 11 : Implications for green job creation. Source: UNEP (2008). Table 12 : Research deliverables.
Table 13 : Survey response rate.
Table 14 : Type of jobs that sample group applied for.
11 List of Figures
Figure 1 : Green skills development in SA: Low Carbon Economy (LCE) Skills Forum. Figure 2 : Employment fields after graduation.
Figure 3 : Improvement of skills and knowledge. Figure 4 : Description of a green job.
12 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces the body of the thesis. The background to the study is presented, through a summary of the literature review followed by the motivation for the study. The following section elaborates on the refinement of the research process, introducing the argument, the field of study, main objectives and key concepts used. The significance of the study is explained, followed by a description of the approach adopted. The process of the literature review, themes used and the structure are presented along with the methods of data analysis. The research survey`s approach, population and selection criteria are described. Finally the limitations of the study are outlined.
1.1 Background
This chapter presents an overview of the findings and implications of the importance of green job creation in South Africa. It provides a chronological background to t he Sustainable Development agenda and the adoption of national and provincial policy, employment potential for green jobs in the short, medium and long term and in vestment in the green economy to support new markets and businesses.
The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP, 2008:35) indicates that greening the economy will involve large scale investment in new technologies, equipment, buildings, and infrastructure, and could thus provide major stimulus for much-needed employment. Based on this notion, the pursuit of green jobs is viewed as a key economic driver in the 21st century. In this new environment, human or social capital promises to become the foundation for sustainable businesses (UNEP, 2008). The South African government has been successfully implementing new policy frameworks to support the growth of the green economy. The first step in this process was to sign the Green Economy Accord (Patel, 2011) in November 2011, as an outcome of social dialogue on the new growth path. Shortly after that, a Green Jobs Report (IDC, DBSA and TIPS, 2011) presented an estimate of the direct employment potential of greening the South African economy. The majority of the research findings presented in the report involved green job
13 projections over a time horizon span of 15 years, grouped as follows: 2 years indicated as the short term (2011 to 2012), 5 years indicated as the medium term (2013 to 2017) and eight years as the long term (2018 to 2025), (IDC, DBSA and TIPS, 2011:17).
My study will demonstrate that more research needs to be conducted not only to inform government policies regarding green job creation, but more importantly to prepare a new workforce, with skills ready to meet the demands of the growing green economy. The focus of this study is to investigate career opportunities for graduates of the programme in Sustainable Development, offered by the School of Public Leadership (SPL) at Stellenbosch University.
1.2 Motivation and refining the research topic
The motivation and refinement of my research topic is outlined in more detail in this section than prescribed by my department’s thesis guidelines (Muller, 2009). This is necessary to describe the context motivating my research and how that guided me to arrive at the research approach used.
The research study has personal relevance for me. Through the formulation of the research topic I discovered where best I could place my skills obtained during the BPhil programme in Sustainable Development and to take possible new knowledge into practice, thereby enabling me to contribute to positive social, environmental and economic change in the twenty-first century.
1.2.1 My research journey and professional evolution
The story of my research journey started in 2008, a year after I graduated in the BPhil Programme in Sustainable Development at the School of Public Leadership, University of Stellenbosch. The initial inspiration for the research started when I was searching for career opportunities in sustainability. It was a difficult journey and I had limited resources to inform me of what my new qualification could contribute to my professional career. I approached a number
14 of recruitment agencies with my CV and they were not able to tell me where I would fit with my degree in sustainable development.
Before continuing further studies at a Master`s level, I investigated topics of interest to formulate a research proposal. The first topic that came to mind was to examine trends in South African eco-estates. Greening the building industry had not yet taken off at that stage (February 2009) and I t herefor decided to look for a research topic that could possibly add to the body of knowledge on sustainable development.
My career began in the construction sector where I worked as a project manager in property development. In November 2009 I qualified as a Green Star Accredited Professional through the Green Building Council of South Africa (GBCSA, 2013). This is a body that governs best practise in green building and they provide accreditation through a star rating system. Work opportunities in the green building space were limited at that time, as there was only 12 Green Start Accredited Commercial buildings and developers saw it as a costly investment.
My understanding was that, based on my academic and professional qualifications, I was qualified to be employed as a g reen collar worker, but I did not work for a green employer. However, my employer took on projects that had principles of sustainable development at their core, so I would say I did have a green job.
During 2010 I started following the Green Job movement in the United States of America. The President was Barak Obama, and his work with Jones (2008), during his e lection campaign inspired me because it focused on the creation of a green economy to stimulate new job creation to empower a green collar workforce.
The literature I obtained on green collar workers, green jobs and the green economy was useful in formulating my research proposal and I registered in February 2011 to continue formally with my research on career opportunities for graduates in sustainability-related fields.
15 1.2.2 Refinement of research topic, approach and methods
This section will provide a research formulation overview that occurred over a two and a half year period pre- and post-registration, demonstrating the theory of ‘becoming’ rather than ‘being’ (this concept will be discussed in chapter 3).
In preparation for m y research proposal in October 2010, I reviewed a study conducted by OneWorld Sustainability Investments, commissioned by the International Labour Organisation (ILO) between May 2009 and March 2010, to prepare a South African country study on “Skills for Green Jobs”. The stu dy is embedded in the Green Jobs In itiative, a joint initiative of the UNEP, the ILO, the International Employers Organisation (IOE) and the International Trade Confederation (ITUC), to asses, analyse and promote the creation of decent jobs as a consequence of the needed environmental policies (ILO, 2010:3). I incorporated the information obtained from the report during the submission of my research proposal in March 2011 to guide me through my empirical study to collect qualitative survey data (primary data) and design a questionnaire as my research tool. I had to apply for ethical clearance in April before I could continue with the survey. Ethical clearance was received in May 2011.
In October 2011, my study leader introduced me to a Green Jobs Report conducted in South Africa that was launched at COP17 in 2011, namely: “An est imate of the direct employment potential of a gree ning South African economy”, produced by the International Labours Organisation (ILP), the Development Bank of South Africa (DBSA) and the Trade Industrial Policy Strategies (TIPS) (2011). This re port provided a local definition for a ‘green job’ and supplied statistical data for potential employment opportunities over 5 years, 10 years and 20 years. The report provided more accurate statistics than those projected by the New Growth Path in 2010). After reading the report, I was able to refine my research proposal in February 2012 by focusing on h ow my research could contribute to my understating of careers in sustainable development.
The literature review grew organically as the wider debate around green jobs un folded between 2011 and August 2013. The information from my literature review contributed to information
16 regarding legislative frameworks that support green jobs and green economy reports conducted by academics. Following the development of the literature review up to April 2012, my study was undertaken with a participation group consisting of BPhil and MPhil Graduates in four of the programme`s sustainability fields offered by the School of Public Leadership at Stellenbosch University, with permission from the Ste llenbosch Research Ethics Committee (REC). Thereafter, the departmental course administrator sent out a voluntary invitation to BPhil and MPhil graduates on my behalf to complete an online questionnaire. Information obtained from the questionnaire was collected and descriptive data were developed and analysed to profile the graduates of the programme. The information was useful to analyse the transdisciplinary academic background and career patterns of the graduates, but it seem ed to be insufficient information to substantiate my research argument with. The survey response rate was only 30.83% and for this reason I had to consider a different research approach to gather more qualitative data that would address the knowledge production problem.
Throughout the initial stages of the research process graduates started approaching me to assist them with their career development. I was really passionate to bridge the gap between practice and theory and decided to f ormalise my expertise by placing myself in practice, entering the “mess of” the green job sector. There were no opportunities where I could join an organisation that focuses on this field, thus I created my own green job opportunity by setting up a so cial enterprise, called Green Talent. This enterprise was es tablished in 2011 as a Sustainability Career Centre that offered career guidance services to job seekers and recruitment services to employers. During the month of October, I participated in a research colloquium where I presented my research findings and I used this opportunity to ask the attendees (mostly pre-and post-graduates students) to act as a sound board and to provide feedback on how I could add another level of depth to my research. After reflecting on the feedback received, I decided that I wanted more than just a theoretical understanding.
Between October and January 2013, I investigated how my entrepreneurial experience (practical knowledge) could possibly be incorporated into my research (theoretical knowledge) on career opportunities in sustainability. Through adopting a processual perspective on entrepreneurship, I discovered that the notion of “entrepreneuring” as a research method, is an emerging
practice-17 theory field of research in the social sciences, that could be an appropriate frame of reference to give me a way to follow a paradigm more in line with action research, in the sense that I took ‘action’ and wanted to see change happen (Bengt, 2009:135).
I had a concern about a possible conflict of interest and I had to expand my search for more literature around the subject matter. The insights gained from research done by Van de Ven & Johnson (2006:802) on “engaged scholarship” as a research approach were very valuable to put my mind at ease. Eng aged scholarship is defined as “a collaborative form of inquiry in which academics and practitioners leverage their different perspectives and competencies to co-produce knowledge about a complex problem or phenomenon that exists under conditions of uncertainty found in the world” (Van de Ven & Johnson, 2006:802). They suggest three ways in which to close the gap between theory and practice: a) Consider the knowledge flow; b) Different types of knowledge and c) A new research approach which is collaborative between theory and practice. Van de Ven and Johnson (2006:802) argue that any tensions caused by knowledge creation between the scholar and practitioner should not be s een as a mistake, but to be exploited in the knowledge production process.
At first I felt comfortable to incorporate “entrepreneuring” as a research approach using action based research to collect qualitative data through participant observation. I conside red that this research method could allow me to use my “in-side knowledge”, gained through my practical experience as an entrepreneur, to provide another angle to address the research problem. The first step towards this approach could be to reflect on my entrepreneurial experience of how I gained information on green jobs and career development. Participant observation could have been possible through my interaction with multiple stakeholders in the green job sector, customers (green job seekers) and clients (green employers). It became clear that from the “entrepreneuring” research approach, my knowledge about career opportunities for graduates, gained through Green Talents service offerings could contribute to my research study.
After researching “entrepreneuring” as a possible research approach, I realised the importance of context and scale in selecting appropriate research methods. T he refinement process of developing the core purpose of the study assisted me to maintain my focus on graduate`s views
18 to determine employment opportunities in t heir field of study. In addition I realised that by including “entrepreneuring” as a research approach, it would be irresponsible to involve my practical experience in the research for it would be a conflict of interest. The ethics committee approved my research proposal based on the principles set out in the initial proposal submitted in March 2011. I decided that the research approach “entrepreneuring” could be su ccessfully applied elsewhere in future studies to ensure that my research model would keep its integrity. I learned from the experimentation, and I gained valuable insights to assist me to complete my research study.
1.3 Research problem and objectives
Problem statement: To what extent are career futures secured for graduates of the BPhil and MPhil Programme in Sustainable Development?
The research problem originated from a sense of uncertainty about postgraduate employment. This uncertainty was triggered while reviewing literature that outlined the demand for and shortage of green j obs relative to the a vailability of postgraduates in the S ustainable Development Programme at Stellenbosch University.
The specific intention of my study has been to investigate the career prospects of these graduates. The problem statement was formulated to determine whether a lack of career information limited graduates from advancing in their careers. I have aimed to address this problem by exploring the prospects for employment in various sustainability-related fields. The geographical context of South Africa provides a backdrop to development of a green economy in this country and how this is providing employment opportunities.
Based on the research problem stated above, I applied a qu alitative research methodology through a survey as my method, and a questionnaire as the research tool, to address the following objectives:
19 (a) To attain clarity regarding graduates` understanding and awareness of available careers in
sustainability-related fields;
(b) To investigate attempts, tools and processes through which graduates could develop careers in the sustainability-related fields; and
(c) To confirm the graduates` employment status, pre-and post-graduation.
1.4 Theoretical framework and research questions
I formulated my research study by applying the analytical framework principles outlined by Bless & Sm ith-Higson, (1995:13). I discovered that surprisingly little research has been undertaken to date on graduate employment in sustainability-related fields specific to Sou th Africa. Sustainability-related career fields span over a wide array of skil ls, educational backgrounds, and occupational profiles and should not be confused with careers in only environmental fields. Environmental careers are a specialised field on its own that are developed through an isolated discipline as part of a specific core academic, and they provide professional knowledge and practical skills as important competencies for the working practise of environmental scientist.
The data from the g raduate questionnaire would be available to inform my study, but I first needed to deepen my understanding of the term “green collar worker”, which is increasingly being used to describe people working in sustainability-related career fields. Various concepts, debates and definitions of the term green collar worker and green jobs exist and raise important questions such as:
(a) Is there legislation support and financial commitment to development in the green economy? (b) How do graduates understand what a career in a sustainability-related field is?
(c) What attempts, tools and processes did graduates use to develop careers in sustainability-related fields?
(d) What were graduates` employment status, pre-and post-graduation?
20 1.5 Glossary
This glossary lists abstract terms and defi nitions related to careers and em ployment in sustainable development fields. During my exploration of concepts related to the green economy, green jobs and green collar workers, I encountered diverse interpretations not only on an international level, but also on a country- and provincial wide basis. For the purpose of this study, I had to limit myself to providing a comprehensive overview of the international and local meanings, scope and functions of those concepts. Thus I acknowledge that wider interpretations of the key concepts are beyond the scope of this thesis. I could also not engage fully with the many local debates around the gr een or low-carbon economy, green jobs and green collar workers. It should therefore be noted that the following definitions are unavoidably incomplete, narrow interpretations, which represent a limited perspective and may not be appropriate to all contexts. As a point of departure, the following words and phrases have these designated meanings in this thesis, unless the context otherwise indicates.
Green Career
A green career refers to a career in a sustainability-related field. Occupations in these fields are categorised as employment activities in one or more of the following broad categories used by IDC-DBSA-TIPS (2011) to describe employment sectors in green industries, namely: “a) Non-renewable: Energy Efficiency; Waste management; Consulting; Environmental Resource Management and Built Environment and; b) Renewable: Wind, Solar, Bio-mass, Bio-fuels, Solar, Geo-thermal, and Wave” (IDC-DBSA-TIPS, 2 011). Sustainability-related career fields span over a wide array of skills, educational backgrounds, and occupational profiles.
Green Economy
“A green economy is an economy that values nature and people and creates decent, well-paying jobs” (UNEP, 2008:4). The green economy is different from the pollution-based, fossil fuel dependent economy which creates major problems for the environment and for people’s health, while producing many of the goods and services we rely upon and enjoy. It is an economy that includes all economic activities resulting in improvement of the environment. It is also viewe d that a green economy is a shift away from business-as-usual, towards the goal of ‘resilience’
21 rather than growth for resource efficiency, low carbon and pro-employment, greater social equity and justice, and investment in the protection and enhancement of the environmental asset base, thereby reducing environmental scarcities and risks” (Sutherland et al, 2012).
Green Jobs
There is no narrow definition or single global standard of a green job, these jobs requires a wide range of skills, educational backgrounds, and occupational profiles and they uphold certain standards (UNEP, 2008:3).
Green jobs provide equal hope for the e nvironment and the jobholder that include standards where people`s livelihoods, rights, and sense of dignity are connected with their jobs (UNEP, 2008:39). They are not only related to the credentials of the job, but they are well-paid, decent jobs that are part of a real career path with upward mobility and they provide workers with safe and healthy working conditions, family supporting benefits, and opportunities for continual training and career development (UNEP, 2008:39).
Green jobs contribute directly to preserving or enhancing environmental quality in a sustainable low-carbon economy. My reference to green jobs is in line with the United Nations Environmental Programme`s definition of green jobs, a job that would “protect ecosystems and biodiversity; reduce energy, materials, and water consumption through high efficiency strategies; de-carbonize the economy; and minimize or altogether avoid generation of all forms of waste and pollution” (UNEP, 2008:3).
In the context of this study, green jobs are linked to sustainability-related career fields for alternative futures and job types include non-renewable energy and renewable energy categories.
Green-Collar Worker
A green-collar worker is a worker who is employed in the sustainability sector of the economy and their job is regarded as a green job. UNEP (2008:40) identifies different shades of green- collar workers, with different skills levels and job types, namely: professionals and vocational or trade-level workers in non-renewable and renewable energy sectors in the green-collar worker
22 may be defined by occupation or by industry. What this means is that green collar workers may exist in any industry according to their occupation or role. By looking at different skills levels and drawing this distinction between environmental and sustainability-related jobs, green collar workers can be identified based on skills levels and areas of responsib ility that define their region of focus.
Green Skills
The skills needed to work in a green job (see green job description in this section of the glossary). Green skills are also referred to as “sustainability skills” in the survey questionnaire.
Sustainable Development
Sustainable development was first defined by th e World Commission on Environment and Development’s Brundtland Commission report, Our Common Future in 1987, as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (UN, 1987:15). This definition can be f urther extended to include a description of Sustainable Development from Lovins: “Sustainability is the careful and efficient stewardship of resources by business, communities and citizens. It is the practice of meeting our needs in ways that are respectful of future generations and restorative of natural, cultural and financial assets. Sustainable management is a whole systems approach to achieving superior performance in delivering outcomes to all stakeholders by business, government and civil society. It is ach ieved by implementing the th ree principles of ‘Natural Capitalism’ (Natural Capitalism Solutions, 2014). The principles of sustainable development therefore involve seeking to achieve social and economic progress in ways that will not exhaust the earth’s finite natural resources, but consider the carrying capacity of the natural systems with the social and economic challenges faced by humanity.
Programme
The term programme used in chapters one, three, four and five, relates to the postgraduate programme in S ustainable Development offered by the School of Public Leadership at Stellenbosch University. This programme is also referred to as t he programme in sustainable development. It is acknowledged that there are four different specialisation fields within the
23 programme, namely: sustainable development, sustainable development planning and management, agriculture and renewable energy. For the purpose of the study the term “programme in sustainable “development refers to the programme as an umbrella to group all four specialisation fields.
1.6 Significance of the study
Limited information about post-graduate employment opportunities in sustainability-related career fields within the South African context was available when I started my research in the year 2011. This was a great concern for me as a graduate from this programme as I searched for employment opportunities where I cou ld use my new skills and knowledge. My current employment contract at t hat time offered limited scope to integrate the new sk ills and knowledge. This lack of available career development knowledge or tools encouraged me to conduct research to determine the methods used by fellow graduates as they developed a career in sustainability-related fields.
The key significance of the research would be that it could possibly contribute to further studies on how a career in sustainability-related fields could be pursued. The possible outcomes could add value to graduates` knowledge about employment or business opportunities, add to the faculty`s knowledge to help guide students and also help to guide my own career. The findings from this research study would also be able to help in identifying key factors driving green job creation with the South African context (Glen e t al, 2009). These factors include: new regulations, new investments, new technologies and new v alues. This study will aim to investigate these factors.
South Africa`s New Economic Growth Path is one of the new policy frameworks that identifies job creation in the green and knowledge economy (Patel, 2010a). Glen et. al. (2009) argue that the problem many business leaders face is that they are not fully prepared to employ the new talent pool of graduates from sustainability-related programmes as “green-collar workers” due to a lack of knowledge about their skills. Thus, a better understanding of the skills set that graduates
24 in the sustainable development programme have, needs to be researched to inform employers, especially human resource managers. The UNEP Green Jobs Report (2008) recognises that there is a lack of a skille d workers (green-collar workers), and that a sig nificant investment by governments and private investors across the world, cannot occur unless sufficient research is conducted in this area. Sou th Africa responded to this cal l by making funds available during 2013 through the Green Acc ord Fund for research and skills training programmes. It is clear from this call for action that the important role of a green collar work force in developing and implementing low carbon initiatives thus becomes a topic of interest and should be researched.
1.7 Research design and methodology
Constructing the research methodology generally involves establishing a research framework, and formulating a very clear problem statement, a research question and one or more assumptions. This is regarded as the starting point of the study as explained in detail by Brynard and Hanekom (1997 in Muller, 2008). In designing research, one focuses on the end result: what kind of study is planned and what kind of result is aimed for? (Mouton, 2001:56). According to Hart (2006:26 in Muller, 2008), social science research can be broadly categorised according to its objectives and it is e ither aimed at explaining, exploring or describing, and each agenda has unique implications for the design, presentation and way in w hich the research should be interpreted. Mouton (2001:56) argues that a researc h methodology concerns the process of research and what tools and procedures will be used to gather and process information.
A qualitative research approach was used. Primary qualitative data was collected via a graduate survey to be completed by BPhil and MPhil graduates. A questionnaire was used as a research tool to explain graduates` vi ews of careers in sustainability-related fields. The structure of the questionnaire provided the opportunity to collect and analyse data in various forms, but mainly non-numerical (Brynard & Hanekom, 1997:6 in Muller, 2008:4). Annexure 1 outlines the list of questions that were asked in the survey. These questions were informed by my preliminary literature review. My decision to use qu alitative research is supported by the UNEP (2008:6) report that argues that more green job surveys and profiling need to be conducted for direct and
25 indirect jobs to build on the existing data such as the study conducted Bootsma and Vermeulen on the experience of environmental professionals in practice (2011). I was confident that following the guidelines from Mouton (2001:57) to conduct a qualitative methodology would provide me with the kind of evidence needed to address my research objectives.
The survey was designed to provide an opportunity for graduates to share their understanding and awareness of available careers in sustainability-related fields considering their acquired knowledge and skills base; to attain clarity regarding graduates` attempts, tools and processes through which they could develop careers in sustainability-related fields; and to confirm the graduates` employment status, before and after completing the programme. The qualitative research type provided valuable information regarding the interpretation of challenges that they experienced to seek employment.
My research has also been influenced by my personal views, I can relate to the selected sample group because, like them, I completed the BPhil programme and then I applied for a green job. A postmodern qualitative research approach assisted me to deal with complexity and ambiguity (Hertlein, et al, 2004:560-561).
1.8 Conceptual literature analysis
I made use of a conce ptual literature review to underpin my research. Thus t he conceptual literature was no t seen as a formal research approach, but has been an important point of departure for my research journey. My aim has been to build a good understanding of concepts around the green economy, careers i n sustainability-related fields, green job opportunities and the nature of green collar workers. The literature review has collected information of the early development of the green economy in South Africa between 2011 and 2013. The purpose of the review has been to clarify whether green economic policy-making, investment in research and employment generating programmes and the creation of new industries could provide much needed employment opportunities for graduates who were interested in working in sustainability-related fields. The information provided by the literature review has created a context for the
26 main body of research and improved my understanding of green job creation factors. I have used Hart`s (2006:13) definition to structure the literature review, namely to arrange it into two parts; a) the selection of available documents and b) the efficient evaluation of this document in relation to the research being proposed. My literature review plan will be discussed in chapter 3.
Analysis of the literature applies a critical lens of the connections between environmental protection, poverty, and unemployment crises in South Africa. The question is posed: does environmental protection harm the economy and destroy jobs, or does it facilitate economic growth and create jobs? This question is a ddressed by identifying a relationship between the economic, social and ecological crises that South Africa is faced with, and explores a mutually beneficial solution, namely green job creation.
The following core themes will be covered:
Overview of the emerging green economy in South Africa related to national and provincial policy development;
The employment potential for green jobs in the short, medium and long term; Investment in the green economy to support new markets and businesses.
1.9 Assumptions
My study is based on the following assumptions:
Sufficient literature sources will be available to inform my study.
The use of a questionnaire will result in honest and usef ul feedback for the purpose of analysis.
The population sample size is large enough to represent graduates` prospects of career opportunities in sustainability fields.
Conducting research on career opportunities for graduates in sustainability-related fields, could benefit future career guidance.
27 1.10 Thesis structure
My thesis opens with a review of a selected and limited range of international literature, introducing the origin of the global green economy, with the post-2007 global economic crisis and its social, environmental and financial implications as a starting point. Focus then shifts to follow trajectories of the development of a green economy in South Africa, with emphasis on national and provincial policy development, leading on to projected employment opportunities in the green economy. Against this backdrop I deepen my research focus by drilling down to examine financial investments that will support new markets and businesses, creating green jobs in the green economy.
Chapter three leads into an overview of my research design and methodology. Chapter four presents analyses of data obtained from the voluntary survey of graduates of the Programme in Sustainable Development at the University of Stellenbosch. After d etermining the graduates` understanding and awareness of career opportunities in sustainability-related fields, career development processes, tools and access to information on employment opportunities, their status of employment before and after completing the programme, results are used to build an argument around career security. The importance of career security in sustainability-related fields for graduates’ after completing the programme, is not only important for them to receive income through employment, but it is vital to transfer the skills and knowledge obtained through the programme, into employment areas that will shift “business-as-usual” practices into the green economy.
28 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2. 1 Introduction
This literature study traces the trajectory of South Africa’s green economy that advanced after the post-2007 global economic crisis that erupted in late 2008. It then leads into a discussion of the connections between the social, environmental and economic crises that South Africa faces and how the impact thereof has created green jobs. The adoption of national and provincial policy development is highlighted as im portant mechanisms to support green economic development with. A hi gh level summary of key green economy reports is provided and followed by a discussion of green careers, green jobs and green collar workers.
2.2 The global economic crisis
The world finds itself in a slo w recovery from the p ost-2007 global economic crisis. The progressive spread to the real economy resulted in world output growth slowing to 3% in 2008, from 5.2% in 2007 (IDC, 2010:1; One World, 2010:3). Swilling (2013:98) identifies two related but distinct features of this cause, namely: “the persistence of debt-driven recessionary conditions in Europe and North America, and the rise of the so-called ‘BRICS-plus’ economies in Asia, Africa and Latin America”, and indicates that the post-2007 global economic crisis hardly affected African economies with the exception of South Africa.
The focus of this study will be on the South African economy and how it relates with the global affects caused by the post-2007 global economic crisis due to a large number of job losses, and a host of social and environmental crises. New literature has been generated by the post-2007 global economic crisis that “draws on long-wave theory to re-imagine present and future landscapes” (Allianz Global Investors (2010), Bradfield-Moody and Nogrady (2010), Rifkin, (2011) in Swilling , 2013:97) indicates that the newly developed information sources consists of policy-oriented research-based literature generated from a variety of academic, UN, advisory and
29 consulting agencies. It is of particular interest to review a range of global and South African literature to inform this study. A long-wave theory approach from Swilling (2013) was used for the purpose of this study to not only see the post-2007 global economic crisis as an accident in history, but to provide an empirical conceptual framework to look at historical trajectories and how future trajectories of the green economy in South Africa can occur in more or less predictable ways (see section 2.6).
The United Nations Environmental Programme`s Green Jobs Report, Towards decent work in a sustainable, low-carbon world (2008), indicated that at the same time that financial recovery was being planned during 2009, attention was also being paid to mechanisms for addressing these global social and environmental crises. Th e urgent need to reduce carbon emissions was also foregrounded. During 2009, prominent actors in the global economy set out into largely uncharted territory with the goal of achieving a global low-carbon economy. This type of economy is also known by the term “green economy”. Fischer-Kowalski & Swilling, (2010:100) refer to this principle as an “inclusive sustainable economy”. These terms are often used concurrently in a r ather broad or very loose context. In the context of this paper, I will use the term “green economy” as d efined by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP, 2008) as an economy that values nature and people and creates decent, well-paying jobs. The focus of this economy turns away from resource consumption in a business-as-usual approach, towards environmental restoration through the re-use of materials and production processes, preferring to invest in the manufacturing and installation of clean energy (UNEP, 2008).
From the above references, it is anticipated that a green economy could supply the types of jobs that are aligned with a positive social and environmental impact. This is important to highlight to ensure that the dual crisis discussed in section 3.3 is addressed. The types of job created by a green economy are known by the term ‘green jobs’ (Pinderhughes, 2012). Acc ording to the United Nations Environmental Programme (2008:35), the pursuit of green jobs will be a key economic driver in the 21st century, as the world sets out into the largely uncharted territory of achieving a low-carbon global economy. Greening the economy will involve large scale investment in new technologies, equipment, buildings, and infrastructure, and could thus be a major stimulus for much-needed employment (UNEP, 2008:35).
30 If any of the financial losses or impacts of social and environmental crises as a result of the global financial crises are to be addressed effectively, it will require greening of the economy, which involves large-scale investment in new technologies, equipment, buildings, and infrastructure, and could thus be a major stimulus for much-needed employment (UNEP, 2008:35). It is based on this notion that the pursuit of green jobs globally will be a key economic driver in the 21st century and in this new environment, human or social capital will fast become the foundation of sustainable businesses (UNEP, 2008).
The next section will attempt to explain how many of the social and environmental crises precipitated by the post-2007 global economic crisis and the impacts of the industrialised era can stimulate green job creation in South Africa.
2.3 The dual-crises in South Africa: Giving rise to the emerging green economy
The pace of recovery from the economic crisis has varied substantially across regions, and particularly at country level. Impact of job losses during the financial crisis also created new opportunities to develop industries that would support social and environmental concerns, but during 2009, these were still early days for South Africa. Patel (2010a:3) indicated from the Inaugural State of the Nation Address in June 2009 that the impact of the global economic recession during 2009 “limited the pattern of consumption-led growth whilst not underpinned by a strong production base”. This resulted in a 3% fall in the GDP during a period of nine months with a million jobs lost over 18 months. He continues to highlight that this extent of joblessness and inequality in South Africa made the creation of employment the top priority for 2010.
A year after this, in 2011, President Jacob Zuma expressed his concerns in the Inaugural State of the Nation Address that unemployment and poverty persist despite the economic growth experienced in the past 10 years (South African State of the Nation Address, 2011). The official unemployment record of 24% in the fourth quarter of 2010 showed improvement from 25.3% in the third quarter of 2010 which was the lowest rate of unemployment recorded in the South
31 African history (Statistics SA, 2010). The labou r absorption rate (percentage of people at working age with jobs) remained extremely low at 40.8% (Lings, 2011).
While the reality of the high unemployment rate persisted during 2012, the impact of climate change and society’s response to it gained higher visibility globally (Montmasson-Clair, 2012). The issues that arose out of the economic turndown in late 2008 moved to the forefront of public debate during 2011 in South Africa, and sustainable development become a popular term (IDC et. al., 2011). Those who set public policies and industrial strategies became increasingly focused on addressing social and environmental issues. As a result, the development of a green economy gained traction.
During 2013, visible signs of improvement in the world economy became evident, although the outlook remains uncertain. South Africa`s Minister of Finance, Pravin Gorden, indicated on 27 February 2013 that the economy has continued to grow, but at a slower rate than projected at the time of the 2012 budget (Gordhan, 2013:4). Statistics of the spending path and the recovery of revenue are estimated to stabilise debt at just higher than 40 % of GDP and the budget deficit will fall from 5.2 % of GDP in 2012/13 to 3.1 % in 2015/16 (Gordhan, 2013:4).
Gordhan (2013:6) highlights the measures set to adapt to a lo w carbon economy, including mobilisation of South Africa`s renewable energy potential. These imperatives are stated in the National Development Plan, and supported by the New Growth Plan. In his speech, Gordhan (2013:9) emphasised that fiscal sustainability should be coupled with national d evelopment to ensure that progress made will not be interrupted or reversed. Acknowledgement of the move towards a low carbon economy is made where Government proposes to price carbon by way of a carbon tax at a rate of R120 per ton of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent, effective from 1 January 2015 (Gordhan, 2013:15). These measures are set in place to soften the impact, a tax-free exemption threshold of 60% that will be set, with additional allowances for intensive emissions and trade-exposed industries (Gordhan, 2013:15).
32 2.3.1 Social crisis
The social crisis is characterised as a widening gap between rich and poor with the result that the majority of the South African population is entrenched in poverty due to unemployment. Prior to the global financial crisis in 2008, deep inequalities in income and wealth allowed limited wealth creation for the working class. The richest 10% of households captured around 40% of the national income in South Africa and around three quarters of new cre dit creation (Patel, 2010a:4).
2.3.2 Ecological crises
South Africa, like any country in the world, is faced with ecological crises linked to the destruction and depletion of natural resources by human activities. One of the consequences is that rising carbon dioxide (CO2) levels contributes to climate change (Monbiot, 2006). The country’s current economic growth model is resource- and energy-intensive, aggravating pressures on the environment and the threat of climate change (Montmasson-Clair, 2012).
The negative effects of global warming pose a threat to the survival of the human race, yet the human race continues exploiting natural resources, compromising the future functioning of natural systems and in so doing putting more and more people into vulnerable positions of compromised health, wellbeing and livelihoods (Katzschner, 2010). In terms of carbon emissions, South Africa was listed in the Human Development report for 2007/8, as number 12 of the global CO2 emitters in 2004. According to this report (UNDP, 2007), the country`s carbon footprint increased over the growth rate period between 1990 to 2004 of 32% and a population share of 0.7% in 1990 to 9.1% in 2004, from 9.1% CO2 emissions per capita in 1990 to 9.8% in 2004. The share of the world total CO2 emissions per capita remained at 1.5% in 1990 and 2004 (UNDP, 2007).
The Green Jobs Report (UNEP, 2008) compiled by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), indicates that the intersection of environment and employment comes
33 against the backdrop of a profound crisis in both of these areas. From this report it is c lear that there is growing recognition that humanity faces a severe environmental emergency and that modern economies have been built on a n unsustainable foundation. This is because activities ranging from agriculture and mining to manufacturing, services, and transportation rely on fossil fuels and generate copious amounts of pollution and waste. They also undermine critical ecosystems, eco-services, and life-support. The key challenges in this context are air and water pollution, hazardous wastes, deforestation, desertification, and overfishing (UNEP, 2008).
2.3.3 A green pathway out of poverty
Jones (2008) identifies the linkages between a social and ecological crisis in America which he refers to as the “dual crises” and he suggests the solution to both would be to create a green pathway out of poverty. What does this imply and can it be true for South Africa? Based on the work of Jones (2008), it is clear that the ecological and social crises impact both negatively and positively on each other.
The negative impact of the ecological crisis contributes to the social crisis, for example natural resources are being depleted, while at the same time the cost of energy generation is increasing (Irurah, 2003). This adds to the financial burden affecting the poorest of the poor in South Africa most acutely (Khan, 2008). Swilling and Annecke (2012) indicates that it is an extremely difficult task to eradicate poverty with the need to rebuild our eco-system services and natural resources and that South Africa is facing severe challenges in this regard.
The positive impact is that energy security becomes critical for economic development and can stimulate job creation. This is the emphasis found in President Zuma’s annual State of the National addresses (2011, 2012 and 2013). Through the Wh ite Paper on Energy Efficiency Strategy (2003), national targets were set in South Africa for an energy efficiency improvement of 12% by 2014. Energy efficiency is connected to renewable energy. If renewable energy is harvested, it can be referred to as clean energy, that is, energy that was not generated by the use of fossil fuels (Ururah, 2007). The harvesting of clean energy or renewable energy generation not
34 only provides jobs, but it also has a reduced impact on the earth’s natural resources compared to fossil fuels do (Ururah, 2007). For example, buildings can be designed or retrofitted to be weatherproofed against extreme climatic weather conditions to maximise energy efficiency, both of which impact positively on poverty alleviation through job creation (Jordaan, 2007). Patel (2010:5a) holds an ideological position and as a political leader in South Africa, and from this perspective he states that the world economy faces far-reaching changes as a result of efforts to reduce global warming. He continues to state that while efforts to control emissions will impose heavy costs, especially on relatively carbon-intensive economies like South Africa’s, there will also be opportunities for new industries that arise. For example, accelerating technological change promises to transform the world economy, with new job opportunities in areas such as biotechnology and nanotechnology (Patel, 2010a:3). It is important to note from t he above statements that Patel`s views (2010a) do not provide scientific evidence that could limited business-as-usual to open up opportunities for alternatives.
It is evident from the discussion above of the linkages between environmental and social factors that South Africa is also affected by the dual crises. If one of the solutions might be to create a green pathway out of poverty, it would necessitate building a green economy or inclusive low carbon and sustainable economy that is strong enough to lift millions of people out of poverty through green job creation. Montmasson-Clair (2012:4) supports this notion and states th at a green economy, as a ground-breaking way forward, needs to combine economic development, social welfare and environmental protection.
The next section will open with a discussion of the emergence of South Africa`s green economic development pathway, then look at the adoption of policy and research on green job potential thereafter.
2. 4 The trajectory of South Africa`s green economy
South Africa not only faces social, envi ronmental and financial challenges, but a maze of institutions is involved in working out a response to it (Montmasson-Clair, 2012:6). It is of
35 utmost importance to first unpack South Africa`s institutional structures (national, departmental, provincial and local municipality) that are regulating the green economy in order to identify the key policy players and their mandates before entering the next section on national and provincial policy. The clarification of the green governing bodies outlined by Montmasson-Clair (2012:6) is helpful to understand the green economic growth plans and potential green job projections, industries, funding and projects. The following summary by Montmasson-Clair (2012:6) is useful:
Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA): The National Strategy for Sustainable Development and Action Plan (NSSD) is the responsibility of the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA), but the National Planning Commission (NPC), a department of sustainable development in all but name, resides in the Presidency (it however have advisory powers only).
Economic Development Department (EDD): The green economy formulation of a New Growth Path (NGP) for the country falls under the EDD, but EDD only has direct control over the two main state-run development finance institutions: a) the Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) and b) the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC).
Department of Trade and Industry (the DTI): Support for green industry, but the DTI has to rely on other departments to implement measures aimed at green industries.
National Treasury (NT): Environmental fiscal reform (green taxes and subsidies which supports both green industries and the greening of the economy as a whole).
Department of Environmental Affairs: The DEA is responsible for the protection and restoration of ecosystems and the setting of environmental standards (e.g. for pollution or emissions).
Department of Energy (DoE) is in charge of issues relating to fossil fuels and renewable energy.
Department of Water Affairs: Falls under the same Minister as the DEA and is responsible for issues relating to water, and technology policy.
Department of Science and Technology (DST): Research and development (R&D), in particular the Global Change Grand Challenge.
Other departments: These include mining, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, transport, housing and local government and they all contribute to green economy activities and
36 thereby to green jobs at the sectorial level. (including mining, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, transport, housing and local government): Contribute to green economy activities and thereby to green jobs at the sectorial level.
2.4.1 National policy framework
The following aspects of regulatory development around the green ec onomy have been considered in thi s summary: a) government support, policy and market context; b) key challenges and priorities for the green economy and c) the government’s response strategy to climate change and environmental degradation. These considerations will only be briefly discussed to provide background.
Montmasson-Clair, (2012) conducted extensive research on South African policy responses and how the above-mentioned considerations support employment opportunities in the green economy. Montmasson-Clair provides a c hronological overview of South African policies related to the green economy and green jobs in the table 1 below. The summary includes policy measures, relevant goals, progress (2006 mid-2012) and the nature and level of civil society involvement in their establishment. This overview provides a contextual timeline to frame the green economy trajectory that will be discussed in more detail in the following paragraph.
Polices and measures
Main goals Progress (mid-2012) Civil society involvement
Framework for Environmental Fiscal Reform (NT, 2006).
Provides principles and guidelines for fair and effective environmental taxes.
Taxes and levies have been implemented on plastic bags,
incandescent light bulbs, ecosystem restoration costs related to water use, liquid fuel, non-renewable
electricity and new vehicle carbon dioxide emissions performance.
A paper on carbon tax was published in 2010 for public consultation.
Innovation Plan
(DST, 2008). Includes “safe, clean, affordable and reliable energy supply” and climate change as
Support for innovation in electric vehicles, fuel cells and carbon capture and storage, but
37 priorities. cancellation of the
country`s largest clean energy R&D
programme (the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor) and delay in the implementation of renewable energy demonstration projects (e.g. solar tower). Medium- Term
Strategic Framework 2009-2014 (NPC, 2009).
Notes the need for sustainable livelihoods and sustainable resource management and relates these to various other policy areas including energy, water, housing, technology and
competitiveness.
Numerous policy responses implemented in line with the
Medium-Term Strategic Framework, particularly the NSSD, the creation of an enabling
environment for renewable energy, several water
management projects and the National Climate Change Response Limited. National Development Plan (NPC, 2011b). The NDP is very specific about goals and focuses on energy and carbon: Greenhouse emissions to peak in 2025 and introduce carbon budgeting; An economy-wide
price for carbon and incentives for energy efficiency and managing waste better; 5 million SWHs by 2030; Vehicle emissions standards, zero emission building by 2030; Simplify the regulatory regime for contracting about 20 000 MW for renewable Greenhouse gas emissions may already be higher than levels committed for stabilization in 2025. A carbon tax with exemptions is expected in 2013. SWH installations stand at just over 200 000 in 2012 (compared to the targeted 2 million by 2014 and 2015). Tax carbon dioxide emissions of motor vehicles and new building energy efficiency regulations implemented.
Procurement has started on the first 3.7GW of electricity supply from renewable energy out of a plan for 17.8 GW by 2030.
The NPC is guided by nominated Commissioners from outside of
government (and business for the most part) and consulted publicly on the Development Plan based on an initial publication of a diagnostic document.
