The Impact of Narrative versus Informational Advertisements on Consumers’ Purchase Intentions.
Christina Eleni Skordili
Student Number: 11368470 Supervisor: Ms A. (Anne) Kranzbuhler Study programme: MSc Communication Science
Course: Master Thesis
Abstract
The present study examines two advertising types (i.e., narrative versus informational) regarding their impact on purchase intentions. In addition to this effect, perceived persuasive intent was measured as a mediator. Finally, the moderating role of message framing was tested between these two ad types. In order to test whether the hypotheses that we derived from theory were correct, we conducted a 2 x 2 between-subjects experimental design. Our participants were asked to indicate their purchase intentions after having viewed the ad and their perception of persuasive intent on the advertising message. Our analyses demonstrated that narrative advertisements are not more effective on generating consumers’ purchase intentions. Thus, our first hypothesis was rejected. Additionally, we claimed that narrative advertisements can decrease the perception of persuasive intent more than informational ads can; this would in turn lead to a greater impact of narrative ads on purchase intentions. Our results stated that perceived persuasive intent did not mediate the impact of narrative ads on consumers’ intentions, compared to their factual
equivalents. In our final two hypotheses, we argued that when narratives are framed positively, their impact on purchase intentions is more positive than when negatively framed. On the contrary, we stated that when informational ads are framed negatively, they are more fruitful on eliciting purchase intentions, compared to positively framed ones. Our data indicate that message framing did not moderate the effect of these ad types on purchase intentions. Therefore, both of these hypotheses were rejected. Notwithstanding that our results were not in line with theory, various implications are discussed in order to advance academics’ knowledge on consumer research and to contribute to marketers’ efforts to execute effective advertisements.
Introduction
The great amount of commercial messages on traditional and digital media causes consumers’ avoidance of or lack of attention to these messages nowadays (Gritten, 2007; Kelly, Kerr, & Drennan, 2010). Recent data indicate that viewers’ willingness to pay attention to ads has dramatically decreased over the years, ranging from 97% during the 1990s to less than 20% in 2012 (Teixeira, 2014). These notions signal the problem of advertising effectiveness and the subsequent need for advertisements which captivate consumers’ interest.
In line with this requirement, it is essential for academics and practitioners to scrutinize the advertising techniques which marketers use in their endeavours. To begin with, there are two approaches which are widely used in advertising; these are narrative and informational
advertising. Narrative advertisements present a story in which the product is integrated and most often regards a character’s experience with it (Escalas, 1998). On the other hand, informational advertisements provide factual information about product features and attributes (Milton, 1974).
As we review current research on the topic, we observe a controversy. Both of these advertisement types have been proven to have an impact on consumers’ purchase intentions but studies are not always on agreement regarding the most effective type of ad (Kaufman, 2003; Rossiter, Percy, Donovan, 1991; Stubb, 2018; Strahilevitz, & Myers, 1998). Thereby, it becomes conceivable to further examine these two advertisement types and conclude to relevant
assumptions regarding their impact on purchase intentions. Hence, our first research question addresses the following:
Research Question 1: To what extent do narrative advertisements have a positive impact on purchase intentions compared to informational advertisements?
Further, in the process of creating and executing advertisements, marketers aim at preventing consumers from perceiving their persuasive intentions. In other words, they intend to maintain a low profile on their attempts to persuade consumers to purchase a product or service because the latter identify these attempts (Van Noort, Antheunis, & Van Reijmersdal, 2012). This underlying process, namely perceived persuasive intent, has various implications on perceived ad quality and purchase intentions; when individuals do not perceive it to a great extent, they respond positively to advertisements (Reinhard, Messner, & Sporer, 2006; Tutaj, & Van Reijmersdal, 2012).
As narrative advertisements provide the viewer with the opportunity to get immersed in the story line, the latter’s counterarguments are most likely to be reduced (Chen, 2015; Chen, & Chang, 2017). Within the context of counterargumentation, we already acknowledge that
perceived persuasive intent is considered a negative parameter in advertising, as consumers tend to react negatively when they identify it (Friestad, & Wright, 1994). Therefore, our study will delve into the power of narrative ads to decrease perceived persuasive intent and subsequently lead to higher purchase intentions than informational ads do. Thus, our second research question is going to examine the following:
Research Question 2: To which extent does perceived persuasive intent mediate the impact of narrative advertisements?
Furthermore, both narrative and informational advertisements entail positive messages, stressing potential benefits as a result of product use. As such, advertisements can depict a very pleasant situation with the goal to create purchase motives. Nonetheless, an alternative technique highlights “losses” that are caused by not using the product and subsequently provides product
use as a solution. For example, the brand ‘Folliderm’ has advertised tablets to combat hair loss using the slogan “Scared of losing your hair?”.
These reversed perspectives from which advertisements are presented are termed as message frames. Research has demonstrated that when identical information is framed differently, individuals’ responses may suddenly become antipodal; Tversky and Kahneman (1985) presented the exact same problem with two alternative frames (i.e., positive and negative) and observed altered reactions, with respondents giving opposite answers to the same issues in question. Hence, investigating whether there is an interaction among the selected advertisement types and message framing and their subsequent impact on purchase intention would provide us with additional insights to achieve advertising effectiveness.
Research Question 3: To what extent does message framing moderate the impact of narrative advertisements on purchase intentions, compared to informational advertisements?
By scrutinizing these effects, we aim at adding to the existing literature on advertising effectiveness. More specifically, we contribute to the academics’ complex task to identify which advertising techniques generate favorable responses and motivate consumers to proceed to purchases. Furthermore, story-based advertisements constitute a prevalent category in this field, with approximately 25% of television ads in a narrative form (Escalas, 1998). Hence, it becomes essential to examine whether the underlying process of our expectation actually explains their effectiveness.
Apart from this, the role of message framing on intentions has been largely researched in other domains such as political and health communication (Homer, & Yoon, 1992; O'Keefe, & Jensen, 2007; Strömbäck, & Van Aelst, 2010); our study intends to extend these findings in the field of marketing communication and provide valuable evidence on their interaction with two
advertisement types. In this way, we expect to enrich academic knowledge on how consumers perceive advertisement types which appeal mainly to consumers’ emotion (i.e., narrative ads) in comparison with the ones that appeal to rationality (i.e., informational ads) (Berger, & Smith, 1997).
Ultimately, our purpose is to provide practitioners with the insight to understand not only which advertisement types are more persuasive compared to others but also why and when this occurs. By acknowledging what explains the causal relationship of ad type and purchase intentions and the factors that intervene in this relationship, we anticipate to bolster the design and implementation of effective advertising campaigns.
Theoretical Framework
Narrative and Informational Advertisements’ Impact on Purchase Intentions
Practitioners incorporate product information in a particular story and communicate their commercial message in a rather implicit manner through that story; this technique is termed as narrative advertising (Escalas, 1998; Milton, 1974). Narrative advertising’s primary goal is to create mental representations of the situation and actions being presented in the story and further to elicit a connection between the viewer and the storyline (Bower, & Morrow, 1990). The fact that these advertisements are often structured in a temporal sequence (i.e., beginning, middle part and end of the story) allows viewers to make inferences regarding a cause and result and
therefore connect to the story (Bruner, 1986; Escalas, 2004). Simultaneously, while viewing a narrative advertisement, consumers are inclined to get absorbed in it due to personal relevance or recall of a similar experience that they have had in the past (Hamby, Brinberg, & Daniloski, 2017; Moyer-Guse, 2008).
On the other hand, informational advertising is used with the goal to describe product attributes as well as benefits by product use (Milton, 1974). Within this context, advertisers present a series of arguments and attempt to appeal to consumers’ rationality in order to persuade them about their products’ functional value (Cutler, Thomas, & Rao, 2000; Stubb, 2018).
Both of these advertisement types have been researched extensively in order to identify each one’s effectiveness on consumers’ responses. Previous research indicates contradicting results, demonstrating that in some cases narrative advertisements are more effective than informational ones regarding viewers’ attitudes and purchase intentions (Kelley, & Littman, 2006; Lundqvist, Liljander, Gummerus, & Van Riel, 2013). Nonetheless, occasionally
informational advertisements have been more fruitful on purchase intentions than their narrative equivalents, especially for products that regard everyday life functions (Allen, & Preiss, 1997; Holbrook, 1978; Strahilevitz, & Myers, 1998).
All this evidence leads to the realization that there are certain gaps in our up-to-date knowledge regarding the comparative effectiveness of these two advertising types. Thus we intend to make an effort to fill in these gaps and contradictions. In our study, we support that narrative advertisements are expected to be more effective on generating purchase intentions compared to informational advertisements. To begin with, it has been demonstrated that
narratives attract viewers’ attention to a greater extent than factual advertisements (Stubb, 2018). A relevant explanation for this fact is that when compelling stories are used, viewers can get involved and transported to the world of the narrative (Mossberg, & Nissen-Johansen, 2006; Moyer-Guse, 2008; Stubb, 2018). Hence, they pay more attention to it than to an informational ad, as they are interested in finding out the end of the story-line (Escalas, 2004). Moreover, this
type of communication is considered more personal than a factual text and therefore offers the potential to build more trust among consumers and brands (Kaufman, 2003).
This initial attention which narrative advertisements captivate, along with a certain level of trust that they are capable of building, would make us infer that positive associations are created in consumers’ minds. Previous research confirms our beliefs, highlighting that viewers draw more positive feelings and higher degrees of enjoyment by narratives than their
informational counterparts; the combination of these elements leads to enhanced evaluations toward the advertised products and brands (Escalas, Moore, & Britton, 2004; Kim, Lloyd, & Cervellon, 2016; Mazzocco, Green, Sasota, & Jones, 2010; Polyorat et al., 2007).
Furthermore, it has long been recognized that product attitudes and subsequent evaluations are antecedents of purchase intentions in the consumer decision-making process (Belch, & Belch, 2015). Hence, since consumers evaluate products more favorably after having viewed narratives, compared to factual advertisements, our first hypothesis is the following:
Hypothesis 1: Narrative advertisements have a more positive impact on purchase intentions than informational advertisements.
Perceived Persuasive Intent
The expected greater effect of narrative than informational advertisements on purchase intentions can be explained through a series of underlying processes that result in this
expectation. Within the context of advertising, consumers acknowledge that marketers attempt to direct them to purchase a product or service through their ads and therefore develop mechanisms to resist these attempts; these mechanisms of resistance are summarized with the term
‘persuasion knowledge’ (Friestad, & Wright, 1994). As a solution, a presumably effective technique to overcome this resistance would be to use a narrative advertisement.
In doing so, advertisers have a greater potential to elicit viewers’ interest and involve them to the story (Moyer-Guse, 2008). As aforementioned, this process, namely narrative transportation, has a positive effect on preventing individuals from establishing
counterarguments to the content that they view (Chen, 2015; Chen, & Chang, 2017, Moyer-Guse, 2008). The anticipated superiority of narratives in this case concerns the structure of informational advertising. As practitioners highlight product features in an explicit way or even literally encourage purchases, individuals are more likely not only to activate their persuasion knowledge mechanisms but also develop negative ad attitudes (Friestad, & Wright, 1994; Van Noort et al., 2012; Van Reijmersdal, Neijens, & Smit, 2010).
Further, previous research on persuasion knowledge indicates that when individuals do not perceive a high degree of persuasive intent entailed in the message, they become more inclined to pay attention to it, consider it credible and therefore make relevant positive
associations toward it (Matthes, Schemer, & Wirth, 2007; Van Reijmersdal et al., 2010). This whole underlying process leads us to proceed to our second hypothesis, which supports the following:
Hypothesis 2: Narrative advertisements decrease consumers’ perceived persuasive intent, which in turn leads to a more positive impact on purchase intentions, compared to informational advertisements.
Message Framing
As our intention is to scrutinize narrative and informational advertisements, we are also going to examine whether the interaction among these two, and positive or negative ways to frame them, would have an impact on purchase intentions. In general, framing refers to ways in which we can present equivalent outcomes to individuals, either positively, highlighting benefits
or negatively, stressing losses (Chang, & Lee, 2010). These two perspectives are also used in advertising; marketers use positive framing to present potential gains by the use of a certain product or service with the goal to show the advantages of their brand (Grewal, Gotlieb, & Marmorstein, 1994). On the contrary, negative framing is used in order to initially create problem recognition to consumers; advertisers often describe a potentially unpleasant situation and then motivate consumers to change it by purchasing their product (Sirgy, 1987).
Within this context, previous research on this domain provides us with the insight to make certain inferences regarding the most suitable framing for each advertisement type. Research has demonstrated that when positive framing is included in an advertisement, viewers tend to evaluate it more favorably as their focal point is the outcome (Berger, & Smith, 1998; Smith, & Berger, 1996). Ultimately, consumers respond more favorably to positively framed messages than negative messages; positive messages encourage positive association-making and make them more inclined to agree with positive statements (Maheswaran, & Meyer-Levy, 1990).
In this study, we claim that positive framing is more effective on purchase intentions when used in narrative advertisements, compared to their negative equivalents. This expectation lies in the fact that narratives encourage viewers to get involved in the story and establish a connection with them (Moyer-Guse, 2008). Moreover, this type of advertising leads consumers to construct a meaning of a brand as a result of how the story ends; in other words, the outcome of the narrative has an effect on their perceptions regarding the brand’s meaning, also affecting their product evaluations (Escalas, 2004). As story-based advertisements entail a product-related experience and viewers are most likely to be involved in this experience, the feelings that the latter induces affect ad and brand evaluations accordingly (Boller, & Olson, 1991; Edell, &
Burke, 1987). Following the rationale which supports that evaluations have a subsequent effect on consumers’ intentions to buy a product (Belch, & Belch, 2015) we therefore expect that:
Hypothesis 3A: Narrative advertisements have a more positive impact on purchase intentions when they are framed positively, compared to negatively framed narrative advertisements.
On the contrary, as informational advertisements are based on the provision of arguments and product features in order to persuade, it becomes conceivable that individuals must process this information with a greater effort than narrative ad content (Chen, & Chaiken, 1999).
Previous studies on information processing indicate that when viewers receive negatively framed content, they tend to pay more attention to it, compared to a positively framed one and to
consequently allow it to influence their decisions (Kanouse, 1984; Weinberger, Allen, & Dillon, 1981). Further, it has long been recognized that individuals perceive losses as more intense than gains, a fact that makes them detect ways to prevent these potential losses (Tversky, &
Kahneman, 1985). Therefore, taking into consideration this evidence along with the fact that negative emotions often result in more effortful thinking compared to positive emotions (Keller, Lipkus, & Rimer, 2002), we hypothesize the following:
Hypothesis 3B: Informational advertisements have a more positive impact on purchase intentions when they are framed negatively, compared to positively framed informational advertisements.
Method Research Design
The study employed a 2 (narrative versus informational) x 2 (positive framing versus negative framing) between-subjects experimental design in order to examine which
advertisement types and message frames have a more positive impact on purchase intentions, compared to their opposite equivalents. Participants were exposed to content that included the same image but altered versions of the text across conditions (the image and the four versions of the text can be found at the Appendix). For the narrative condition, we presented a story of a girl who uses the advertised product and her experience with it. On the contrary, for the
informational condition, we only provided information regarding the products’ features.
The two aforementioned advertisement types were framed either positively or negatively. We reviewed previous studies that had already employed a successful manipulation in order to measure message framing and adapted them to our conditions (Chang, & Lee, 2010). More specifically, for the positive narrative condition, we presented the story in such a way that highlighted potential benefits of the character by using the product. On the other hand, the negative narrative condition stressed potential losses of the character by not using the product and then provided the latter as a solution to these losses. Following the same logic, the positive informational condition contained information about the benefits of the product and the negative informational one stated the losses that can be avoided by using the product.
Pretest.
To determine whether the stimuli that we manipulated would be perceived by our participants as intended, we conducted a pretest that entailed the four conditions that we would then use for the main study. Out of our total sample (N = 17), 12 participants were female and 5 were male. Moreover, their mean age was M = 29.29, SD = 11.27 and 15 of them were Greeks, while two others were Lithuanian and Armenian, respectively.
We used a four-item scale in order to measure the extent to which participants would perceive our conditions according to our expectations; our items are the following: ‘This post
presents the experience of the consumers who will use the product.’, ‘This post presents information about the product.’, ‘This post emphasizes the benefits of the consumers who will use the product.’, ‘This post stresses the risks that consumers will avoid if they use the product.’, (α = .49, M = 19.31, SD = 4.87). The first three items were measured in a seven-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly disagree, 7 = Strongly agree) whereas the last one was coded reversely (i.e., 1 = Strongly agree, 7 = Strongly disagree). In this way, we aimed at checking whether
participants had indeed paid attention to the stimulus.
We then conducted four independent samples t-tests in order to analyze our conditions' mean differences. Our first analysis indicated that the mean scores of the narrative condition (M = 6.25, SD = 0.46) were significantly higher (t(14) = -3.60, p = .03) than the ones of the
informational condition (M = 3.75, SD = 1.90) regarding the degree to which our respondents identified the narrative. On the other hand, participants perceived the informational condition as more informational (M = 5.50, SD = 1.41) than the narrative one (M = 3.75, SD = 1.90) and their difference was marginally significant (t(12.91) = 2.08, p = .06). The third t-test demonstrated that respondents who received the positive frame recognized the benefits in the advertisement (M = 5.43, SD = 1.51) as opposed to the ones who received the negative frame (M = 3.22, SD = 2.11) Their mean difference was significant (t(13.95) = -2.44, p = .03). Ultimately, respondents with the negatively framed condition indicated that they perceived risk avoidance (M = 3.11, SD = 2.37), compared to the ones with the positively framed condition (M = 1.71, SD = .49) but the difference was not significant (t(14) = 1.52, p = .15). Thus, taking into account these results, we adapted our conditions before proceeding to the main study.
Our sample was self-selected as we applied no exclusionary criteria with regard to participant selection. In the following analysis, responses by 191 participants have been
examined; after having explored our data for outliers and incomplete sessions, we found that 63 respondents spent either excessive or insufficient time filling in the questionnaire or did not complete it. Moreover, three respondents did not indicate their gender; of those who did, 70 were males (36.6%) and 118 females (61.8%).
Regarding their age, we had provided nine age categories which participants could select (i.e., 1 = under 18, 2 = 18-24, 3 = 25-34, 4 = 35-44, 5 = 45-54, 6 = 55-64, 7 = 65-74, 8 = 75-84, 9 = 85 or older). The mean age of our participants was M = 2.75 (i.e., From 18 to 34 years old, age categories 2 and 3). Figure 1 below provides more specific information regarding our
Figure 1. Participants’ age categories.
In order to measure our respondents’ education level, we included five education level categories (i.e., 1 = Primary education, 2 = Secondary education, 3 = Bachelor or equivalent, 4 = Master or equivalent, 5 = Doctoral or equivalent). Their mean score on education was M = 3.19 (i.e., Bachelor or equivalent, category 3), SD = .83. Figure 2 indicates our sample’s education categories in detail.
Figure 2. Participants’ education categories. Measures
Purchase intentions. Our dependent variable was presented to participants after they had viewed the stimulus. In order to measure it and therefore examine our first hypothesis, we used an established four-item, seven semantic scale (Li, Daugherty, & Biocca, 2002). The scale asked the degree to which participants were to purchase the advertised product and included the items “unlikely-likely”, “improbably-probably”, “uncertainly-certainly” and “definitely-definitely not” (a = 0.79, M = 3.00, SD = 1.90). The values of the last item (i.e., “definitely-definitely not”) were
then re-coded as reversed in order to analyze the data, resulting in the following values; 1 = 7, 2 = 6,..., 7 = 1.
Perceived persuasive intent. We used perceived persuasive intent as a mediating variable between the narrative advertisement and purchase intentions. In order to measure the degree to which participants perceived the persuasive intent of the stimulus, we used a one-item, seven-point Likert scale, asking participants to indicate the extent to which they agreed with the
statement “This campaign is created to persuade.” (M = 5.05, SD = 1.39). (Rozendaal, Buijzen, & Valkenburg 2010; Van Noort et al., 2012; Van Reijmersdal et al., 2010).
Procedure
For our main experiment, we conducted an online questionnaire including one of our four conditions on the Qualtrics platform. Hence, participants were randomly assigned to one of the four following conditions: narrative advertisement with positive framing, narrative advertisement with negative framing, informational advertisement with positive framing, informational
advertisement with negative framing. The distribution of the questionnaire was done through the researcher's social media platforms (i.e., Facebook, Instagram and LinkedIn accounts), where every user could complete the survey. The data collection started on January 5, 2018 and ended on January 10, 2018. The questionnaire included a briefing, where respondents were informed about the topic of the survey and were guaranteed that the anonymity of their responses would remain safe.
After having agreed to participate to the study, respondents were informed about the fact that they would be exposed to an advertising post which they were being asked to evaluate. This indication was used in order to highlight the importance of paying attention to the stimulus being presented (Chang, & Lee, 2010). Then, they were randomly assigned to one of the four
aforementioned conditions. All of the four versions of the advertisements were featured on an Instagram account, including a collage of photographs with a young woman, a box of vitamins and strawberries. The collage was made by the researcher in order to match the advertised product (i.e., Vitamin) and as aforementioned, can be found in our Appendix.
A fictitious brand namely ‘BrightVit’ was used in order to ensure that participants did not have prior attitudes toward the brand when they were exposed to the stimulus. As we were interested in measuring purchase intentions, we first asked participants to indicate the degree to which they would purchase the advertised product, after having read the advertisement (Li, Daugherty, & Biocca, 2002).
Afterwards, respondents were asked to rate the extent to which the post was created for persuasive purposes in order to measure our mediating variable of perceived persuasive intent (Rozendaal, Buijzen, and Valkenburg 2010; Van Noort, Antheunis, & Van Reijmersdal, 2012; Van Reijmersdal et al. 2010). The next section of the questionnaire contained four manipulation check questions,regarding the attributes of the post that each participant had viewed. More specifically, we asked whether the post included a story or product features. Moreover, two questions addressed message framing, asking whether the post stressed benefits or risk avoidance, respectively. The last part of the questionnaire contained demographic questions; respondents were asked to indicate their gender, age, nationality and education level. Ultimately, we thanked the respondents for their participation in our study.
Results Manipulation Check
We conducted a manipulation check in order to examine whether participants identified correctly the stimulus to which they had been assigned. Moreover, our pretest results indicated
marginal significance in the perceived degree of information between the informational and narrative conditions (t(12.91) = 2.08, p = .06), and no significance in the perceived risk
avoidance between the positively and negatively framed conditions (t(14) = 1.52, p = .15). Thus, we intended to check whether that our updated manipulations were indeed successful and
correctly adapted.
Hence, four chi-square tests of independence were performed. The first chi-square analysis between the narrative advertisement condition and the narrative manipulation question was significant with 81.5% of the sub-group identifying this condition correctly, [ x2 (1, N = 190) = 7.86, p = .005]. As for the successful manipulation of the informational advertisement, our results showed that it was also significant; 75.5% of the participants recognized the stimulus correctly [ x2 (1, N = 190) = 42.49, p = .000].
Regarding the type of framing, 87.8% of the respondents who received the positively framed condition indicated that they did so [ x2 (1, N = 190) = 3.70], but the relation between the stimulus and the relevant question was not significant ( p = .05). On the other hand, the relation between the negatively framed condition and the respective manipulation question was
significant [ x2 (1, N = 190) = 8.95, p = .003] with 32.6% of the respondents identifying the negative frame in the stimulus.
Hypothesis Testing
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to examine whether a narrative advertisement would have a more positive influence on viewers’ intentions to purchase,
compared to an informational advertisement (Hypothesis 1). Our analysis demonstrated that there was a non-significant difference in the scores for the narrative (M = 2.93. SD = 1.51) and
results suggest that narrative advertisements do not positively influence viewers’ intentions to purchase a product to a greater extent than informational advertisements do. Thus, our first hypothesis is rejected.
Our second hypothesis suggested that narrative advertisements lead to lower perceptions of persuasive intent on behalf of the advertisers, which in turn result in participants’ increased intentions to purchase. The method that we used for the mediation analysis is Model 4 by Hayes PROCESS-macro in SPSS (Hayes, 2013) with 5000 bootstrap samples in order to estimate the bias corrected bootstrap confidence intervals. In our analysis, the narrative advertisement (1) and informational advertisement (2) conditions were included as two levels of an independent
variable. The mediation model with purchase intentions as a dependent variable was examined (n = 187). The results first indicated that the advertisement type did not predict perceived
persuasive intent. Individuals who were exposed to the narrative advertisement condition perceived persuasive intent by .18 units less than the ones who received the informational advertisement condition [b = -.18, F(177) = -.86, p = .39] but path a was not significant
[F(1,177) = -.74, R2 = .004, p = .39]. Furthermore, perceived persuasive intent positively affected purchase intentions [b = .022, t(176) = .26, p = .79] but the effect was again not significant [R2 = .0007, F(2,176) = .07, p = .94]. Ultimately, the bootstrapped confidence interval for the indirect effect (ab = .-.004 , SE = .02) included zero [-.0745, .0276]. Hence, our second hypothesis was rejected; narrative advertisements did not generate lower perceptions of persuasive intent and subsequently did not lead to higher purchase intentions than informational ads did.
For our two moderator hypotheses, we first conducted a two-way (factorial) ANOVA. Our data met the requirements for the analysis (Field, 2009); as Levene’s test demonstrated that there is an equal variance across groups [F(3,175) = .27, p = .85]. Hypothesis 3A proposed that
the impact of narrative advertisements is more positive when they are framed positively (M = 3.20, SD = 1.56 ), in comparison with negatively framed narratives (M = 2.86, SD = 1.56). On the other hand, Hypothesis 3B suggested that informational advertisements have a more positive effect on the intention to purchase when they have a negative frame (M = 2.91, SD = 1.45), compared to positively framed informational advertisements (M = 3.05, SD = 1.44). In accordance with our previous tests, the analysis demonstrated a non-significant main effect of narrative advertisements on purchase intentions, F(1) = .044, p = .14. Furthermore, the interaction between the advertisement type (narrative vs informational) and the framing type (positive versus negative) was also insignificant, F(1) = .18, p = .67. Notwithstanding that the interaction between these variables was not significant, we further analyzed our data in order to confirm our hypotheses, conducting two independent-sample t-tests. Thus, we found that participants who received the positive narratives had slightly higher intentions to purchase the product (M = 3.20, SD = 1.56) compared to the ones who received negative narratives (M = 2.86, SD = 1.56), but their mean difference was not significant (t(82.33) = .99, p = .32). Our second t-test indicated that respondents exposed to the negative informational condition (M = 2.90, SD = 1.45) had lower purchase intentions than the ones with the positive informational condition (M = 3.05, SD = 1.44) but their differences were again not significant (t(89.72) = .48, p = .63). Thereby, Hypothesis 3A and Hypothesis 3B are rejected; The type of frame used in an advertisement does not moderate viewers’ purchase intentions.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to identify effective advertisements that generate consumers’ purchase intentions to a greater extent than their differently presented and framed equivalents. More specifically, we tested whether narratives, compared to informational advertisements,
increase consumers’ intentions to buy the product or service being advertised. Additionally, we claimed that the degree to which viewers perceive the persuasive attempts on behalf of the advertisers explains the impact of a narrative advertisement on purchase intentions; we therefore assumed that a narrative advertisement would decrease perceived persuasive intent, which in turn would elicit greater willingness to purchase a product. Ultimately, we examined the possibility of interaction between framing (i.e., positive versus negative) and advertising type, and whether this interaction would alter the effects of the two aforementioned advertisement types on purchase intentions.
Our results indicate that regarding our first research question and corresponding hypothesis (i.e., Hypothesis 1), viewers did not demonstrate higher purchase intentions when they viewed a narrative advertisement, in comparison with an informational advertisement. This evidence is not in line with findings from previous research, stating that a narrative generates more attention than a factual ad and subsequently leads to better evaluations and higher
intentions to purchase (Escalas, Moore, & Britton, 2004; Polyorat et al., 2007; Lundqvist et al., 2013).
A possible explanation for this contradiction between theory and our findings is the choice of product that we used for our advertising posts. We determined to select a vitamin because it is a product aiming at both male and female consumers and can also target various age categories. Nonetheless, it is possible that when a health-related product is presented, consumers perceive an informational advertisement as more credible and require specific product attributes in order to become inclined to buy it. As aforementioned in the theoretical section of our study, there have been cases where informational advertisements have functioned as effectively as story-based ones, or even better (Allen, & Preiss, 1997; Holbrook, 1978). Thus, additional
research examining the potentially moderating role of different product categories would shed more light to these contrasts among studies.
Our analyses further demonstrated that in this study, perceived persuasive intent did not entail an important role in shaping consumers’ intentions to buy the product. More accurately, there was a slight difference between viewers of narrative and informational content, with the first category having lower perceptions of persuasive intent; nonetheless, the results did not have a statistically significant difference, allowing us to infer that this difference was due to chance.
Furthermore, the perception of persuasive intent did not lead to higher purchase intentions, answering to our second research question and corresponding hypothesis (i.e., Hypothesis 2). These results also contradict evidence from previous studies which indicate that narrative ads would decrease persuasive intent more than informational ads (Friestad, & Wright, 1994; Moyer-Guse, 2008) and that lower perceptions of persuasive intent lead to better brand attitudes and purchase intentions (Van Noort et al., 2012; Van Reijmersdal et al., 2010). The justification of this incongruity is presumably connected to our first hypothesis’ results, along with the fact that we had informed our respondents beforehand that they would view an advertisement, resulting in similar degrees or perceived persuasive intent among participants.
Finally, our third research question addressed the importance of positive versus negative framing on interacting with advertisement types and leading to purchase intentions. According to our results, positively framed narratives were not more effective on generating purchase
intentions than negative narratives, and also negatively informational ads did not lead to willingness to purchase to a greater extent than the positively informational ones. These facts indicate that these two versions of framing did not affect consumers’ intentions as we initially expected.
Previous relevant literature indicated that narratives elicit more emotions than informational ads and consequently these narratives would be more effective on purchase intentions when framed positively (Edell, & Burke, 1987; Moyer-Guse, 2008; Berger, & Smith, 1998; Smith, 1996). Furthermore, it has been stated that negative framing leads to systematic processing of information (Keller et al., 2002) which in turn can presumably increase consumers’ need for cognition and positively impact their product evaluations (Maheswaran, & Meyer-Levy, 1990). A potential cause for consumers’ similar reactions in this study, despite the different framings presented, is that the narrative has not been powerful enough to elicit intense
emotionality. Moreover, albeit that negative framing was perceived as such, the degree to which it was perceived might have not been sufficient to make a difference and activate participants’ need for cognition. It is possible that viewers might not have considered the risk of not using the product high enough to make a purchase in the case of a vitamin product.
Theoretical and Practical Implications
This paper extends the body of research on advertising effectiveness. More specifically, we demonstrate that there are cases in which consumers evaluate narrative and informational advertisements equally. In doing so, they perceive persuasive intent to the same extent across these two advertisement types. As this occurs, consumers’ decisions and attitudes toward purchases are not altered, despite the different advertisement type that they may view.
Furthermore, to the author’s knowledge, the moderating effect of positive and negative framing on narrative versus informational advertisements has not been studied extensively in combination. This notion makes our results contributory to the contradicting ones of previous research regarding framing in advertising.
Within the context of framing, we further add to theory that according to our results from the pretest and main study, only a small proportion of consumers identified the negative frame. This confirms previous research on risk appeals; when individuals perceive a degree of risk in a certain situation, there is a possibility to feel susceptible to it and end up to defensive avoidance or denial (Witte, & Allen, 2000).
Apart from theoretical implications, this study also has to offer evidence that can be implemented by advertisers in order to design their content accordingly. Albeit the fact that some advertising techniques might suit better to certain product or service advertisements, on occasion a story-based ad can be as effective as the presentation of product attributes. Thereby, thriving to present a very compelling narrative would not necessarily be the reason of a successful
advertising campaign. Practitioners should rather focus on having valuable points to present to the audience than determining to shape them in an informational or narrative context. As far as framing is concerned, advertisers can take into consideration that the way in which they
construct advertising messages potentially entails a secondary role; either aiming at highlighting benefits by product use or offering their product as a solution to a potential problem, consumers’ perceptions may not differ.
Limitations
The current study comes with a number of practical limitations. First, we used a fictitious brand, meaning that viewers had no prior attitudes, product knowledge or information regarding the credibility of the company. These parameters were required in order to examine comparable evidence which is not based on other reasons such as positive or negative brand attitudes. Nevertheless, in the case of a healthcare product (i.e., vitamin), consumers might need to build trust with the brand before proceeding to any purchases. In the same context, it has been
recognized that low-involvement and high-involvement products can lead to different results (Vashist, 2018). Therefore, our choice of product category might have been responsible for these results.
In addition, another limitation could be our choice of stimulus manipulation. While we had conducted a pretest study and altered our stimuli according to these results, the reliability of our initial scales was not acceptable. Furthermore, the manipulation check of the main study was only marginally successful. In other words, the fact that viewers did not perceive our stimuli correctly to the greatest extent is an issue with potential consequences to our results.
Moreover, we used a standard advertising methodology, asking our respondents to evaluate the product that they viewed in the advertisement. Probably the fact that this evaluation was within an experimental context and did not assimilate to a real-life setting made our
respondents more critical to their reactions.
Further, our narrative text was relatively longer than the informational one as we aimed at presenting a short story about a product user. This element might have resulted in higher or lower levels of attention on behalf of our participants. Since reading a longer text requires a longer viewing time, the receivers of the narrative text might have indicated increased attention and became more involved with the content than the ones who viewed the informational text (Danaher, & Mullarkey, 2003).
Ultimately, regarding the generalizability of our results, it is essential to state that our sample lacked cultural variability. The vast majority of our participants were Greeks, a fact which implies that responses may differ among other contexts and populations.
As we identified that narrative and informational advertisements may lead to equal intentions to purchase, future researchers can investigate a combination of these methods. More specifically, we propose testing a type of advertisement that integrates a story and presents factual information about the product, in order to scrutinize how consumers would respond to such a stimulus. Nonetheless, this type of advertisement would better suit to a video format rather than a print ad or written advertising post on digital media. The combination of spoken and animated visual communication is considered the a more effective way to communicate a message that is considered rather complex to understand (Meppelink, Van Weert, Haven, & Smit, 2015).
Additionally, it would be fruitful for academics to examine this topic in various cultural contexts in order to make assumptions on consumers’ reactions to narrative versus informational advertisements and also on whether the type of framing can alter these results. In line with that, researching these advertisement types among different genders, age groups and educational levels could provide academia with valuable information regarding individuals’ attitudes and intentions.
Future research can also replicate this study using existing brands, after having measured prior attitudes and having ensured that they are not positive or negative enough to influence consumers’ responses and purchase intentions. Finally, as advertisers increasingly use digital media to communicate advertising messages, a comparison among different social media would probably be an interesting topic to research in the future.
Conclusions
Our study examined the impact of narrative versus informational advertisements on consumers’ intentions to purchase a product of a fictitious brand that we created for the purposes
of our experimental study. We used four different versions of the same text, altering a few selected parts in order to ensure that these versions would be comparable. Our results showed that the type of advertisement neither influences viewers’ intentions to buy the advertised product, nor their perceptions of persuasive intent. Moreover, positive and negative framing in these advertisements did not indicate any differences regarding their purchase intentions.
Despite the fact that our initial hypotheses were not confirmed, we believe that negative results also constitute a valuable contribution to the field of research on advertising effectiveness and points out the requirement for additional examination of potential effects of narrative and informational advertisements. As media and their role in society continuously develop over time and digital media in particular have the potential to alter our perceptions toward advertising, research on advertising effectiveness is a constant issue that academics and practitioners shall focus their interest on.
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Appendix Image Collage Accompanying the Four Conditions
Condition A
Narrative advertisement text with positive framing.
Meet Alex: She is a 30-year-old former athlete and now works as a brand manager at a sports company. No matter the countless hours she spends at the office, she has the energy to follow her workout routine every evening. She is always searching for ways to feel young and energized: She loves cooking and keeping her body clean so she is constantly searching for new recipes online. At some point, her colleague and gym baddy, Josh started wondering how she
manages to work out all the time and asked her “how on earth do you do it?”. She answered with only one word: ‘BrightVit!. She maintains her well-being and feels positive every day! She enjoys the benefits of this vitamin and lives her life to the fullest. So if you want to start conquering the day, what are you waiting for? Get your vitamins today!”
Condition B
Narrative advertisement text with negative framing.
Meet Alex: She is a 30-year-old former athlete and now works as a brand manager at a sports company. No matter the countless hours she spends at the office, she doesn't lack the energy to follow her workout routine every evening. She never stops searching for ways not to feel old and lose energy: She loves cooking and keeping her body clean so she is constantly searching for new recipes online. At some point, her colleague and gym baddy, Josh started wondering how she manages not to miss a single workout and asked her “how on earth do you do it?”. She answered with only one word: ‘BrightVit!. She got her well-being back and no longer feels negative every day. She stays away from health risks and lives her life to the fullest. So if you don't want to just survive the day, what are you waiting for? Get your vitamins today! Condition C
Informational advertisement text with positive framing.
Do you work countless hours at the office but want to have the energy to hit the gym after work every evening? Do you want your colleagues to start wondering “how on earth do you do it?” If you answered yes to these questions, we can help you achieve it! BrightVit helps to maintain your well-being and unlock your energy levels so that you feel positive every day. Enjoy the health benefits that BrightVit gives you and live your life to the fullest. BrightVit includes: Vitamin B6: Release your energy. Calcium: Maintain your bones healthy.
Antioxidants: Support your immune system. So if you want to start conquering the day, what are you waiting for? Get your vitamins today!
Condition D
Informational advertisement text with negative framing.
Do you work countless hours at the office but don't have the energy to hit the gym after work every evening? Do you wonder how on earth do your colleagues do it? If you answered yes to these questions, we can help you change this! BrightVit will help you to get your well-being back and unlock your energy levels so that you no longer feel negative every day. Stay away from health risks by using BrightVit and live your life to the fullest. BrightVit includes:
Vitamin B6: Don't hold your energy back. Calcium: Prevent bone damage. Antioxidants: Avoid encumbering your immune system. So if you don't want to just survive the day, what are you waiting for? Get your vitamins today!
