Oh Snap!: A Mixed-Method Study into the Characteristics of
Snapchat Use Among Different Age Groups
Master Thesis
Graduate School of Communication University of Amsterdam
Maran Özdemir
Student number: 11136510 Supervisor: J.S. Lemmens 29-06-2017
2 Abstract
Snapchat is the most popular app among teens and millennials. This mixed-method study examined the differences in Snapchat use among age groups. Central in this study were the pivotal characteristics of Snapchat use: Content, Context and Community. Differences within all three of the characteristics were found. Results indicated that younger users share more snaps in which the caption is more important than the image and they share more snaps of fashion, hobbies and snaps with tags. Older users shared more snaps of food. In comparison, older users were found to use Snapchat more to cure boredom and younger people used Snapchat more to to share funny and beautiful content, to share what they are doing, to see what others are doing, to use funny filters and to have conversations through pictures. The data revealed that Snapchat use for younger users was related to both bonding and bridging social capital whereas for older users Snapchat use only related to bonding social capital. This study provides a comprehensive and detailed overview of how Snapchat use differs among age groups. Suggestions for further research on Snapchat use are discussed.
3 Oh snap!: A Mixed-Method Study into the Characteristics of Snapchat Use Among
Different Age Groups
Since its launch in 2011 Snapchat has been doing so well that in March 2017 the company publicly announced its stock market debut (The Wall Street Journal, 2017). Snapchat is the most searched app in Apple’s iOS App store (Koetsier, 2017) and the most popular app among teens and millennials, leaving Instagram and Facebook behind (CNBC, 2017). Snapchat is a social media app where users can send snaps (pictures and short videos) to friends. Users can edit their pictures with texts, drawings, filters and tags. Snapchat is different from more traditional social media as it has an ephemeral nature. This means that the app is designed to permanently erase content (Bayer et al., 2016; Cavalvanti et al., 2017). Senders determine for how long the snap is shown to the viewer, with a maximum of 10 seconds, before it becomes permanently inaccessible. The app also includes a chat function. Similar to the snaps, messages become unavailable if they are not saved (Vaterlaus et al., 2016).
Snapchat has captured the attention of the scientific community. Previous studies on Snapchat were mainly explorative and included young adults (e.g. Vaterlaus et al., 2016; Bayer at al., 2015; Roesner & Kohno, 2014; Piwek & Joinson; 2016). However, various publications stated that teens form the biggest, most fanatic group of Snapchat users (e.g. Piwek & Joinson, 2016; Cavalcanti et al., 2017). Snapchat’s popularity among young teens can be explained by that the app provides speed (time limit) and variety (e.g. filters, multiple pictures). This perfectly dovetails teen’s fast and turbulent brain development (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). The current study further explores Snapchat use and specifically focuses on the differences between age groups. Central in this study are the pivotal characteristics of Snapchat use: Content, Context and Community.
4 Content refers to the question: ‘What is depicted in the Snaps?’ According to previous studies, young adults are most likely to share ‘fun things’ (Roesner et al., 2014; Utz et al., 2015; Bayer et al., 2015; Vaterlaus et al., 2016; Piwek & Joinson, 2016). Context refers to why, where, and when Snapchat is used the most. For example, a common motive for young adults to use the app was found to be ‘to see what others are doing’ (e.g. Vaterlaus et al., 2016; Bayer et al., 2015). Community refers to social interaction on Snapchat. For instance, young adults mainly interact with close-ties on the app (e.g. Vaterlaus et al., 2016; Bayer et al., 2015; Cavalcanti et al., 2017).
Within the pivotal characteristics of Snapchat use, differences among age groups are expected. Content is likely to differ as age groups will hold different perceptions of what is fun content. ‘Funny things’ as most shared content type (Vaterlaus et al., 2016) is barely specified and could therefore cover various content types. Since humor is strongly developing and changing during the teen years (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017), age groups most likely have different opinions on what is regarded as fun content.
Because younger users may be bound to parental supervision that limits them in when and where they can use the app, the context in which Snapchat is used can also differ. Finally, teens are in a phase of life where not quality but quantity of friends is much more important (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2016). This may result in the desire to interact with as many friends as possible, in contrast to older users. Hence, differences within community may also be present.
Although the theory leads to expectations that Snapchat use differs among age groups, insight in Snapchat use among teens is scarce. However, they are the main user group. To provide a useful and complete overview of the characteristics of this relatively new form of communication, it is necessary to include all relevant age groups. When examining Snapchat use among young adults, multiple studies suggested addressing possible age differences in use
5 of the app. (Vaterlaus et al, 2016; Piwek & Joinson, 2016). Therefore, the current study
investigates the differences of Snapchat use among teens and young adults on the pivotal characteristics: Content, Context, and Community. A survey will address general patterns in Snapchat use among different age groups. Focus groups will contribute to the explorative character of the survey and provide further detailed insight in these differences. The aim of a mixed-method is hereby to provide a comprehensive and detailed overview of how Snapchat use differs among age groups.
RQ: How does Snapchat use differ among different age groups?
Theoretical Background Content
In the current study, content is defined as the visual characteristics of the snap. The content that is mostly shared by young adults on Snapchat include: ‘funny things’, ‘selfies’, food’, ‘people’, ‘beautiful things’ and pictures of activities (Roesner & Kohno., 2014; Utz et al., 2015; Bayer et al., 2015; Utz et al., 2015; Vaterlaus et al., 2016; Piwek & Joinson, 2016). Most content shared on Snapchat has a spontaneous, positive nature and includes humor (Bayer et al., 2015). The content that is shared through Snapchat may differ among age groups. For example compared to young adults, younger people are more likely to take selfies, post selfies on social networking sites (SNS) to edit selfies and to use filters on their selfies than older people (Dhir et al., 2016). Therefore, younger users of Snapchat may share more selfies than older Snapchat users. Hence, the first sub question is as follows:
Sub question 1. What is the difference in content shared through Snapchat between age groups?
6 Context
The current study will investigate in which context different age groups use Snapchat. Context hereby consists of three components: why (motivations), when (time of the day and mood) and where (location).
Motives for using Snapchat (why). Young adults mainly use Snapchat because it is a fun way to stay in contact with others (Roesner & Kohno., 2014; Utz et al., 2015; Bayer et al., 2015; Vaterlaus et al., 2016; Piwek & Joinson, 2016). Other motives for Snapchat use among young adults include: to cure boredom and to see what others are doing (Utz et al., 2016). The Uses and Gratification Theory (Blumler & Katz, 1974) implies that media and
technology users are active, self-aware and select media and technologies that fulfill their needs at that moment so that media consumption leads to gratification of this need (Weaver, Tinkham & Sweetser, 2011). There are two reasons why U&G clarifies Snapchat’s popularity among young adults. First, it was found that young adults often use social media to distract themselves and to procrastinate (Whiting & Williams, 2013). Using social media then results in gratification for the need to escape an unpleasant activity. Similar motives may be found for Snapchat. Second, a phenomenon that is common among young adults is defined as Fear of Missing out (FoMo). FoMo is characterized by the strong desire to constantly stay
connected to others out of fear of missing anything (Przybylski, et al., 2013). Hence, Snapchat may gratify the need to constantly interact with others.
Furthermore, Snapchat offers additional functions that have barely been included in previous research. For example, Snapchat gives users rewards after certain activities (ea. ‘You have sent 50 snaps with a filter!’). From previous research it is known that children find collecting points and earning rewards appealing in games (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). Hence, Snapchat’s game elements may be a motivation for younger users to use the app and
7 less for older users. The current study will examine the importance of Snapchat’s additional functions among age groups.
Beside differences in motives to use Snapchat, similar motives among age groups may be found. These similar motivations will be sifted on underlying differences. First, ‘to share fun content’ appeared to be one of the biggest motives for young adults to use Snapchat (Roesner & Kohno., 2014; Utz et al., 2015; Bayer et al., 2015; Vaterlaus et al., 2016; Piwek & Joinson, 2016). This raises the question: what is fun content? Humor is one of the factors that strongly develop during the teen years. Especially the appreciation of sarcasm, irony and wit increases on the way to adulthood (Valkenburg and Piotrowski, 2017). Different age groups may share ‘to share fun content’ as a motive to use Snapchat. However, this may mean that this motivation refers to different content types. These differences would be due to diversity in humor among age groups. Second, one of the crucial goals of adolescence is the
development of autonomy, defined as the capacity to make independent decisions and care for oneself (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2016; Lauricella et al., 2014). For young adults it was found that they often share selfies on Snapchat (Utz et al., 2015; Bayer et al., 2015; Vaterlaus et al., 2016; Piwek & Joinson, 2016). Taking selfies on Snapchat provides users the
opportunity to experiment with how they present themselves (e.g.; Lauricella et al., 2014; Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). For younger users, sharing selfies could therefore play an important role in identity exploration. Older users may have different underlying reasons to share selfies.
Mood and emotion are also related to Snapchat behavior (Bayer et al., 2015, Piwek and Joinson, 2016; Vaterlaus et al., 2016). In general, young adult Snapchat users reported that they were most likely to use Snapchat when they were in a good mood (Piwek and Joinson, 2016, Vaterlaus et al., 2016). Also, young adults stated that using Snapchat would make them feel good afterwards, more than other types of SNS (Bayer et al, 2015). The
8 theory that best explains this relation between mood and Snapchat use is the Mood
Management Theory (Zillman, 1998). According to this theory, people constantly select media to either get rid of bad moods or to maintain good moods.It is unknown how mood relates to Snapchat use among younger people. Teens are not fully emotionally developed. Part of the teenage phase is increased emotional variance and emotional intensity (Dillman Carpentier et al., 2008). As a result, it is hard for teens to regulate their moods. Because it is still unknown why teens use Snapchat and given the fact that their emotions are less stable than those of adults, mood and Snapchat use may be differently related among age groups. Therefore, the second sub question is as follows:
Sub Question 2. Why do different age groups use Snapchat?
Where. Previous research found that home is the most popular location to use the app among young adults (Piwek and Joinson, 2016). Younger teens may be limited in their freedom to decide where they use Snapchat in various ways. Although statistics provide evidence that most of the young teens have their own mobile phone (Vincent, 2015), young teens might not own a mobile phone with an internet data plan. Since internet connection is required to use Snapchat, young teens may be bound to places that provide Wi-Fi when they want to use Snapchat. Also, parental supervision or rules at school may influence where children are allowed to use Snapchat. Therefore, the third sub question is:
Sub question 3. Where do different age groups use Snapchat?
When. A survey held among 209 students showed that young adults mainly use Snapchat in the late morning, early afternoon and in the evening between 7PM and 10 PM (Piwek &
9 Joinson, 2016). No study has looked at when younger users use Snapchat. Similar to location, parental supervision could affect when younger users of Snapchat are allowed to use the app. Furthermore, differences in daily schedules might result in a difference between age groups in when they use the app. The following sub question is aimed to be answered:
Sub question 4: When do different age groups use Snapchat?
Community
The final characteristic of Snapchat use in the current study is community. Community refers to the question with whom users interact on Snapchat. This includes the characteristics of these people and the amount of people that users interact with (Piwek and Joinson, 2016). Putnam (2001) introduces social capital, as “connections and the associated norms of
reciprocity among people” (Lee et al., 2014, p.1). Within social capital, two types are present: bonding and bridging. Bonding refers to close-tie relationships with whom a strong personal, intimate and emotional bond is present (ea. family and close friends). Bridging refers to the more weak-tie connections that exist among for instance classmates and acquaintances. For example, Facebook and comparable SNS were found to be related to bridging social capital (Piwek & Joinson, 2016). Facebook is often used to stay connected to more weak-tie contacts. Although social capital has not been researched within Snapchat use, the app seems to have a more intimate character than other SNS. In various studies, young adults reported that they are most likely to send snaps to a single person who is usually close friend (e.g. Vaterlaus et al., 2016; Piwek & Joinson, 2016). Young adults evaluated Snapchat as a more private tool to communicate, compared to SNS (Utz et al., 2015; Vaterlaus et al., 2016). These findings make sense knowing that close friendships are the most important contacts in young adult’ social circle (Vaterlaus et al., 2016). Therefore, it is likely that young adults use Snapchat for
10 bonding. However, the importance of close friends develops in late adolescence (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). Before that, around the age of 11, close friendships are being formed and close friendships increase importance. At the same time, young teens experience high importance of relatively large peer groups. They desire to conform to standards, rules and values of these groups (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). Hence in comparison to older users, younger Snapchat users may see the app as a tool to foster bridging social capital. On the other side, younger users may also prefer to interact with close ties, although they may have more of them as Snapchat friends than older users. Therefore, the fifth sub question is:
Sub question 5. With whom do different age groups interact on Snapchat?
Method Participants
In order to provide a representative overview of Snapchat use among different age groups, variation in age of respondents was pursued. In total, 470 respondents filled out the online questionnaire (Appendix A). 108 Responses were deleted from the dataset because these respondents reported that they did not use Snapchat. The majority of the respondents was female (75.7%, n = 362). The mean respondent age was 18.2 years old (SD = 4.97; range: 11-30). Respondents were collected through a Dutch high school and via SNS. Four high school classes with students in the age of 11 to 13 filled out the survey at the beginning of their class. The other respondents were collected via Facebook and LinkedIn by public posts that were shared and reposted multiple times.
11 Procedure
The online survey was created in Qualtrics. At the beginning of the questionnaire, respondents were presented an introduction about the purpose and content of the survey. Anonymity was assured and additional contact information about the researcher was
provided. In the first part of the survey, respondents were asked whether they used Snapchat. Non-users of Snapchat were immediately excluded from further participation. The second part of the survey consisted of specific questions about the characteristics of Snapchat use:
content, context and community. Most respondents completed the survey in 19.7 minutes.
Measures
Frequency. To measure frequency, respondents were first asked about how many days per week they use Snapchat. Second, they were asked to fill in how many minutes they spent on Snapchat on an average week day and on an average weekend day. For the analysis, the minutes per week day were multiplied by five and the minutes per weekend day were multiplied by two. The sum of these two calculations was divided by seven and then multiplied by the number of days respondents reported to spend on the app per week. This answer was labelled as ‘time spent on Snapchat per week’.
Content. For content, respondents were asked to select from thirteen content types preceded by the question “What are the things you most often take photos of on Snapchat?”
The content types included: food, selfies, sport, fashion, pets, nature, friends, family, people/objects in public, art, hobbies and the caption is more important than what is depicted. Answer options were based on findings from previous research by Piwek and Joinson (2016). The same question was asked for videos and Snapchat Story. For Snapchat story, the answer options were similar. The options for videos were slightly different because they did not include the caption is more important than what is depicted while concerts was included. The
12 questions were multiple choice. For the analysis, the number of times each content type was selected was counted with a maximum of three (photo, video, story). Later, these values were recoded so that it was only visible whether a content type was selected and not how often. Based on a factor analysis the content types art and music were combined in a new variable labelled as culture. Additionally, respondents were asked about supplementary content: emojis, filters and tags. For each supplementary content type, respondents were asked the question: “Out of 100 Snaps, how many include emojis/filters/tags”. Answers on this question were provided on a slide bar.
Context. For context, it was first examined why different age groups use Snapchat. To start, eleven motives adapted from Piwek and Joinson (2016) were provided and included: to kill time when I am bored, to follow celebrities. In the analysis, the reasons to share what I do with others and to see what others are doing were formed into a new variable labelled as sharing activities with others. Similar were to share funny things and to share beautiful/pretty things, labelled as to share funny/beautiful things. The question was multiple choice.
Second, respondents were asked about the importance of additional functions of the app. Respondents were asked to select the additional functions they found important. The six answer options, provided as multiple choice were: calling, video calling, read news, collect awards, Shazam and Snapchat Spectacles. Video calling and calling were combined into a new variable: (video)calling.
Third, mood was included in the survey as a predictor of Snapchat use. Mood was measured with seven items based on findings from Piwek and Joinson (2016) and Vaterlaus et al. (2016) including: happy, angry, joyful, sad, concerned, stressed and fortunate. Items were measured on a five-point scale ranging from never to always preceded by the statement “I use Snapchat when I feel …” A principal component analysis with varimax rotation revealed a two-factor solution, explaining 76.01% of the variance. The two factors were positive mood
13 and negative mood and each scale was found to be reliable (positive mood: α = .90; negative mood: α = .85).
To gain insight in where different age groups use Snapchat, respondents were asked to select where they used the app. The question was multiple choice and answers included: home, school, work, during sports/hobbies, on the road, and public areas. Finally, to find out when Snapchat is used, participants were asked on which moments of the day (morning, afternoon, evening, night) they use Snapchat. Multiple answers could be selected and the question was asked separately for week and weekend days. For the analysis, the means of week and weekend days were calculated for each day part.
Community. Respondents were first asked to fill in the number of their Snapchat friends and whether they more often send snaps to one person or to groups. Next, they were asked about additional Snapchat functions addressing social interaction: Snapstreak (number that shows the days a user has been snapping individually with another user within 24 hours for more than three consecutively days) and friend emojis. For both functions, respondents were asked to rate the importance on a 5-point scale (very unimportant-very important).
To measure the two types of Social Capital (Putnam, 2001), two scales from Piwek and Joinson (2016) were adapted: Bonding social capital with Snapchat and Bridging social capital with Snapchat were measured on five-point Likert scales ranging from incorrect to correct. Bonding social capital with Snapchat was measured with nine items. Items included “When I feel lonely, there are people on Snapchat I can talk to” and “The people I interact with on Snapchat would share their last money/food/water with me” (α =.74). Bridging social capital with Snapchat (ten items) included: “Interacting with people on Snapchat makes me want to try new things” and “On Snapchat, I often get in touch with new people” (α = .83).
14 Additional Method
A qualitative part was added to the study in order to get insight in more detailed patterns of Snapchat use among different age groups. Two focus groups were conducted. One focus group included children aged 11 to 15 and the second focus group included 20 to 26 year olds. Participants of both focus groups were recruited via personal contacts. In line with the survey, the main characteristics context, content and community were included in an interview guide (Appendix B). Informed consent was obtained. Parents and participants were aware of the focus group being recorded and anonymity was guaranteed. Since the main focus of this study was on the quantitative method, only the most important quotes from the focus groups were transcribed and coded.
Results Content shared on Snapchat
Overall, the most shared content types were selfies (72%), Snaps of friends (70%), and food (49%). Table 1 shows how many respondents reported to share the content types and the correlations between different types of content shared on Snaps and three other factors. A negative value for age shows that younger users more often share the content type. A positive value for gender means than women share more of that particular content type. A positive value for time shows that content types relate to frequent Snapchat use.
Table 1. Frequency of content types shared on Snapchat in percentages and
correlations between content type and age, gender and time spent on Snapchat per week.
Content type Frequency Age Gender Time
Selfies 72.9% .09 .21** -.04
Friends 70.2% .04 .18** .08
15 Sport 39.2% -.13* -.09 .09 Pets 38.4% -.02 .21** -.05 Hobbies 37.8% -.15** -.05 .04 Solely text 35.9% -.23** .05 .13* Family 34.5% .04 .00 .95 Culture 29.6% .01 .12* -.01 TV 29.6% .03 .06 .03 Nature 29.0% .01 .18** -.08 Fashion 25.4% -.12* .12* .11* Note: * p < .05, ** p < .001
Correlations between demographics were measured. A positive significant correlation
between age and gender of the respondents was found (r (362) = .15, p = .004). This indicates that women were older than the men. Since the majority of the sample was women, it was therefore decided to include both age and gender in the regression analyses. By doing so, it could be controlled whether age was the only factor that influenced content type or whether gender also played a role within the five content types that were associated with age.
Multiple regression analyses were performed using all significant correlations between age and content as shown in Table 1. First, a multiple regression analysis showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 5% of the variance in sharing images in which text is most important on Snapchat (F (3, 338) = 6.96, p < .001). Younger users are more likely to share snaps in which the caption is more important than what is depicted (β = -.20, B = -.02, p < .001). Second, a multiple regression analysis predicting snaps of food showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 5% of the variance in sharing food on Snapchat (F (3, 338) = 8.05, p < .001). Older Snapchatters (β = .11, B = .01, p = .04) and women (β = .22, B = .25, p < .001) share more snaps of food than younger users and men.
Third, a multiple regression analysis predicting snaps of hobbies, showed that the overall model with the variables age, gender and time spent on Snapchat, did not significantly predict sharing snaps of hobbies, F (3, 338) = 1.91, p = .13. However, it was found that
16 younger people share more snaps of hobbies than older users (β = -.12, B = -.01, p =.03). Finally, a multiple regression analysis showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 3% of the variance in sharing fashion on Snapchat (F (3, 338) = 4.98, p = .00). Women share more fashion Snaps than men (β = .16, B = .16, p < .00).
In addition to the content types in Table 1, supplementary content types including; emojis, filters and tags, were taken into account. Overall, out of a hundred Snaps, more than half of them included filters (M = 53.9, SD = 31.2), followed by emojis (M = 46.5, SD = 31.3). Tags are used the least (M = 34.9, SD = 28.8). Table 2 shows how many snaps out of a hundred, on average include supplementary content and the correlations between
supplementary content types, age, gender and time spent on Snapchat. A regression analysis showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat per week explained 10% of the variance in using tags on Snaps, F (2, 301) = 12.32, p < .001. Younger (β = .18, B = -1.07, p = .001) and more frequent users (β = .22, B = .01, p < .001) use more tags than older, less frequent users.
Table 2. Mean of snaps including supplementary content out of a hundred snaps and correlations between supplementary content and age, gender and time spent on Snapchat per week.
Supplementary content
Frequency Age Gender Time
Emoji 46.47 .06 .07 .05
Filter 53.93 -.05 .18** .03
Tag 34.93 -.25** -.11 .26**
Note: * p < .05, ** p < .001
Context of Snapchat use
In this study, context referred to why, where and when Snapchat is used. The three components of context were therefore analyzed separately.
17 Why different age groups use Snapchat. The main motivations to use Snapchat were found to be: sharing funny/beautiful content (79.8%), seeing what others are doing and to share activity with others (72.1%), and to cure boredom (57.5%). Table 3 shows how many respondents reported the motives and the correlations between motives for using the app, age, gender and frequency of use.
Table 3. Frequency of motives to use Snapchat in percentages and correlations between motives for using Snapchat and age, gender and time spent on Snapchat per week.
Note: * p < .05, ** p < .001
In order to control for age, regression analyses were performed for all significant correlations between age and motives. First, a multiple regression analysis predicting boredom as a motive for using Snapchat showed that the independent variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 2% of the variance in boredom as a motive for using the app, F (3, 338) = 3.17, p = .03. Older people were found to more often use Snapchat to cure boredom than younger people, β = .17, B = .02, p = .003. Second, a multiple regression analysis predicting sharing funny filters as a motive for using Snapchat showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 8% of the variance in sharing pictures with funny filters as a motive for using the app, F (3, 338) = 10.99, p < .001. Younger users (β = -.26, B = -.03,
Content type Frequency Age Gender Time
Share funny/beautiful content 79.8% -.13* .03 .00
Share with others 72.1% -.12* .10 .03
Boredom 57.5% .15** .03 .03
Use funny filters 52.5% -.24** .16** .02
Chat through pictures 25.1% -.31** .03 .16**
Follow Celebrities 13.0% -.06 .07 .02
Only way of communication 10.2% -.07 -.02 .06
Trendy 6.6% -.18** -.00 .07
18 p < .001) and women (β = .20, B = .23, p < .001) more often use Snapchat to share pictures with funny filters than older users and men.
Third, a multiple regression analysis predicting being trendy as a motive for using Snapchat showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 3% of the variance in being trendy as a motive for using the app, F (3, 338) = 4.34, p = .01. The findings indicate that younger people use Snapchat more because it is trendy than older people, β = -.19, B = -.01, p = .001. Fourth, a multiple regression analysis predicting chatting through pictures as a motive for using Snapchat showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 11% of the variance in chatting through pictures as a motive for using Snapchat, F (3, 338) = 2.41, p < .001. Younger (β = -.30, B = -.03, p < .001) and more frequent users (β = .11, B = 7.31, p = .04) use Snapchat more to have conversations through pictures than older, less frequent users.
Fifth, a multiple regression analysis predicting seeing what and showing to others what I am/they are doing as a motive for using Snapchat showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 2% of the variance in seeing what and showing to others what I am/they are doing as a motive for using Snapchat, F (3, 338) = 3.23, p =.03. Younger (β = -.14, B = -.01, p = .01) women (β = .12, B = -10, p = .03) more often use Snapchat to see what others are doing or to share with others what they are doing than older men. Finally, a multiple regression analysis predicting sharing funny and/or beautiful things as a motive for using Snapchat showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 2% of the variance in sharing funny/beautiful things as a motive for using Snapchat. Although the overall model was insignificant (F (3, 338) = 2.40, p =.07), younger users (β = -.15, B = -.01, p = .01), more often use Snapchat to share pretty and/or beautiful things than older users.
19 Additional functions. Snapchat’s additional functions were taken into account as possible reasons for people to use Snapchat. Overall, none of the additional functions were rated as very important by all ages. Out of the six additional features Discovery (21.8%) and Shazam (16%) the two functions that were most often rated as important. Only 6.4% of the participants rated Snapchat’s spectacles as important. Table 4 shows how many respondents evaluated the additional functions as important and shows the correlations between use of additional functions, age, gender and time spent on Snapchat. In order to control for age, gender and frequency, regression analyses were conducted for the significant correlations between age and additional function.
Table 4. Frequent of respondents who evaluated additional functions as important in percentages and correlations between additional features of Snapchat, age, gender and time spent on Snapchat per week.
Additional Functions
Frequency Age Gender Time
Read news 21.8% .00 .57 .00 (video)calling 19.9% -.30** -.10 .10 Shazam 16.0% -.27** .02 .05 Collecting awards 14.4% -.35** .03 .36** Spectacle glasses 6.4% -.13* -.06 .05 Note: * p < .05, ** p < .001
First, a multiple regression analysis predicting the importance of collecting awards on Snapchat showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 21% of the variance in the importance of collecting awards on Snapchat, F (3, 338) = 30.62, p < .001. Younger (β = -.30, B = -.02, p < .001), more frequent users (β = .31, B = .00, p < .001) find collecting awards more important than older, less frequent users. Second, a multiple regression analysis predicting the importance of Shazam showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 7% of the variance in the importance of
20 Shazam, F (3, 338) = 9.66, p < .001. Younger users (β = -.29, B = -.02, p < .001) value
Shazam on Snapchat more than older users.
Third, a multiple regression analysis predicting the importance of Spectacles showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 1% of the variance in the importance of Spectacles. Although the overall model was not significant (F (3, 338) = 2.29, p =.08), the findings indicate that younger users (β = -.12, B = -.01, p = .02) rate the Spectacle glasses as more important than older users. A last, a multiple regression analysis predicting the importance of (video)calling showed that the variables: age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat explained 9% of the variance in the importance of (video)calling, F (3, 338) = 12.41, p < .001. Younger Snapchatters (β = -.29, B = -.02, p < .001) value
(video)calling more than older users.
To gain more detailed insight, mood was included as a dependent variable to examine why different age groups use Snapchat. Table 5 shows scores of Snapchat use in a positive and negative mood and the correlations between mood related to age, gender and time spent on Snapchat.
Table 5. Means of positive and negative mood related to Snapchat use (1= low, 5 = high) and correlations between positive mood, negative mood, age, gender and time spent on Snapchat per week.
Mood Score Age Gender Time
Positive 4.01 -.15** .12* .19**
Negative 1.19 -.21** .02 .36**
Note: * p < .05, ** p < .001
To control for age and gender, regression analyses were conducted for both positive and negative mood. A multiple regression analysis predicting Snapchat use when being in a positive mood showed that age, gender and frequency explained 6% of the variance in using
21 Snapchat when being in a positive mood, F (3, 337) = 7.69, p < .001. Younger (β = .12, B = -.02, p = .03), women (β = .15, B = .23, p = .01) and more frequent Snapchat users (β = .17, B = .00, p = .002) use the app more when being in a positive mood than older users, men and less frequent users of the app. A multiple regression analysis predicting using Snapchat when being in a negative mood showed that age, gender and frequency explained 14% of the variance in using Snapchat when being in a negative mood, F (3, 355) = 18.96, p < .001. Younger (β = -.12, B = -.02, p = .02), frequent Snapchatters (β = .34, B = .00, p < .001) are more likely to use the app when being in a negative mood than older, less frequent users.
When Snapchat is used. Overall, Snapchat seems to be most used in the afternoon (80.1%) and in the evening (84.3%). Table 6 shows the percentage of use per moment of the day and the correlations between the moment of the day when Snapchat is used, age and gender.
Table 6. Frequency of respondents using Snapchat on a moment of the day and correlations between moments of the day when Snapchat is used, age and gender.
Moment of the Day Frequency Age Gender
Evening 84.3% .05 .07
Afternoon 80.1% -.21** -.01
Morning 35.6% -.32** .03
Night 32.9% .07 -.10
Note: * p < .05, ** p < .001
In order to control for age and gender, multiple regression analyses were performed using all significant correlations between age and moments of the day as shown in Table 5. A multiple regression analysis predicting using Snapchat in the morning showed that age and gender explained 11% of the variance in using Snapchat in the morning, F (2, 359) = 22.60, p < .001. Younger users (β = -.34, B = -.03, p < .001) use Snapchat more in the morning than older
22 users. A multiple regression analysis predicting using Snapchat in the afternoon showed that age and gender explained 4% of the variance in using Snapchat in the afternoon, F (2, 359) = 8.56, p < .001. Younger Snapchat users (β = -.27, B = -.02, p < .001) use Snapchat more in the afternoon than older users.
Where Snapchat is used. The most popular location for Snapchat use was found to be home (81.5%). The least popular location was work (15.7%). Table 7 shows the percentages of respondents who reported to use Snapchat at one of the locations and shows the
correlations between locations of Snapchat use related to age, gender and time spent on Snapchat. A multiple regression analysis showed that the variables age, gender and frequency explained 2% of using Snapchat at home (F (3, 338) = 3.04, p = .03). Younger people use Snapchat more at home than older users, β = -.14, B = -.01, p =.02. A multiple regression analysis showed that the variables age, gender and frequency explained 8% of using Snapchat at school (F (3, 338) = 10.29, p < .001). Younger (β = -.24, B = -.02, p <.001), frequent users (β = .13, B = 9.79, p = .02) use the app more at school compared to older, less frequent users. A multiple regression analysis showed that the variables age, gender and frequency explained 15% of using Snapchat at work (F (3, 338) = 20.85, p < .001). Older people use Snapchat more at work than younger users, β = .40, B = .03, p <.001.
Table 7. Frequency of locations where Snapchat is used in percentages and
correlations between locations, age, gender, and time spent on Snapchat per week.
Location Frequency Age Gender Frequency
Home 81.5% -.15** .06 .07 School 49.4% -.27** .02 .17** On the road 48.3% -.02 .02 .04 In public 47.0% .04 .03 -.03 Sport/hobbies 29.0% -.04 .04 .04 Work 15.7% .38** .07 -.03 Note: * p < .05, ** p < .001
23 Community
The aim of the fifth sub question was to examine with whom different age groups interact on Snapchat. On average, Snapchat users had 72.8 friends (SD = 84.22, range = 1-1000) and the majority of the respondents reported to send more Snaps to groups (64.3%) than to a single receiver. Table 8 shows the correlations between social factors on Snapchat related to age and gender. A negative age value for number of friends means that younger users have more Snapchat friends. A negative value for gender means that men had more Snapchat friends than women.
Table 8. Correlations between age, gender and characteristics of interactions on Snapchat.
Social factors Age Gender
Number of friends -22** -.11*
Importance of Snapstreak -53** -.08
Importance of friend emojis -44** .03 Note: * p < .05, ** p < .001
A multiple regression analysis showed that the variables age and gender explained 5% of the number of Snapchat friends, F (2, 349) = 9.64, p < .001). Younger people have more
Snapchat friends than older people, β = -.21, B = -3.53, p < .001. A multiple regression analysis showed that the variables age and gender explained 28% of the appreciation of the Snapstreak (F (2, 356) = 71.22, p < .001). Younger Snapchat users value the Snapstreak more than older users, β = -.54, B = -.15, p < .001. A multiple regression analysis showed that the variables entered: age and gender explained 20% of the appreciation of the friend emojis, F (2, 354) = 46.10, p < .001. Younger users (β = -.46, B = -.11, p < .001) and women (β = .11, B = .30, p = .02) value friend emojis more than older users and men.
No significant correlation was found between Bonding Social Capital and age (r (360) = -.08, p = .12) and gender (r (360) = .02, p = .78). A significant negative correlation was
24 found between Bridging Social capital and age of the respondents (r (358) = -.23, p < 001). A significant positive correlation was found between Bridging Social capital and gender (r (358) = -.11, p = .04). Younger users and men were shown to use Snapchat more often for Bridging Social capital than older users and women. A multiple regression analysis predicting bridging social capital on Snapchat showed that age and gender explained 5% of the variance in bridging social capital, F (2, 355) = 10.83, p < .001. Younger Snapchat users have more weak-tie relations on Snapchat than older users, β = -.22, B = -.03, p < .001.
Additional Results Content
When looking at the general patterns in Snapchat use, the survey revealed that overall, users mainly share positive content. All users shared selfies, funny filters and snaps of friends. The main differences that were found in the survey were that older users share more snaps of food whereas younger users share more snaps of hobbies, solely text, fashion and snaps with tags.
The focus groups led particularly to an interesting discovery of differences within content types. Although the survey showed no significant relation between sharing selfies and age, the focus group showed that age groups share different types of selfies. Young Snapchat users stated that the majority of their selfies include filters that they find extremely funny. Also, teens send selfies to have conversations. On these selfies, their facial expression complements the picture’s caption. Older users mainly share selfies when they are bored and want to annoy their friends by sending many selfies on which they make funny faces or use filters. Also, a difference was found in self presentation in snaps. Both the youngest and the oldest users find it enjoyable to send Snaps in which they present themselves in a
non-charming way, older teens in the focus group stated to find this a little embarrassing, unless it was shared with very close friends.
25 Girl (20): “Well, what I do with friends, this sounds really weird, but we actually do
contests of who can send the ugliest picture to each other!”
The findings of the survey showed no significant relation between filter use and age. The focus groups seemed to reveal why. The filters seemed to be most popular among very young teens and young adults. Older teens seemed more neutral about the filters and do not include them as much. For younger users the filters are the main reason to send snaps, whereas older people only use them when bored and/or to attract attention from others.
Girl (25): “Okay, yeah, so when I realized you can send each other funny pictures and especially these filters, I was like, okay, I am sold”
Context
Regarding the reasons for using the apps (why), the survey showed that the differences were that older users more often use Snapchat ‘to cure boredom’ than younger users. Younger users mainly use Snapchat more ‘to share funny/beautiful content’, ‘to share with others’, ‘to use funny filters’ and ‘to chat through pictures’.
The focus groups supported these findings in two ways. First, younger users stated to mainly use Snapchat to share with others and to see what others are doing, and second, to chat (through pictures). Only teens mentioned to use the app often to chat through pictures, in line with the survey.
Girl (14): “Yeah, not really with actual content… just like, taking a picture and instead of the normal camera you use the front camera and then just text with it.”
In addition, the survey showed that younger users find collecting rewards, Shazam and (video)calling on Snapchat more important than older users. Based on the focus group, an explanation for this finding seems that older users have less knowledge about the existence of these additional functions than younger users. Hence, older users do not rate these functions as important. The focus group also provided a new motive to use Snapchat that was not
26 included in the survey. Older users said that they often use Snapchat to store memories for themselves. This was not mentioned by younger users.
Girl (25): “… I pretty often save my Snapchat Story and I really enjoy to look at, for instance holidays from half a year ago or something and to see it back and think: Oh, that was such a good day!... ”
The survey showed that Snapchat is mainly used when users are in positive mood. The focus group provided more detailed insight on how mood relates to Snapchat use. All age groups stated to use Snapchat when being in a positive mood, although they did not exclude using the app when being moody. However, they mentioned that even in a bad mood, the Snaps would still have an entertaining character for receivers. For the older users this often included sarcasm, whereas teens stated to do it more to complain with a funny twist. Young adults mentioned that by doing so, it would help to cheer them up. This was not the case for younger users.
Regarding location, the survey showed that the most popular locations to use Snapchat were home, school, on the road and in public. The main differences between age groups were that younger users use Snapchat more at home and school. Work belonged to the least popular locations to use Snapchat. The focus groups confirmed these findings in various ways.
Younger users stated to use Snapchat at home, at school and to fewer extend in public. Boy (12): “At home, because that is where I get bored and I am not allowed to take my
phone to other places”
Older users confirmed that work and school were less preferred Snapchat locations. Their explanation was that that professional issues and embarrassment would prevent them from using Snapchat at work or at school. Instead, young adults preferred to use the app either at home or mainly, in special public area’s (ea. parties, concerts, holidays).
27 Community
The results of the survey showed that younger users score high on both the Bonding and Bridging scale (Piwek & Joinson, 2006). The focus groups supported this finding. Younger users are less selective than older users in accepting friend requests on Snapchat. Teens stated that nearly everyone they know uses Snapchat and that it is odd to not use the app. For them it is normal to accept people that are considered as weak-ties (ea. classmates and peers from sport clubs) on a large scale.
Girl (14): “Many people from school, but yes, also from hockey, but for us it is more unusual if you do not use Snapchat”
These social interactions confirm that younger people use Snapchat for bridging social capital. However, teens also stated that within this large pool of Snapchat contacts, there is usual a smaller constant group with whom they share Snaps on a daily basis. This makes the app more personal, in teen’s opinion. These groups consist of close friends and this relates to Bonding Social Capital.
Girl (14): “I snap with everyone I know, but when it is more private, then it is more the people that you know well.”
In contrast, older users are more selective in who they accept on Snapchat than younger users. Young adults only share Snaps with close ties as good friends, partners and family and find Snapchat more intimate than other social media platforms. These findings confirm that Snapchat use among young adults mainly relates to bonding social capital.
Girl (25): “And I find that it has something more intimate than, for example Instagram, Twitter or Facebook… you share something that is not important for the entire world, but for your friends it’s fun to share.”
28 Discussion
The current study examined the differences in Snapchat use among age groups. Central in this study were the pivotal characteristics of Snapchat use: content, context and community. To start, existing literature showed that young adults mainly share lightweight, fun content on Snapchat (Utz et al., 2015; Bayer et al., 2015). The current study supported these findings and specified the most shared content types. Overall, the most shared content types were: selfies and snaps of friends and food. Differences between age groups were that older users share more snaps of food, whereas younger users share more snaps in which the caption is more important than the image, snaps of fashion, hobbies and snaps with tags.
The theory led to the expectation that younger users would share more selfies than older users (Dhir et al., 2016). This was not the case. The survey showed no significant relation between sharing selfies and age and overall, selfies were one of the most shared content types. However, the focus groups showed that differences within this content type exist. Younger users share selfies with funny filters and have conversations through selfies. In comparison, older users mainly share selfies as a response to another snap or to attract
attention from friends. A possible explanation for the absence of a difference between age groups and frequency of sharing selfies might be that taking selfies is the most important function of Snapchat. Hence, a logical result would be that most Snapchat users take selfies. However, the current study provided insufficient insight to confirm this explanation.
Context referred to why, where and when Snapchat is used. The main motives to use Snapchat were found to be: to share funny/beautiful content, to see what others are doing and to cure boredom. In comparison, older users were found to use Snapchat more to cure
boredom and younger people used Snapchat more to to share funny/beautiful content, to share with others, to use funny filters and to chat through pictures. Another interesting finding was younger users value the additional functions of Snapchat more than older users. Collecting
29 rewards, Shazam and (video)calling were reported as more important by younger users than older users. Existing literature underpins the findings regarding collecting rewards. The appreciation of this gaming element by younger users corresponds with the knowledge that children find collect and reward features very appealing in games (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017).
Two important differences that were found between age groups addressed both content and context. First, sharing pictures where the caption is more important than what is depicted seems to characterize teen’s Snapchat use. This type of snaps were found to be one of the most important content type shared by younger users. Similarly, sharing this content type is an important motive for teens to use Snapchat. Teens have conversations through this type of snaps, whereas older users do not. Since the data revealed that teens spend more time on Snapchat than older users, this may indicate that the app is a much more important
communication tool in their daily lives than it is for older users. Second, a motive that is more prevalent for younger users is to use funny filters. Age did not seem to predict filter use as a content type, whereas as motivation for Snapchat use, it did. For younger users the possibility to use funny filters is one of the main reasons to use Snapchat. In contrast, older users only regarded filters as a content type that they often share while other motivations to use Snapchat dominated.
Respondents stated that they mainly use Snapchat when they are in a positive mood. These findings confirm previous studies that found similar results among young adults (Piwek and Joinson, 2016; Vaterlaus et al., 2016). In contrast to older users, teens use Snapchat more when they are in a bad mood. However, these findings do not exclude that older people use Snapchat when they are in a negative mood. The focus groups showed that the main
difference in how negative mood relates to Snapchat use was found in how it is translated. Overall, when snaps are send in a negative mood, users still aim to give these snaps an
30 entertaining nature. The difference here is that teens achieve this by directly expressing
displeasure with a funny twist, whereas older users include sarcasm; a humor type that characterizes young adulthood (Valkenburg and Piotrowski, 2017). In contrast to younger users, older users also stated that sending these kind of snaps would help them to get rid of their negative feelings. The essence of the Mood Management Theory (Zillman, 1998) is that people select media to either get rid of bad moods or to maintain good moods. The finding that older users stated that sharing snaps that include sarcasm would cheer them up implies that they indeed use Snapchat to get rid of their negative feelings. Whereas older users seem to successfully regulate their negative mood by Snapchat use, younger users do not seem to succeed to get rid of their negative mood by using the app. These differences in mood related to Snapchat used were predicted based on the knowledge that teens are emotionally less stable than young adults (Dillman Carpentier et al., 2008).
Overall, home was the most common location to use Snapchat. This confirms previous research (Piwek & Joinson, 2016). Respondents reported that home is where they often feel bored, letting them reach out for Snapchat. At the second place, teens often use Snapchat at school. In contrast, older users rather not use Snapchat at school or work. As an explanation, young adults in the focus groups stated to avoid school and work because of professional issues and embarrassment.
Similar to what was found by Piwek and Joinson (2016), Snapchat is most used in the afternoon and the evening. Differences between age groups were that younger users use Snapchat more in the morning and afternoon than older users. Younger users probably have set bedtimes, determined by parents and therefore they would not be allowed to use Snapchat after bedtime, thus in the evening and at night. At the same time, since older users do not prefer to use Snapchat at school/work, they may not use Snapchat as much during the day as younger users.
31 Finally the differences between age groups and community were investigated. Overall, people maintain close-tie relationships (ea. good friends, family) on Snapchat through
bonding social capital (Putnam, 2001). Younger users scored high for both bonding and bridging social capital, in contrast to older users. Also, younger users had more friends. These differences were expected since they dovetail the process of social development during the adolescence years. For young adults, close friendships are the most important contacts (Vaterlaus et al., 2016). However, adolescence is a phase of life in which close friendships gain importance. At the same time, adolescents are often part of a relatively large peer group. Values and standards of this group form an important factor in teen’s personality development (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). Younger users reported to interact with many people, including weak-ties such as classmates and sport team members. However when content was seen as personal, they would interact with close-ties.
One limitation of this study is that the results do not reveal how the differences that were found relate to exact ages. Although the findings show differences between older and younger users, differences within these groups are not taken into account. For example, the literature divides adolescence in early and late adolescence because young teens are not the same as older teens in terms of development, hence media preferences (Arnett, 2000; Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). Further research could therefore consider to investigate differences in Snapchat use among more specified age groups to provide a more accurate and fitting overview. Second, the self-destructive nature of content on Snapchat and the high importance of selfies make Snapchat seem as a platform where risky content such as sexually explicit content can easily be shared. Since the study included children, ethical concerns were decisive in not including such content in the investigation. However, including these types of content could reveal an important potential risk of Snapchat use, especially for younger users. Therefore, further research should consider investigating sexual content and behaviour on
32 Snapchat among teens. Furthermore, this study only provided an overview of age differences within Snapchat use. However, age says nothing about personality. Further studies could consider including personality traits such as narcissism in the investigation of differences in Snapchat use among age groups. These personality traits may affect the types of content that users share.
Conclusion
The aim of this study was to provide a comprehensive and detailed overview of how Snapchat use differs among age groups. The study investigated patterns of Snapchat use on three
pivotal characteristics of Snapchat use by conducting a survey among Snapchat users between eleven and thirty years old. In addition, focus groups provided more detailed insight in these patterns. Differences among age groups in all three of the characteristics of Snapchat user were found.
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34 Appendix A
Vragenlijst Snapchat
Q1 Beste Snapchatter, Allereerst, hartelijk bedankt voor je deelname aan dit onderzoek. Dit onderzoek is onderdeel van mijn masterscriptie voor Entertainment Communicatie aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam. Het doel van dit onderzoek is om een goed beeld te krijgen waarom, waar en hoe mensen zoals jij Snapchat gebruiken. Zolang je eerlijk bent, zijn er geen foute antwoorden. Het onderzoek zal iets meer dan 10 minuten van je tijd in beslag nemen. Je gegevens en de antwoorden die je invult zullen alleen voor dit onderzoek worden gebruikt en er zal vertrouwelijk mee worden omgegaan. Je hoeft nergens je naam in te vullen en alle informatie wordt anoniem verwerkt. Mocht je nog vragen hebben, of meer willen weten over de uitkomsten van dit onderzoek dan kun je contact met me opnemen via
maran.ozdemir@student.uva.nl. Nogmaals, hartelijk bedankt voor je medewerking. Met vriendelijke groet, Maran Özdemir
Q3 Ik ben een... jongen/man (1) meisje/vrouw (2) overig (3) Q4 Wat is je leeftijd? 11 (1) 12 (2) 13 (3) 14 (4) 15 (5) 16 (6) 17 (7) 18 (8) 19 (9) 20 (10) 21 (11) 22 (12) 23 (13) 24 (14) 25 (15) 26 (16) 27 (17) 28 (18) 29 (19) 30 (20)
35 Q5 Wat doe je door de week?
Ik zit op de basisschool (1) Ik zit op de middelbare school (2) Ik volg een studie in het MBO (3) Ik volg een studie in het HBO (6) Ik volg een studie in het WO (7) Ik werk fulltime (4)
Ik werk parttime (5)
Geen van bovenstaande (8) Q7 In welke groep zit je? 6 (1)
7 (2) 8 (3)
Q8 In welke klas zit je? (Bijvoorbeeld 5 HAVO) Q10 In welk jaar zit je?
jaar 1 (1) jaar 2 (2) jaar 3 (3) jaar 4 (4)
jaar 5 of hoger (5) Q11 In welk jaar zit je? jaar 1 (1)
jaar 2 (2) jaar 3 (3) jaar 4 (4)
jaar 5 of hoger (5) Q12 In welk jaar zit je? BA jaar 1 (1) BA jaar 2 (2) BA jaar 3 (3) BA jaar 4 of hoger (4) Master (5) Overig (6)
36 Q13 Wat is je hoogst genoten opleidingsniveau?
Geen (1) Basisschool (2) Middelbare school (3) MBO (4) HBO (5) WO (6)
Q16 Wat is je hoogst genoten opleidingsniveau? Geen (1) Basisschool (2) Middelbare school (3) MBO (4) HBO (5) WO (6)
Q17 Wat is je hoogst genoten opleidingsniveau? Geen (1) Basisschool (2) Middelbare school (3) MBO (4) HBO (5) WO (6) Q14 Gebruik je Snapchat? Ja (1) Nee (2)
Q27 De volgende vragen gaan over hoe vaak je Snapchat gebruikt. De vragen waar je zelf je antwoord kan typen, kunnen misschien een beetje moeilijk zijn. Probeer niet lang na te denken over je antwoord. Geef een zo duidelijk mogelijk antwoord. Als je een vraag echt niet kunt beantwoorden omdat je bijvoorbeeld één van de dingen nooit doet, vul dan een 0 in. Q18 In een normale week, hoeveel dagen per week gebruik je Snapchat?
1 dag per week (1) 2 dagen per week (2) 3 dagen per week (3) 4 dagen per week (4) 5 dagen per week (5) 6 dagen per week (6) 7 dagen per week (7)
37 Q19 Over het algemeen, hoeveel foto’s stuur je naar je Snapchat vrienden op een
doordeweekse dag?
Q50 Over het algemeen, hoe vaak zet je een foto in je verhaal (Snapchat Story) op een doordeweekse dag?
Q20 Over het algemeen, hoeveel filmpjes stuur je naar je Snapchat vrienden op een doordeweekse dag?
Q21 Normaal gesproken, met hoeveel verschillende personen heb je op Snapchat een chatgesprek op een doordeweekse dag?(Met een chatgesprek bedoelen we hier een gesprek waar je geen gebruik maakt van foto's of video's, maar alleen tekst in de speciale chatfunctie van Snapchat.)
Q22 Over het algemeen, hoe lang duren je chat gesprekken op Snapchat op een doordeweekse dag? Je mag meerdere antwoorden kiezen.
Kort en aaneengesloten (één gesprek van een paar minuten) (1) Lang en aaneengesloten (één gesprek van een paar uur) (2)
Kort en een paar keer (korte gesprekken met dezelfde persoon, verspreid over de ochtend/middag/avond/nacht) (3)
lang en een paar keer (lange gesprekken met dezelfde persoon, verspreid over de ochtend/middag/avond/nacht) (4)
Kort en vaak (korte gesprekken met de zelfde persoon, de hele dag door) (5) Lang en vaak (lange gesprekken met dezelfde persoon, de hele dag door) (6) Anders, namelijk: (7) ____________________
Q54 Over het algemeen, hoeveel tijd besteed je aan Snapchat op een dag in het weekend? Q23 Normaal gesproken, hoeveel foto’s stuur je via Snapchat naar je vrienden op een dag in het weekend?
Q24 Normaal gesproken, hoe vaak zet je ongeveer een foto in je verhaal (Snapchat Story) op een dag in het weekend?
Q56 Over het algemeen, hoeveel filmpjes stuur je naar je Snapchat vrienden op een dag in het weekend?
Q51 Normaal gesproken, met hoeveel verschillende personen heb je op Snapchat een chatgesprek op een dag in het weekend?(Met een chatgesprek bedoelen we hier een gesprek waar je geen gebruik maakt van foto's of video's, maar alleen tekst in de speciale chatfunctie van Snapchat.)
38 Q55 Over het algemeen, hoe lang duren je chat gesprekken op Snapchat op een dag in het weekend? Meerdere antwoorden mogelijk.
Kort en aaneengesloten (één gesprek van een paar minuten) (1) Lang en aaneengesloten (één gesprek van een paar uur) (2)
Kort en een paar keer (korte gesprekken met dezelfde persoon, verspreid over de ochtend/middag/avond/nacht) (3)
lang en een paar keer (lange gesprekken met dezelfde persoon, verspreid over de ochtend/middag/avond/nacht) (4)
Kort en vaak (korte gesprekken met de zelfde persoon, de hele dag door) (5) Lang en vaak (lange gesprekken met dezelfde persoon, de hele dag door) (6) Anders, namelijk: (7) ____________________
Q28 Waar maak je het liefste/vaakst foto’s van op Snapchat? Dit gaat alleen over de foto's die je direct naar mensen stuurt, dus niet in je verhaal en ook geen filmpjes. (Meerdere
antwoorden mogelijk) Eten (1) Selfies (2) Sport (3) Kleding/outfits/schoenen/etc. (4) Televisie/films/video games (5) (Huis)dieren (6) Natuur (7) Vrienden (8) Familie (9)
Mensen/dingen in het openbaar (10) kunst (11)
Hobby's (12)
Wat op de foto staat is niet (altijd) belangrijk, het gaat me meer om de tekst die ik wil versturen. (13)
![Corrigendum: Group morphology” [Pattern Recognition 33(6) (2000) 877–895]](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///wAAACH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==)