THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AN AFFIRMATIVE ACTION STRATEGY I N A LARGE SOUTH AFRICAN ORGANISATION
A.M.M MONATE
B.A., H.E.D., B.A. HONS.
Dissertation submitted for the degree Magister Artium in the School of Behavioural Sciences at the Vaal Triangle Campus of the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education
Study leader: Prof. C de W van Wyk
Vanderbijlpark November 2000
PREFACE
With the fulfillment of this study I would like to give all the Glory and the Honour to God my Creator and Father for the strength H e laid upon me through hardship in completion of this study and, not forgetting the skills as well as the knowledge bestowed upon me. Further I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to the following people whom with their support and assistance made it possible for me to complete this study:
Prof C . de W. van Wyk, my study leader, for his understanding, patience and guidance through out this study.
The company, who wishes to remain anonymous, who gave the opportunity to do this research within their organisation. Managers and employees participated in good spirit in the research and gave willingly their time and interest for the benefit of my studies.
The financial assistance o f the Centre for Science Development (HSRC, South Africa) towards this research is hereby acknowledged.
The personnel of Ferdinand Postma Library (Vaal Triangle campus - P U For CHE) for their help in providing me with the relevant information where necessary.
Mrs Aldine Oosthuyzen, for her advice and assistance with the statistical analysis. My parents, Isaac and Phyllis, who built the confidence in me and provided their unconditional love and support throughout the years.
My cousin, Lucky Mogashana for the spiritual inspiration laid upon me as well as the neat and diligence typing of my last chapter, not forgetting Charles, my other cousin for re-typing other chapters after the evaluation by examiners.
My colleaques, Sheldon Klein, in translation of the summary, questionnaire and respondents' letter into Afrikaans until the late hours of the night. My other colleague, John Coetzee, for double-checking the Afrikaans translation and for the language editing of this research. I also thank two other colleques namely, Gift Moima and Samson Nolo for re-doing some of the graphs after evaluation.
My ex-study mates, Lehasa and Bassie, for 'rubber-stamping' on the interpretation of the research results.
My sister, Queenie, for her concerns and enduring all my emotions. My four brothers, for always believing in me as well as loving me.
Vanderbijlpark November 2000
I
dedicate this to my parents, Isaac and Phyllis Monate.To my four brothers, Norman, James, Jeremia and Marcus as well as my sister, Queenie.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM SETTING
Introduction
Setting of the problem
The nature and extent of the problem The goal of the study
Demarcation of study fields Method of research
Literature study Empirical study Key reference words Affirmative action
Equal employment opportunit Managing diversity
Quotas
Reverse discrimination Development of concepts
CHAPTER
2THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Introduction
A few theories of social change Evolutionary theories
Herbert Spencer Auguste Comte Emile Durkheim
Cyclic or Rise-and- fall theory Pitirim Sonkin
Oswald Spengler
Talcott Parson's Equilibrium theory Theories of conflicts
Karl Marx Ralf Dahrenorf
2.3 Application of the social change theories 25
2.4 The concept of 'affirmative action' 26
2.4.1 The origin of affirmative action 27
2.4.2 Affirmative action in Southern Africa - A Historical perspective 28
2.5 Conclusion 3 0
CHAPTER 3
THEORETICAL BASE WHEN DISCUSSING AFFIRMITIVE ACTION
Introduction
The nature of affirmative action Managing diversity
Defining affirmative action Targeting imbalances of the past Legislating affirmative action
Implementing an affirmative action programme Establishing an affirmative action policy and strategy Involvement of all employees
Conclusion
CHAPTER 4
EFFECTS OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION ON ORGANISATIONS
Introduction
Reasons for implementing affirmative action Affirmative action objectives
Results of affirmative action Advantages
Disadvantages
Affirmative action and change The need for change
The dynamics of change The management of change Change agent
Resistance to change
Managing resistance to change Empathy and support
Communication
Participation and involvement Current affirmative action models
The assimilationhtegration/'osmosis' model Displacement model
Job insertion or 'wedge' model
The vertical differentiation or separate development model The organic growth model
The role of affirmative action in Industrial Relations and Human Resources Management
The role of the employer
Demographics underpinning affirmative action The role of the trade unions
The role of the state
A stakeholder approach to affirmative action
Managing Director and member of the group management team Chief Executive Officer
The monitoring committee Line management
Human Resources
Training and development department Trade unions and staff associations Problems with affirmative action
Causes of affirmative action programmes failure Success measurement of affirmative action
A local development model Conclusion
CHAPTER
5RDP AND EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Six basic principles of the RDP
5.2.1 An integrated and sustainable programme 5.2.2 A people driven process
5.2.3 Peace and security for all 5.2.4 Nation building
5.2.5 Link Reconstruction and Development 5.2.6 Democratisation of South Africa
The key programmmes of the
RDP
Meeting basic needs
Developing Human Resources Building the economy
Democratising the state and society Implementing the RDP
RDP and affirmative action Affirmative action targets
The experience of affirmative action in other countries Suggestions for affirmative action in South Africa Employment Equity Bill and Affirmative Action The Bill has two main objectives
Productive affirmative action Development
Advancement Integration
A combination of all three dimensions
Affirming Equal Opportunity for White males The upliftment of Black employees employees Preferential treatment
Gender and affirmative action Stance on Black and White women Disability and affirmative action
Objective and inherent requirements of the job Duty to make reasonable accommodation A South African perspective
Conclusion
CHAPTER 6
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Introduction
Choice of company for research Sampling designs
Sample population Measuring instrument Means of date interpretation Results and research findings Section A: Biographical data
Gender of the sample population The age of the sample population School qualification of respondents Qualifications of respondents Ethnic group of the respondents
Knowledge of the respondents regarding affirmative action Section B: Change and affirmative action
Section C: Effects of affirmative action Conclusion
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Findings of the study
7.3 Conclusion and Recommendations made during the study 7.3.1 Proposed affirmative action strategy
7.3.1.1 Human Resources Practices 7.4 Future research perspectives
APPENDIX A: The questionnaire APPENDIX B: Die Vraelys ABSTRACT
OPSOMMING BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Proposals for the steps of affirmative action should concentrate on 33 Figure 2 Affirmative action policy statement-examination of content 4 5
areas
Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 1 1 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30
Affirmative action support person or specialist roles and 4 7 responsibilities
The affirmative action strategy formulation and implementation 5 1 process
Developing action and people development strategy 5 2
Performance dimensions 57
Line management 64
Affirmative action means and goals 67
Activities contributing to Effective Change Management 74
Managing resistance 79
Percentage of blacks in Eskom 106
The various forms of unfair discrimination in employment 115 Dimensions of affirmative action (two-dimensional) 120 Dimensions of affirmative action (three dimensional) 12 1
Gender of the sample population 136
Comparison between age and gender 152
Age of the sample population 137
Highest standard passed 137
Qualifications of the sample population 138
Ethnic group of the respondents 139
Knowledge of affirmative action 139
Factors contributing to resistance t o change 144
Meaning of affirmative action 145
Application of affirmative action 146
Inclusion of stakeholders in affirmative action implementation 147
Mechanisms to change people's attitudes 148
Communication preference 150
Availability of information regarding afirmative action 151 Information concerning future success of affirmative action 152
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 The following summarizes the Approach of affirmative Action 50
Table 2 Workforce composition 8 3
Table 3 Black and white fears 9 1
Table 4 Company Y demographic Composition 9 5
Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 Table 14 Table 15 Table 16 Table 17 Table 18 Table 19 Table 20
Levels of affirmative action regarding blacks in South Africa 122 A-F Band distribution of Women per race 1994 - 1996 127
Knowledge of affirmative action 140
Comparison between age and gender 15 1
Experience if change within organisations 141
Affirmative action strategies, as a means of change implemented 142 by force
The necessity to manage change 142
Resistance to change need to be managed 143
Indicating that, managers are trained to manage diversity 144 Explaining affirmative action as part of business and as 147 HR strategy
Explaining the development programs equally available to all staff 148 Depicting how people or employees values training efforts within 149 the Enterprise
Indicating affirmative action as advantageous to the organisations 149 Depicting reasons of affirmative action programme 150
New affirmative action strategy 165
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.1 INTRODUCTION
South Africa is in the process of change and transition. Many organisations within South Africa are facing continuous change. MacDonald (1996:vii) states that South Africa is a diverse nation with a cosmopolitan society. There are many different cultures, each with its own ways and beliefs. South Africa is a new nation, focusing specifically on a non- racial, non-sexist democracy with equal representation on all levels. Affirmative action, as in the new legislation, has a very important role to play within this new dispensation. Rather than resist the reform process, one must concentrate on managing it.
In past decades the rate of change for organisations was relatively slow. As the concept of affirmative action has become a reality, many South African organisations are faced with a challenge of implementing affirmative action programmes. These imminent changes generate a great deal of resistance to the implementation of affirmative action that is needed to provide a competitive advantage (Nel, 1994: 15). This view is also supported by Brews and Martins (1997:22) who are of the opinion that there is a harsh resistance by whites, as they continue to feel threatened by the mere reference to affirmative action and where code words like "quotas" and "reverse discrimination abound.
Several reasons why people resist affirmative action are the following:
Lack of self-confidence. When people must learn new skills, accept more responsibilities, or take on challenges that stretch their abilities, they are apt to feel inadequate for the task.
Lack of trust. Management may feel that employees should not be involved in the planning stages for a transition about how and when it should take place. Employees may not believe what management tells them. This lack of trust may mean that if affirmative action, as a change, is forced on employees, it may leave in its wake reduced productivity, resentment and even greater distrust of management.
The ability to adapt to change has become a prerequisite n the dynamic business world. In an interview with Matela, a Labour Relations Manager (1998) of Vereeniging Refractories, he said that most organisations find that their particular implementation strategies of affirmative action have shortcomings but within the organisation that the research is to be conducted, the following shortcomings might be identified:
Lack of strategic planning for Black management development in organisations There is often a lack of mutual understanding of stresses and problems related to a specific cultural group, resulting in inadequate support systems (Matela, 1998). The inequalities between individuals and groups mentioned in the demarcation of the study field (see section 1.5 of this chapter) may bring about these shortcomings Some of these shortcomings will be identified in section 1.2 of this chapter. Adams (1993:82) identified the following shortcomings:
Affirmative action programmes often fail because they concentrate on filling quotas in recruitment rather than in terms of the recruitment and development of the individual within the organisational context.
Affirmative action cannot be seen simply in terms of pumping education and training into formerly under-represented groups and then expecting them t o hnction in an organisational context in which issues such as attitudes and expectations have been addressed. Unless we also address prejudice, racism, sexism as well as the people management skills and responsibilities of current managers, then education and training will have limited pay off,
Therefore, the researcher believes that to overcome the above shortcomings, affirmative action strategies and policies that support this process of change are necessary. The reason being that the researcher is of the same opinion with Wingrove (1 993: 18- 19) that affirmative action is one of the means t o implement change. The more affirmative action programmes are introduced in organisations, the more there is going to be a need to put mechanisms in place to accommodate such changes. Thus, for organisations to succeed, they should implement the correct affirmative action process.
The correct and enthusiastic implementation of affirmative action process will not only create an acceptable culture in an organisation, but will give everyone a competitive edge. By a correct affirmative action process the researcher refers to the following:
Affirmative action process should address the imbalance of the past and projection into the needs of the future.
Employers must set up non-discriminatory procedure for hiring, promotion, remuneration, selection for training and retrenchment. They must also establish clear, justifiable criteria for decisions made and implemented.
Communicate the affirmative action process to individuals and groups within an organisation.
Develop relevant policies and procedures to ensure that creation of opportunities for disadvantaged people is in the fairest possible manner.
1.2
SETTING OF THE PROBLEM
From the above introduction the researcher can identify both the key problem as well as three sub-problems:
It can be deduced that the key problem with affirmative action is buy-in or support from management. These are the people who supposed to implement affirmative action in the organisation, they view affirmative action as a reverse discrimination against them and will turn to resist it because they fear job loss. The researcher therefore believes this poses a threat to the successfid implementation of affirmative action.
The researcher believes that affirmative action could have both a negative and a positive impact on employees and management alike, giving rise to satisfaction to the beneficiaries and also dissatisfaction to the non-beneficiaries. An example regarding this statement provided by Fischer (1996:30) is that the beneficiaries feel that affirmative action requires exclusive rights and opportunities, involving unequal input to ultimately achieve equal output and that the non-beneficiaries see it as a reversed discrimination. It .
contributes to discrimination in group status, and as a result the non-beneficiaries might believe that to award jobs and benefits according t o group statistics rather than on individual merit is unjust and lowers standards and organisational effectiveness. Consequently the latter will be satisfied whereas the former will be dissatisfied, especially in the case where the latter is not performing to the desired level.
The authors of the Labour Relations Act No. 66 of 1995, section 3(a) have already identified the problem around the issue of equal employment opportunities (to be discussed in chapter 5) and have acknowledged that for the economy to survive, the industry needs to adapt rapidly to certain challenges. This means that the strategies chosen by the Government to achieve the desired results, is the introduction of the new institution
-
affirmative action - with clear objectives in order to facilitate achievement of the objectives of:Promotion of the disadvantaged Training and development.
Eradicating discriminatory practices and addressing the legislative aspects.
Wingrove (1 993 : 165) pointed out that the success of the affirmative action process redressing the past discriminatory practices in the workplace could be achieved by:
a Ensuring that everyone is aware of the fact that there is a long-term objective and that it is unlikely to yield wonderful short-term results;
a Considering the process to be holistic and including everything that is relevant when planning the process; and
a Being sensitive to and handling all potential problems arising from the implementation of the process.
It will be required of employers, employees as well as labour movements to work towards creating a new culture in organisations
-
a culture that will accommodate imminent changes in the labour arena.In his inaugural speech, the former President Nelson Mandela said: "We enter into the covenant that we shall build the society in which all South Africans, both Black and White, will be able to walk tall without any fear in their inalienable right to human dignity a rainbow nation at peace with itself and the world" (Mbigi, 1995:ll). The challenge facing South Africa is echoed in the President's statement.
South African companies are faced with the reality of having to reflect the demographics of the society in the workplace. A critical shortage of skills and a demand by the Government of National Unity (GNU) to have a demographically representative number of the disadvantaged groups in decision-making positions in corporations, have also exerted a tremendous pressure on industry to address this situation as a matter of urgency. It is estimated that skills shortage by the year 2000 will be 212 000 for Black managers, maximum 42 000 for Whites, 20 000 for technical and skills training 23 000 artisans trained in 1989 need about 1 000 000 to be trained (Nel, 1994: 17). This means that the re is a lot to be done in South African organisations. On the other hand, more time is needed for afirmative action strategies to produce the best results in organisations. The reason being that the majority of the disadvantaged groups, according to the researcher's opinion, would still lack being with the necessary skills.
From the above-mentioned statement, the researcher concurs with the view that affirmative action should definitely include training to avoid disappointment or promotions of people to positions beyond capabilities. However, a challenge facing industry is that such skills are not readily available. It is thus imperative for the business in South Afiica to invest in training of the targeted groups to ensure that such people, when aff~rmed, will be able to carry out their responsibilities with diligence and competence. This will go a long way in ensuring that tokenism or "window dressing" is avoided at all costs. To support this, the definition of the concept "training" is provided: "Training is the transfer or gaining of technical knowledge, related skills, values and attitudes in order to develop a person's natural aptitude and other abilities to improve capacity as a worker or entrepreneur (Coetzee, 1992: 297).
From the above, the researcher asks the following questions:
What is affirmative action and why is it implemented in organisations? How do the different stakeholders feel about affirmative action?
How do the stakeholders adapt to the change brought about by affirmative action? Who stands to benefit from affirmative action programmes?
What are the most effective and ineffective implementation methods of affirmative action?
How will affirmative action be a failure or success in organisations?
The key problem discussed can be summarised by saying that it is important when implementing an affirmative action process, that cognisance be taken of the composition of employees in the organsition as well as the type of leadership involved as changes have implications concerning the culture, structure, strategies, procedures and systems. The reaction of employees to the changing environment should also be given priority as this could seriously endanger the success of the process. Identified secondary problems that are related to this are as follows:
The pressure on organisations to restructure their workforce to ensure that it reflects the composition of affirmative action as a means of change. This change creates a lot of resistance to the implementation.
Most of the affirmative action beneficiaries still lack experience and skills but, at the same time are appointed and promoted on a preferential basis (refer to chapter 6, section 6.7).
Cultural differences within organisations hinder the success of affirmative action Looking at the first bullet it is clear that due to the external factors such as politics, economy, culture, diversity, etc, every South African organisation will be compelled to implement affirmative action strategies with the aim o f prohibiting unfair discrimination and enforcing employment equity. Some organisations find themselves in a state of being obliged to change, going through change process even though not prepared. As the application of affirmative action is required by Law organisations have no choice but to implement affirmative action.
The second bullet proves that due t o pressure from government organisations just push numbers t o meet quotas instead of doing it the right way (refer t o chapter 6, section 6.7), and this may create affirmative action failure. In most sources being used it is found that in the process of affirmative action many blacks are pushed into positions they are not suitable candidates for positions being appointed for. But at the same time they lack experience and skills, as a result thy fail to operate in the positions being appointed for. Thus, white people turn to view affirmative action as a reverse discrimination, tokenism and nepotism. The researcher is of the opinion that it is about time organisations start poaching black employees who had the necessary skills.
Lastly, the South African population is of a diverse nature. The researcher believes that through the correct affirmative action strategy members of the different cultures are being thrown together in the workplace and the management of diversity is therefore seen as an effective way of coping with this diverse workforce. Hugo and van Vuuren (1996: 13) explain this: "Differences among people, and particularly culture and racial differences have played an integral part in the development of South Africa as a nation." These differences have in the past been the basis for discrimination, and this has led t o a lack of understanding and little appreciation for the value of diversity. The researcher is of the view that for this reason the management of diversity and the challenges and problems it poses is at the present one of the most important issues facing South African managers.
1.3 THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF THE PROBLEM
he
above identified problems will be studied and analised within the South Afiican context. As comparison has been done with outside companies as well as the experience of affirmative action in overseas countries (see chapter 5, section 5.5) some of their strategies need to be adapted to suit the South Afiican working environment because we are dealing with a culturally unique and diverse workforce regarding the problems that exist therein. Therefore it is very important that the creative recommendations regarding affirmative action strategy provided at the end of the study be applicable to South African organisations. These recommendations should be seen as means which need to be implemented and adapted to suit some differences that are present within each organisation. For this reason the empirical research done is directed at one organisation only (see chapter 6 , section 6.2 and 6.3 for details on method of the empirical study).1.4 THE GOAL OF THE RESEARCH
The key goal of the research is to study the concept of "affirmative action" and to explore a strategy that could be used to implement the concept so that it benefits both the employer and the employee. Consequently, a conclusion can be reached on whether affirmative action is the solution for tomorrow's business needs or not. If successfiA in achieving its objectives, will result in numerous positive results for management, employees and the economy.
From the above, the specific sub-goals are identified:
0 If the organisation has agreed to implement an affirmative action strategy it should conform with this requirement.
0 Whether the appointment or promotion of employees is based on merit or tokenism, reaching desired targets or developing them in order to improve their skills.
To find out whether management will demonstrate some resistance to change to feelings of insecurity and animosity.
0 To democratise the workforce by enabling members of previously disadvantaged groups to progress higher up the ranks of the corporate world.
1.5 DEMARCATION OF STUDY FIELD
The two main types of research will be used, namely that of literature and empirical studies. The literature study will be theoretically based, concentrating mainly on affirmative action in the context of transition from a hierarchical to an egalitarian society. The advancement of equality in the modern world is complex of bridging obvious inequalities between individuals and groups, which is dependent on a number of simultaneously implemented measures to transform society. On the other hand the empirical study will be conducted in the Johannesburg area in one of South Africa's largest organisations. Reasons for this as well as the choice of the organisation are provided in section 1.6.2
All of the above will be done using the following methods of research mentioned in section 1.6
1.6 METHOD OF RESEARCH
The two methods of research to be used are literature and empirical studies which differ in their own special ways. However among the two the researcher will put more focus on the empirical study. The literature study is more theoretically based whereby both international and local information was gathered and used.
1.6.1 LITERATURE STUDY
The researcher will obtain all the necessary theoretical information from different sources such as books, articles, journals, publications, business periodical index, library catalogues of the PU for CI-IE, the collective catalogues for thesis and dissertations.
1.6.2 EMPIRICAL STUDY
To prove and support certain statements and opinions, an empirical research investigation is conducted with the aim of supporting these theoretical statements. Empirical research will be done by distributing questionnaires to the population sample. The questionnaires will apply within any organisation country wide, even though different answers are expected from the respondents. The data obtained will be analysed and compared with the theory. This comparison will provide an answer to which a conclusion can be made as to whether the concept ''affirmative action" is the solution for future organisations,
particularly in terms of increased productivity, job satisfaction, political acceptability and advancement through education. The research is being undertaken with one of the largest companies in the Johannesburg area which is referred to as Company
X.
The name o f the company cannot be revealed t o the readers mainly because of two reasons:1. The company does not want t o be exposed and as such, the researcher respects this wish; and
2. As affirmative action is still a burning issue in this country, the company is not yet ready to publcise its identity, but will disclose any information whatsoever regarding affirmative action.
1.7 KEY REFERENCE WORDS
A number of concepts will be used in the study. Therefore they need t o be explained t o give the reader more understanding, and they are the following:
1.7.1 AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
Affirmative action can be defined as processes applied by organisations to enhance equity, correct past discrimination, and develop and empower members of disadvantaged groups to create a diverse yet effective workforce which will strive t o achieve organisational goals (Employment Equity Act, 1999: 14).
1.7.2 EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY
Equal employment opportunity apparently provides equal access t o all people t o participate in the empowerment process and advances on the bases of merit, ability and potential. It also prohibits all forms of discrimination based on race, gender, handicap, weight, sexual preference, etc. (Luhabe, 1993:26).
1.7.3 MANAGING DIVERSITY
The concept is based on the premises that every individual has a uniqueness, bringing his own special talents and attributes to the workplace which can be utilised for the benefit of the greater whole. It seeks to explore individual values and gain respect and value for
differences. It rejects assimilation, seeks to expand the corporate culture to accommodate the diversity of its employees and encourages individuality (Luhabe, 1993:26).
1.7.4 QUOTAS
Systems aimed at preferential treatment whereby members o f the so-called disadvantaged groups are appointed or promoted, irrespective of qualifications and other requirements needed for an effective and efficient work performance and regardless of the number o f qualified candidates available for the jobs in question (Els, 1994:35).
1.7.5 REVERSE DISCRIMINATION
Reverse discrimination means discrimination against whites and in favour of members of protected or previously disadvantaged groups, which is just as unacceptable as is discrimination by whites against members of protected groups, such as blacks (Cascio, 1998:66).
1.8 DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS
The key concern o f this dissertation is the implementation of affirmative action in most of South African organisations even though the major focus will be on one large organisation and, the effect it has on the thinking of many employees. From the study itself, the researcher is of the view that some employees accept affirmative action whereas others resist it. As a result this might lead t o the failures if resisted or success if accepted
This dissertation has the aim of (a) providing the meaning of affirmative action in broad (see chapter 3, section 3.3) and (b) providing a strategy for the implementation of affirmative action in one of the South African organisations being referred t o as Company X, and (c) to find a means t o help people t o understand, adapt and accept affirmative action as one of the means t o change. But before change can be managed it is normal at the initial stage, for people t o go through the stages of change which starts with shock, denial, fear, anger and frustration. Hence they continuously unaccept change and show some negative behaviour such as not supporting the whole process, leave the organisation, under-performing, lack of commitment etc. Ultimately people will accept change if it is well managed whereby management as the driving force behind change must make people aware of the reasons to undergo paradigm shift. The researcher's
advise is that change as a concept has to be adapted to even though it is not easy. But the question is: 'Is it also important that people be made aware of the positive side of change and the success therein before implementing it?'
The development of the study is as follows:
Chapter two gives a brief overview of different theories of social change, its effect on individuals as well as groups within the environment. This chapter fbrther discusses the origin and history of affirmative action.
Chapter three deals with theoretical base when discussing affirmative action. Here affirmative action as well as change are discussed in broad.
Chapter four focuses on the effects affirmative action has on organisations. Issues such as its reasons to be implemented, advantages and disadvantages, its role in Industrial Relations and Human Resources, stakeholder approach, etc are discussed. Furthermore various affirmative action strategies are brought into the reader's attention which at the end will help the researcher to recommend a strategy that
Company X may resort to the successfbl implementation of affirmative action.
Chapter five deals with Equal Employment Opportunity with regard to the Act, preferential treatment, gender and affirmative action as well as disability.
Chapter six gives a broad picture of empirical findings which will be used to test the researcher's assumptions.
Chapter seven discusses research conclusion and recommendations as well as a newly proposed affirmative action strategy developed by the researcher that Company X can make use of.
CHAPTER 2
THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Mirmative action is a highly debated and controversial concept, having different interpretations t o different people. It furthermore inescapably involves basic values, norms and interests. Mirmative action raises fears in people's minds of lowering standards, of token appointments, of the end of merit as the basis for promotion and advancement, and of South Africa's rapid economical decline.
In chapter 1, it was mentioned that affirmative action is one of the means to implement change in organisations. Also, it was indicated that change can be resisted by some individuals and groups within organisations. Therefore the researcher believes it is necessary t o study and understand the different theorists' concepts and perspectives, some being applicable to our countries context of change and the manner of adapting to it. However, the main principle of the research is affirmative action.
This chapter goes further by providing a short overview of the affirmative action concept whereby both managers and employees alike undergo a state of paradigm shift in order t o adapt t o the changing environment. The origin of affirmative action is also discussed as well as its history whereby outside countries are looked upon. Aftirmative action began in the USA during President Kennedy's time in the early sixties.
2.2 A FEW THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Several theorists have researched social change for many years, and from this research various theories have evolved. Appelbaum (1970:9) distinguishes between four broad categories of theories with regard t o social change, namely:
The evolutionary theories, which are primarily characterised by assumptions of steady, often linear, cumulative change, and always in the direction of increasing complexity and adaptability.
tendency to uniformity). They focus on conditions which therefore incline towards stability.
The conflict theories, which are characterised by the assumption that change---- is endemic to all social organisms. They focus on conditions which, as a result of this, incline towards instability.
The rise and fall theories, which are characterised by the assumption that communities, cultures or civilisations are deteriorating as well as progressing (growing). However, not all communities are moving in the same direction. The researcher agrees with Moolman (1996:35) that all four of these broad categories will be discussed by studying a few of the most prominent theorists' concepts and perspectives. However, the researcher is of the opinion that the evolutionary theories are the most applicable in the South African context of continual change and adaptation. At present South Africa is experiencing a period of unprecedented change, which is taking place at a tremendous rate. Many people in the country are not yet aware of the relevance of these changes and their impact on their lives.
2.2.1 EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
According to the HAT, l988:2 1 1 (In Moolman, l996:35) evolution means "gradual development", as well as "the development of plant and animal species out of older forms". Many authors and theorists regard Charles Darwin as one of the most influential evolutionists, and more specifically biological evolutionists. Appelbaum (1970: 15) says that theorists who were strongly influenced by Darwin's work in biological evolution were often in search of a new sociological form corresponding with the living organism.
According to Harris (1989: 19), Darwin's theory is based on the premise that the greatest diversity of life on earth is attributable to a process Darwin described as natural selection. Through a process of specialised development species are able t o adapt to prevalent climatic conditions. Darwin regarded all species as being involved in a continuous struggle for survival. The process of natural selection contributes to this, so that only the fittest will survive. Concerning development, and more specifically intellectual development, it can thus be said that man's intellectual development and increase in intelligence are a direct result of the process of natural selection and the survival of the
fittest. Appelbaum (1970: 16) believes that the Darwinian evolution can be reduced to four core statements, namely:
There is a pronounced variability between species.
The population of any given species is inclined to increase to such an extent that it is way beyond its existence capacity.
The result of the above is a struggle for survival between and among different species.
In this struggle for survival the strongest or fittest, in other words the species that is best adapted, will survive in the long run. This arises from the immutable law of natural selection.
Thus, for Darwin there is substantial diversity between different species. The species that adapt best will survive, whereas the weaker species will disappear. The concept of evolution as described by Darwin has been used as a premise by many sociologists in the protection of the evolutionistic theories. The theoretical views of Spencer, Comte and Durkheim will be discussed below.
2.2.1.1 HERBERT SPENCER
According to Hough (1988:36) Spencer based his theory of social change on a continuous increase in the complexity of societies as well as an increase in interrelationships. Coser (197 1 :89-90) states that Spencer's first and foremost interest is the evolutionary changes in social structures and social institutions rather than the accompanying mental conditions. Spencer's concept of social change assumes a universal process of evolution; he has noticed the correspondence between the progress in human thinking and the biological organism, and conceived evolution with respect to growth, differentiation and reintegration. Like the evolution of the organism, the evolution of society is expressed as an increase in magnitude, and as in the case of the organism, this results in a growing differentiation or distinctiveness of the parts (Etzioni-Halevy, 1981 : 10-1 1).
Hough (1988:37) puts the above as follows: "Spencer has the same viewpoint as Darwin with regard to the development of organisms when he points out the analogy between
society and living organisms. Both grow throughout their life cycles, increase in mass or size and, at the same time, grow in structure from a few similar parts to multiple interrelated different parts."
Spencer is of the opinion that the evolution process progresses through selection and adaptation skills. He sees man, who gains the victory in this battle, as superior, and those that lag behind have to go under. Those that lag behind must leave the battlefield without any descendants, if possible (Martindale, 1967: 165).
As society develops and becomes more complex, the parts of that society become more dependent on one another in order to survive for a long time. If a city like Johannesburg, for example, were isolated from its surrounding suburbs and rural areas, that city would have a fierce struggle for survival and might not survive. Spencer claims that simple societies develop into complex societies, and military-orientated ones grow into industrial societies. It is characteristic of military societies that people are forced to cooperate. However, the opposite is true of industrial societies, that is people cooperate voluntarily. Nor does this evolution process run its course without disruptions, as both internal and external factors interfere with the evolution process, resulting in different development levels in societies (Timasheff, 1967:40).
2.2.1.2 AUGUSTE COMTE
According to Coser (197 1 :3), Comte's purpose was to develop a natural science of society which explains the past development of man and makes a prediction of the hture development of mankind. Comte was of the opinion that human society had to be studied in the same scientific way as nature, as mankind, like the rest of the cosmos, is subject to the basic laws. In this regard Olson (1970: 18) states that Comte was of the opinion that social development follows the same civilisation course as other organisms and that the same laws therefore also apply to social development.
According to Edari (1976:9), Comte's opinion is based on the premise that man's instinct motivates him towards progress and perfection, and that it stands to reason that the preferences of man play an important part in and set the pace for progress in civilisation. Comte's evolutionary theory suggests that the world has moved through three stages in its history, namely:
characterised by supernatural forces and religious figures that were at the core of everything. During that stage God was seen as the producer of the social and physical world.
The second stage is the metaphysical stage, which lasted from approximately 1300 until 1800. This period was characterised by the belief that abstract forces such as nature, rather than personified gods, explained almost everything.
The last stage, namely the positive stage, started in 1800 and was characterised by the development of science and the belief in science. People now moved away from the quest for absolute causes (God or nature), and concentrated on observation of the social and physical world (Ritzer, 1992: 15).
Seen from an evolutionary perspective, Comte focused on the deeper logic of evolution, according to which any culture group has a need to improve itself and consequently strives for perfection. Apart from the progressive change in culture groups due to their contact with other cultures, change or development therefore occurs inside man himself (Hough,
1988:39).
2.2.1.3 EMILE DURKHEIM
According to Hough (1988:35), Durkheim is known as the father of modern functionalism, as he occupied himself with social solidarity as the essential possession of a society. From this Durkheim developed a methodology of causative resolution. She furthermore states that Durkheim's strategy firstly implies the identification of social facts, and secondly the establishment of their causes in order to determine the functions they have performed.
Durkheim was more concerned with the characteristics of groups and structures than with individual contributions. He focused on problems such as the cohesion, or lack of cohesion, of specific religious groups, and not on the individual characteristics of religious believers (Coser, 1971: 130). Durkheim points out that society determines even the most basic categories of our thoughts. We are living in a world of time and space, but how we conceive of this time and space is determined by society (Collins and Makowsky,
Hough (1988:35) says that according to Durkheim, the logical result of growth in society is a decrease, or even disappearance, of the feeling of solidarity because the values, norms and customs start to differ. Moreover, Hough states that Durkheim went hrther by looking for other sources of solidarity in society. Coser (1971:131) points out Durkheim's distinction between mechanical and organic solidarity. The difference is explained as follows:
Mechanical solidarity boils down to the fact that the number of ideas and tendencies that are common to all members of a society is greater than the number of ideas and tendencies that apply to each member of a society individually.
Organic solidarity, as opposed to mechanical solidarity, evolves from differences rather than agreement between different individuals. It is seen as a result or product of the division of labour (Coser, 197 1 : 13 1).
According to Durkheim solidarity is formed by shared emotional feelings. People in a society have a collective awareness and therefore a feeling of belonging to a specific community together with other people, and from this follows the feeling of moral obligation in such people to live in accordance with the demands of the community (Collins and Makowsky, 1993 : 104- 105). The said authors hrthermore point out that collective awareness does not imply that a group idea is hanging over our heads, but rather that people experience a feeling of belonging to a group.
2.2.2 CYCLIC OR RISE-AND-FALL THEORY
According to Hough (1988:48) the cyclic theory means ". . . that social change is effected by golden ages and periods of decline which have specific impacts on the circumstances of that time".
Strasser and Randall (1981:59) put it as follows: "Social theorists who view social processes as following a cyclical pattern locate the sources of change in the culture, ie, as inherent in the total way of life of a society."
The cyclic model of society is based on the idea that a cultural theme is adopted, developed and worked through until it is exhausted, and opportunities for structurally effective successes and fbrther growth are limited. The result of this is a general
dissatisfaction with the current society, accompanied by a growing disorder, until the old culture is destroyed and the society moves to the following phase in the cycle (Strasser and Randall, 198 1 :60).
There are many theorists that describe certain aspects of the cyclic theory, but in the study in question only two of these theorists' approaches are synoptically dealt with, namely those of Pitirim Sorokin and Oswald Spengler.
2.2.2.1 PITIRIM SOROKIN
According to Sorokin there are three types of value systems that characterise cultures, societies and personalities, namely:
the sensation system, which is dominated by reason, realism, materialism, the ethic of success, as well as empirical orientation;
the ideation system, which is characterised by mysticism (the mystical), strong beliefs and symbolism; and
the idealistic system, which represents a combination of sensation and imaginary elements (Strasser and Randall, I98 1 :60-6 1).
Appelbaum (1970:lOl) states that from these three value systems three supersystems evolve, namely the empirical (science), the supernatural (religion) and the rational (logic). Regardless of which system comes under discussion, eg science, religion, or even the economy or an organisation, these systems have the capacity for internal change. A system therefore determines its own character and direction of movement, and therefore all changes, whether they are taking place or not, can be ascribed to the inherent potential of the system concerned (Hough, 1988:49).
According to Moolman (1996:42) the latter implies the ability of an organisation to plan, formulate and implement, in an autonomic way, its own strategy with regard to change and its adjustment to such change. It is ultimately the organisation itself that is aware of the needs of the community in which it operates, and as such the organisation has to deal with, and manage, changes in such a way that they will also benefit the community.
Appelbaum (1970: 102) is of the opinion that social change can be understood in terms of immanent causes and limitations. Immanent causes of change refer to those causes which are inherent in the system; whether the system is scientific or religious, aesthetical or
philosophical, a business firm, a professional union or a state, its contains the internal seeds of continuous change.
2.2.2.2 OSWALD SPENGLER
Like Sorokin, Spengler is of the view that each culture progresses through age phases like those of the individual. Like those of a human being, each phase has its childhood, youth, adulthood and old age (in Appelbaum, 1970:99). Spengler also identifies fixed periods for cultures similar to the life cycle of the human being. Unlike other theorists, Spengler draws analogies only with the biological life phases of the human being.
Spengler (1964:21) states that the parallel between the life cycle of a culture and that of the human organism is expanded to determine the fixed duration of generations as well On this basis the political, intellectual and artistic birth takes fifty years, the adulthood of the culture three hundred years, and the total life cycle of the culture extends over one thousand years.
Spengler hrthermore specifies that all cultures are characterised by homological or morphological (morphology) equivalence in the sense that, in all cultures, all major creative works and forms of religion, art, politics, social life, economy and science evolve simultaneously, hlfil themselves and die simultaneously. The inner structures of the one culture correspond on a very narrow basis with the structures of all the other cultures (Appelbaum, 1970: 100).
2.2.3 TALCOTT PARSONS'S EQUILIBRIUM THEORY
Appelbaum (1970:65) states that equilibrium, or homeostasis, is a concept which was originally taken from mechanics and means a uniform condition. Parsons sees the concept of stability as a defining characteristic of structure and equivalent to the more specific concept of stable equilibrium, which may otherwise be static or moving.
Parsons distinguishes between those processes that are productive of structural change, and those that are productive of structural stability. This distinction between two pairs of concepts is regarded as a system reference by Parsons. The structure of the system and its environment have to be distinguished from the process within the system itself and the process of interaction between the system and its environment (Schaefer and Lamm,
Regarding change in social systems, Appelbaum (1970:69) says that Parsons's approach admits, at least in theory, that structures change, and that a condition of homeostasis is valid for only a limited set of system processes and system variations within the environment. A society consists of specialised systems and their subsystems, each involved in a series of limited exchanges with one another and other environments external t o the social system itself, for example the cultural system or the personality system. The said author hrthermore states that all these limited exchanges may cause problems for the social system. The latter thus forces the system t o specialise in one or another of the four fimctional prerequisites for survival, namely adjustment, objective achievement, integration and latent pattern maintenance.
Parsons is particularly interested in the integration within the social system itself and between the social systems and cultural patterns on the one hand, and between the social system and the personality system on the other hand. For such integration t o take place, at least two functional requirements have t o be met, namely:
1 . A social system has to motivate an adequate section of its component of actors effectively t o act in accordance with the requirements of its role system.
2. Social systems have to avoid obligation towards culture patterns that fail t o maintain a minimum of order, or that make impossible demands on people, thereby generating deviations and conflict (Turner, 1982:45).
In his analysis of the social system Parsons was mainly interested in the structural components of the social system, among others in the status role and large-scale components of the social system, such as collectivities, norms and values (Ritzer, 1992: 105). Parsons was not only a structuralist, but also a functionalist. H e depicted a number of functional prerequisites of a social system as follows:
Social systems have t o be structured so that they can work together with other systems in a compatible way.
T o be able t o survive, the social system must have the support of other systems. The system has t o satisfy a significant portion of its actors' needs
The system has to attract sufficient participation from its members.
The system must have at least a minimum amount of control over potentially disruptive behaviour.
If conflict becomes disruptive, it has to be controlled
A social system needs a language to be able to survive (Ritzer, 1992: 105)
From the above hnctional prerequisites of social systems it is evident that Parsons focuses on large-scale systems and their relations to each other. Even when Parsons makes mention of actors, he does so fiom the system's point of view. Following from the aforementioned, it is also evident that Parsons considers maintaining order within the social system as important.
Ponsioen (1969:67) is of the opinion that the only thing that can be said against the equilibrium theory as a general theory is the fact that revolution does occur. The existing equilibrium may disappoint a large number of people, and if the balance is maintained over an extended period, it can happen that social forces lose their dynamism. Particularly the younger generation may regard the situation of equilibrium as boring and feel that it is necessary to turn the situation around to make society more dynamic.
2.2.4 THEORIES OF CONFLICT
The evolutionary theories and equilibrium theories see stability in everything, unlike the conflict theory, which places structural change first (Appelbaum, 1970: 8 1). The conflict theory implies that conflict as such is the only modifier and that nothing can change or occur unless there is conflict (Hough, l988:43).
According to Etzioni-Halevy (1 98 1 :40), structural fimctionalism lost its excellence from the end of the 1950's on and became only one of various alternative perspectives, while other premises have come to the fore. Not all these perspectives were concerned about modernisation and modern life, but one school
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the power and conflict school-
regarded it as very important.The conflict school focused more on Western societies and made a considerable impact on the sociological scene. This school rejected structural fimctionalism's emphasis on values,
consensus and integration. The conflict school regarded society as divided into classes and saw conflict between classes as central to society (Etzioni-Halevy, 198 1 :4 1).
2.2.4.1 KARL MARX
According to Marx, society includes " . . . a moving balance of antithetical forces that generate social change by their tension and struggle" (Coser, 1971:43). Marx's vision is based on an evolutionary premise. To him struggle, rather than peacehl growth, is the engine of progress, while discord is the father of all things and social conflict is the core of the course of history (Coser, 1971 :43). Marx established various hypotheses with respect to the development of class structures, namely:
In a capitalistic society classes tend to polarise to an increasing degree, and consequently the community breaks up into two hostile classes, namely the bourgeoisie (owner or proprietor) on the one hand, and the proletariat (worker or labourer) on the other hand.
As these classes polarise, their situations become more extreme, sections of the proletariat become even more impoverished and the society's wealth becomes more concentrated in the midst of the relative minority (bourgeoisie).
As these classes polarise, they become more homogeneous internally, with other groupings internally absorbed in these two classes.
When these processes have reached their limits, revolution terminates the existing arrangement and a new society in which the previously oppressed class now has the power evolves. Conflict and change therefore reflect the distribution of power in society.
It consequently appears as though Marx regards conflicting classes as a prerequisite for all communities. Within the capitalistic community a distinction is made between the capitalists as the oppressors, and the oppressed (Jordaan, 1989:42).
It is the struggle between the aforementioned two groups (classes) which forms and determines the character of the community. Furthermore, conflict is generated by the product of the irreconcilable differences in the interests of classes on the one hand, and the fact that a class's common interests are so strong that the members of the group are
encouraged to group together for common interests on the other hand (Timasheff and Theodorson, 1976:59-6 1).
According to Marx, the core of social order and change consists of the forces and relationships of economic production, their common antagonism regarding the capitalistic society, as well as the manifestation of this antagonism in the consciousness of the members of the community. Marx hrther says that the community consists of various variable elements such as technology, politics, materialism, religion and philosophy (Olson, 1970: 15).
Marx (see Moolman, 1996:47) divides the total history into three periods which are in a dialectic relationship to each other, namely:
At the beginning of history man is free, but his freedom is incomplete, as he is a slave of nature. This period is known as the thesis.
The second period is known as the antithesis, and extends over the total history up to date During this period man developed technology and gained control over nature. However, due to the latter man has become alienated, as the distribution of labour is the essential mechanism for control over nature.
The third period is known as the synthesis, because it combines the dull freedom of the original society with the different human potentialities for alienation. This as such is alienated, but is retained at a higher level. It is only during this period that man realises that he is free.
Mulder (1994:50) says that the distribution of labour, which is an essential mechanism for control over nature, creates relationships of dominance and submission. The said author states that a class conflict arises and private property is removed, as these form the basis of conflict and struggle.
Marx regards the last period as a return to the earliest period. The vision of society as an organism always increasing in complexity is replaced by one of undifferentiated unity, free from classes, conflict and authority.
2.2.4.2 RALF DAHRENDORF
Dahrendorf (I 964: 100) is of the opinion that the purpose of a sociological conflict theory is to overcome the predominant arbitrary nature of unexplained historical events by inferring these events from elements of their social structure; in other words, to explain certain processes by means of predicting connections. It is therefore the task of the sociology to deduce conflicts from certain social structures and not to water conflicts down to psychological variables or descriptive historical aspects, or to mere chance. Dahrendorf s work on conflict reveals two important characteristics. Firstly, he emphasises the importance of power, and secondly, he emphasises the inevitability of conflict. He calls it the "theories of society" (Wallace and Wolf, 1980: 121).
Timasheff and Theodorson (1976:279) point out that Dahrendorf, unlike other conflict theorists, is less inclined to regard social life as consisting exclusively of irreconcilable interests. The said authors further say that Dahrendorf emphasises his opinion that conflict contains productive as well as destructive forces.
Appelbaum (1970:94) says that Dahrendorf identifies the underlying assumptions of what he describes as the structural functional theory in fourfold, namely:
1. Every society is a relatively sustained configuration of elements. 2. Every society is a well-integrated configuration of elements.
3 . Every element in a society contributes to the functioning of the society.
4. Every society is based on the consensus of its members.
Conversely, the conflict model adopts a position contrasting to each of the above- mentioned assumptions, namely:
1 . Every society is subject to change at every moment.
2. Every society experiences social conflict at every moment.
3 . Every element in a society contributes to changing that society.
4. Every society is based on the demands some members are making on other members.
Dahrendorf s opinion is that society has an inherent inclination to conflict. The groups with power will therefore pursue their own interests, and the groups without power will
look after their own interests. However, the two groups will have different interests (Wallace and Wolf, 1980: 122). On the basis of Dahrendoff s "theories of society", it can be said that the distribution of power is the single greatest determinant of social structure. Dahrendorf (1959: 166) defines power as: ". . . the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this probability rests".
From the above definition it can be deduced that the core of power is the control of sanctions, which enables the persons with power to give instructions, and to obtain what they desire from the persons without power. However, man has a natural dislike of submission (Moolman, l996:49).
Dahrendorf (1959:138) is of the opinion that there will be an inevitable conflict of interests, as well as a drive by the powerless for conflict with those in authority
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the former in their pursuit of power, and the latter in defence. Power can therefore be seen as a permanent source of conflict. Within every organisation there are certain power structures consisting of supervisors and subordinates. Based on Dahrendoffs perspectives, it is therefore logical that any organisation also has a potential for conflict. Dahrendorf argues that a conflict theory enables the socioscientist to keep the social conflicts from structural institutions, thereby being able to prove that these conflicts develop systematically (Appelbaum, 1970:95).2.3 APPLICATION OF THE SOCIAL CHANGE THEORIES
This researcher is of the opinion that each of the theoretical perspectives regarding social change arose from the experience and research of the various theorists. These perspectives follow from the theorists' endeavours to explain the dynamic nature of, and reasons for, social change.
In this regard Mulder (1994:52) states that the various theorists' endeavours to explain social change have to be seen against the background of the political, intellectual, economic and social climate in which they found themselves. This researcher supports Mulder's foregoing opinion, and furthermore takes the point of view that factors such as the theorists' personal preferences and dislikes, own social background and experiences, as well as their views of life, played an important part in the formulation of their theories. Moolman (1996:50) mentions that except for the above, change is also the result of human
behaviour and experience. The theories discussed previously should therefore be regarded as following from the personal experience of social change of various people. As change does not have a time limit but occurs constantly and at an increasing rate, it is essential that h t u r e researchers and theorists of social change be aware of the existing theoretical perspectives. Several of the perspectives and generalisations of the earlier theorists are still applicable to the current situation and it will also be possible to generalise them in future situations.
As has already been stated, change is a continuous process, and it is important that experts pay attention to the consequential causes and results of change. By means of continual research regarding the reasons, extent, impact and presupposed results of change the possible negative results change may hold for society can be limited or even prevented. When such changes occur, therefore, there should be sufficient and effective mechanisms to deal with their impact and results and t o channel them t o the benefit of society. Negative results and implications of change should be kept to a minimum.
2.4 THE CONCEPT OF 'AFFIRMATIVE ACTION'
Affirmative action brings about change in organisations, change, which can be adapted or resisted by the individuals and groups w i t h any organisation (discussed in detail under chapter 3, section 3.5 and chapter 4, section 4.3.4). Companies must now, more than ever before, become responsible and responsive to turbulent and changing environment around them.
Affirmative action requires more actions and constructive action and new organisational culture. Over the past centuries paradigm shift has taken place in the management and the development of employees. This paradigm have created the mind set of modern management perspectives and is continuing to influence the environment in which employers and employees interact with each other. In the South African context the need for change embraces also the necessity t o redress imbalances within the organisational composition brought about by previous socio-political designs. Thus affirmative action becomes essentially a change initiative. The need for affirmative action arises from historical disadvantages brought about by the apartheid system by male dominance in business and society, the lack of consideration for the disabled and prejudice against individuals who hold convictions, orientations or beliefs contrary t o those of dominant
