COMPARATIVE SYNTAX OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN BANTU LANGUAGES: COMPLEX PREDICATES
Jacobus A du Plessis Dept of African Languages Stellenbosch University Stellenbosch 7600 South Africa
Key words: complex predicate, deficient verbs, probability verb, the verb thi/re,
expressions of time
Abstract
There are four complex predicates in the SA Bantu languages, i.e. predicates with copulative verbs, deficient verbs, the verbs thi/re and probability verbs. The last three complex predicates have been dealt with here. For the copulative verbs see
i.a. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/4468.
The probability verbs are related to the English verb seem. It is a deficient verb in these languages which may appear with various complements, in some languages with up to ten different structures and in some cases they are also related to issues of comparison.
The verbs thi/re (“say”) have been addressed with attention to its distribution, its complements, its agreement and specifically its use in expressions of time or duration.
The third verb in a complex predicate is a deficient verb of which there are quite a number in these languages. They have to appear with a CP as complement. They refer to a variety of semantic interpretations such as duration in time (26 different times have been established) as well as other features such as the continuative, iterative, contrastive, completive, manner, obligation and habitual. Ten such semantic interpretations are thus possible with these deficient verbs.
CONTENTS
Complex predicates...3
Probability verbs...3
Comparison...12
The verb thi/re...14
IsiXhosa...14 Tshivenda...22 Xitsonga...23 Sesohto...24 Deficient verbs...27 1. Duration in time...30
1.1 A short while ago...30
1.2 By or before now or a particular time...31
1.3 Not by a particular time...33
1.5 Within a short time...35
1.6 After everything else...35
1.7 Without an interval of time between events...38
1.8 In the time between two events...39
1.9 At a certain time...40
1.10 First in time...40
1.11 After an unspecified time...41
1.12 Consecutive time...46
1.13 Compound tenses...52
1.14 At some time in the past...58
1.15 A while ago...59
1.16 Irregular times...59
1.17 Up to a certain time...60
1.18 At one moment of time only...60
1.19 Next morning...60
1.20 In earlier times...61
1.21 The time for or during the night...61
1.22 During a length of time...61
1.23 Not for many times...62
1.24 At some time in the future...62
1.25 Up to now and at this moment...62
1.26 The time for or during the morning...63
2. Continuative...64 3. Iterative...66 4. Contrast...69 5. Concessive...70 6. Completive...70 7. Request...71 8. Manner...71 9. Obligation...75 10. Habitual...78 Bibliography...86
COMPLEX PREDICATES
See i.a. Mohanan (2006) for an overview of grammatical verbs and complex predicates. Four complex predicates are usually recognized in the SA Bantu languages, i.e. copulative verbs (see Du Plessis (2010), deficient verbs, the verb
thi/re, and probability verbs with i.a. nga/ka. Only the last three will be dealt with
here as Du Plessis (2010) gives a comprehensive overview of the copulative verbs.
PROBABILITY VERBS
There is a deficient verb nga or ka in these languages which has to form a complex predicate with a complement clause. This verb has changed in form and may have the following forms:
isiXhosa: nga, nge, ngathi Sesotho: ka
Tshivenda: nga
Xitsonga: onge, ingi, ongeti
These verbal forms may appear in structures such as the following:
1. [DPi V [nga/ka [DPi V]
IsiXhosa:
[ngathi]: the complement clause has a verb in the Indicative mood while ngathi
itself may appear in any tense or mood with or without subjectival agreement:
[[proi] ui-gqots-a [ngathi [[proi] ui-suk-el-w-a y-into]
(pro 1AgrS-run-fv as-if pro 1AgrS-chase-appl-pass-fv copula-thing: he is running as if he is being chased by something)
[Ku-nga-dlul-anga xesha li-de, [ii-phinde [yi-a-wuj-shiy-a umhlabaj inqwelo-moyai [yi
-a-nting-a [yi-a-ngathi [ii-y-a ezulwini]
[expl-neg-pass-neg time AgrA-long 9AgrS-again 9AgrS-consec-3AgrO-leave-fv earth aeroplane 9AgrS-consec-soar-fv 9AgrS-consec-as-if 9AgrS-go-fv heaven-loc: there having not passed a long time, the aeroplane again left earth, it soared it was as if it is going to heaven)
[Lo mcimbii ui-khangel-ek-a [ngathi [a-wui-z-i ku-lung-a]
(3this matter 3AgrS-look-neut-fv as-if neg-3AgrS-come-neg to-be-right: this matter appears as if it will not come right)
Qala kuphela, [proi] wi-a-tsho ei-th-e qwintyi iinyembezi [ngokungathi [ui-ya-lil-a]
(begin only, pro 1AgrS-consec-say 1AgrSptc-thi-pf flow tears as-if 1AgrS-pres-cry-fv: Begin only, she said while tears flowed as if she is crying)
The deficient verb nga Nga + potential
The deficient verb nga appears with a complement clause which must have a potential morpheme:
a. Ndìngà ndìngàthéthà
(I wish I could speak)
b. íngà àngàthéthà
(I wish he could speak)
c. ípólísà lángà lìngàmpháthà gàdàlàlà
(May the police treat him badly)
d. Wánqwènèlá úkúngà àkàngézè áfúnyànwè kówábò
(He wanted to wish that he could never be found by his family)
e. úngé àngàbúzà mbúzwànà ómnyè
(He wished to ask another small question)
nga/nge + indicative
This nga may sometimes have an Indicative mood clause as complement:
a. Yíntó mfóndínì éthí xá íthéthá nóThíxò íngè ímbàmbé ngésándlà
(When he talked to the Lord it was as if he took him by the hand) b. Wángà úyáphílà
(He looked as if he was healthy)
c. úbónà ézì zìmìlò zábántù bàséSúlènkámà zókúthì bébónà bángè àbàbóní
(Do you see these habits of the people of Sulenkama that they see while they pretend they do not see?)
d. ímíthà yésò síbánè íyáqáqámbìsà ngàkúmbì íntlókò yám, ísúkè íjìkélézè,
ndíngè ngáthì ndìzà kùbà nésìzùngùzánè
(The rays of this light makes my head throb, it turns, I am as if I am going to get dizzy)
Sesotho:
The deficient verb appears as ka which usually has an impersonal agreement morpheme e- in [e-ka]. Its complement clause is an Indicative clause:
[proi oi-ne ai-bona [e-k-a [ha a-ka-dul-a] [proi oi-tla-seny-a kgotso ya lapa lena]
(pro she-past she-see Agr-seem-fv, if she-can-stay-fv, pro she-will-destroy-fv peace of house this: she saw it seems, if she can stay, she will destroy the peace of this house)
[proi ai-lakats-a [e-k-a [proi ai-ka-be [a-kgon-a [ho-thus-a mme enwa]
(pro she-wish-fv Agr-seem-fv pro she-can-be she-able to-help-fv woman this: she wished as if she could be able to help this woman)
Xitsonga:
The deficient verb appears as ingi or onge and it is followed by an Indicative complement clause:
[proi] swii-endl-a [leswaku [proi aj-tw-a [ingi [proj wj-o-nghen-a enceleni wa xinyama]
(pro AgrS-make that pro AgrS-feel as-if pro AgrS-simply-enter-fv in-hole of darkness: it causes/makes that he feels as if he is merely entering into a hole of darkness)
[proi] ai-vulavul-a ai-ri yexe [onge [o-v-a ni rihuhwe]
(pro AgrS-speak-fv AgrS-is alone as-if AgrS-just-be-fv with madness: he spoke being alone as if he is merely mad)
The complement clause may also be a copulative clause with the same structure as above:
IsiXhosa:
[DPi V [ngathi [DPi copula DP]
[proi] ui-gqum-a [ngathi [y-ingonyama]
(pro 3AgrS-roar-fv as-if copula-lion: he roars as if he is a lion)
[Thinai maXhosa a-si-zo-nto zi-kholw-a-yo k-uku-soloko zi-jamelene nabafazi [ngathi
[sii-ng-abe-lungu]
(we Xhosas neg-1pp AgrS-10Agr-thing 10AgrS-believe-fv-relmarker copula-to-always 10AgrS-stare-at-each-other-pf with-women as-if we-copula-white-people: we Xhosas are not people who believe to be always staring at women as if we are white people)
Xitsonga:
[DPi V [onge [DPi copula DP]
[proi] ai-cinamis-e meno [onge [proi i nguluve ya nhova]
(pro AgrS-bare-pf teeth as-if it-is pig of veld: he bared his teeth as if he is a pig of the veld)
[proi] ui-hlakahl-ile nhloko [onge [proi i munhu loyi a-nga-tlhotlhorh-iw-a nhloko hi
maribye]
(pro AgrS-shake-pf head as-if it-is person reldet he-past-smash-pass-fv head with stones: he shooked his head as if he is a person whose head was smashed with stones)
2. [DPi V [nga/ka [DPj V]
Sesotho:
[proi ai-makal-a [yj-a-k-a [kelelloj ya hae e-lahleh-ile]
(pro he-surprise-fv Agr-consec-seem-fv mind of him AgrS-lost-perf: he was surprised as if his mind is lost)
[proi ai-utlw-a [e-k-a [proj hoj-ken-a modumo w-a ntho e makats-a-ng ditsebeng]
(pro he-hear-fv AgrS-seem-fv pro there-enter-fv noise AgrS-poss thing reldet surprise-fv-relmarker ears-loc: he heard as if there enters a noise of a thing which brings surprise in one’s ears)
IsiXhosa:
[proi] kui-khangel-ek-a ku-m [ngathi [lo mfazij u-ya-vuy-a]
(pro expl-look-neut-fv to-me as-if this woman AgrS-pres-glad-fv: it appears to me as if this woman is glad)
[proi] ndii-bon-a [ngathi [[proj] ij-nqand-ek-a lula xa umntu e-nga-phakam-is-i sandla]
(pro I-see-fv as-if pro it-stop-neut-fv easily when person AgrS pts-neg-high-caus-neg hand: I see it seems it can be stopped easily when a person does not lift a hand)
Xitsonga:
[proi] a-ai-tw-a [onge [ngatij yij-w-el-e ebyongweni]
(pro past-AgrS-feel-fv as-if blood AgrS-fall-appl-pf on-brain: he felt as if blood fell on his brain)
[Mukhalabyai a-a-vona [ongeti [Sevengwanaj a-a-ri munhu w-o-hlamar-is-a ngopfu]
(Oldman past-AgrS-see as-f Sevengwana past-AgrS-is person of-to-astonish a lot: the old man saw it seems as if Sevengwana was a person who astonishes a lot)
[Musij a-wu-va-tlunya mahlo [i ngi [proi vi-o-ril-a kasi a-va-ril-i]
(smoke past-AgrS-AgrO-hurt eyes as-if pro AgrS-merely-cry-fv whereas neg-AgrS-cry-neg: smoke hurt their eyes as if they cry whereas they do not cry)
[Vinyi va yena na vona a-a-va-tirh-el-a [ongeti [a-ku-humelel-angi nchumu]
(in-laws of him also them past-AgrS-AgrO-work-appl-fv as-if neg-expl-happen-neg-pf anything: his inlaws also, they he worked for them as if there didn’t happen anything)
[Kutani [proi] ndzii-von-a [onge [proj swij-ta-hik-nonon’hw-el-a [prok] ku-dyondz-is-a
munhu w-o-tano laha exikolweni lexi]
(Then pro I-see-fv as-if pro it-will-us-difficult-appl-fv to-learn-caus-fv person of such here in-school-this: then I see it will be difficult for us to teach such a person here in this school)
3. [DPi [nga/ka [DPi V]
IsiXhosa:
[Ibalii lo-ku-za kwa-yo apha [lii-ngathi [lii-no-mdla kakhulu]
(story AgrS-of-to-come of-her here AgrS-seem AgrS-with-interest much: the story of her coming here seems to be very interesting)
[Izului [lii-ngathi [lii-za ku-tyhil-a]
(weather 5AgrS-seem 5AgrS-come to-clear-fv: The weather seems to be clearing) The verb thi followed by ngathi in the subjunctive:
[Ui-thi [xa [sele [ui-zele umzii ngabantwana, [be-phithizel-a [ui-b-e [ngathi [a-wui-soze
[uishiy-ek-e wodwa]
(3AgrS-thi when already 3AgrS-full-pf village with-children 2AgrSptc-swarm-fv 3AgrS-be-subjunct as-if neg-3AgrS-never 3AgrS-leave-neut-subjunct 3AgrS-alone: when the village was already full of children swarming around, it is as if it will never be left alone)
[Be-ku-si-thi khona [ukuba [proi wi-onwab-ile [ai-b-e [ngathi [ui-ya-cul-a nokuba ui
-ya-ncokol-a nje]
(past-expl-ptc-thi there that pro 1AgrS-happy-pf 1AgrS-be-subjunct as-if 1AgrS-pres-sing-fv although 1AgrS-pres-converse just: when she is supposed to be happy, she is as if she is singing although she is just conversing)
Xitsonga:
[proi] mii-fanel-e [ku-va [mi-karhele]. [Ni ndlalaj [ungaku] yij-mii-khom-ile]
(pro you-ought-pf to-be you-tire-pf. And hunger seem it-you-seize-pf: you ought to be tired. And hunger seems to have seized you)
[N’wa-khwidyanai [ingi [ai-vaj-cac-ile [proj]
(N’wa-Khwidyana seem he-them-chase pro: N’wa-Khwidyana seemed to have chased them away)
[Milenge ya yena]i [wonge [yii-leh-ile ku-tlula mpimo]
(legs of him seem AgrS-long-pf to-surpass measure: his legs seemed to be excessively long)
[Ririmii [ingi [rii-lo-endl-er-iw-a ku-dya vulombe ntsena]
(tongue seem AgrS-just-make-appl-pass-fv to-eat honey only: his tongue seemed to be made just to eat honey only)
Sesotho:
[Ntate yena [e-ne [e-k-a [proi o-a-lor-a]
(father he Agr-past Agr-seem-fv pro AgrS-pres dream-fv: the father seemed to be dreaming)
Proi-oi-re [motho ya tjee [e-k-ile [y-a-eb-a kwata]?
(pro you-say person reldet thus Agr-seem-pf Agr-consec-be-fv mineworker: you say such a person seemed to become a mineworker?)
[Ditsebe ts-a hae [e-ne [e-k-a [di-a-kwal-eh-a]
(Ears AgrS-poss him Agr-past Agr-seem-fv AgrS-pres-close-neut-fv: his ears seemed to be closed)
Tshivenda:
[DPi nga (ind.) [Inf] (DPi)
[Avha vhathu vha-tou-nga [u-koloda tshelede]
(these people 2AgrS-really-seem to-owe money: these people really seem to owe money)
[DPi nga (Ptc) [Inf] (DPi)
Kanzhi ndi-ḓi—pf-a [proi] vhai-tshi-nga [u-simes-a [u-amb-a kwonoku kudzina]
(many-times I-usually-hear-fv pro 2AgrS ptc-ptc-seem to-keep-on to-talk this small-name: many times I usually hear he seems to keep on talking about this small name)
[NPi [reldet [nga (consec) [Inf] (NPi)
U-y-a vhengeleni [ndi [lwendo [lu-ne [lw-a-nga [u-eḓana maela ṱhanu]
(to-go-fv shop-loc copula journey reldet AgrS-consec-nga [to-equal miles five: to go to the shop is a journey which seems to equal five miles)
[DPi nga (Indic.) [DPi V (Indic)]
[[Uyu muthu]I ui-nga [oi-takal-a u-fhira vhathu vhoṱhe]
(this person 1AgrS-seem 1AgrSpf-happy-fv to-surpass people all: this person seems to be happier than all the people)
[[proi] vhai-tou-nga [[proi] vhai-khou-fun-a u-bv-el-a nnḓa]
(pro 2AgrS-really-seem pro 2AgrS-contin-like-fv to-come.out-appl-fv outside: he really seems as if he is liking to come outside)
[DPi nga (Ptc) [DPi V (Indic)]
Arali [pro]I ndi-a-eḓel-a ndii-songo-ṱamba, [ndii-pf-a [ndii-tshi-nga [a-thi-eḓel-i
zwavhudi]
(if I-consec-sleep-fv I-neg-bath, I-feel-fv I-ptc-seem neg-I-sleep-neg well: if I sleep without a bath, I feel as if I do not sleep properly)
[proi] nd-a-pf-a [mavhudzi a-nga o-im-a oṱhe [ndi-tshi-nga [a-thi-khou-kand-a fhasi]
(pro I-consec-feel-fv hair of-me AgrSpf-stand-fv all I-ptc-seem neg-I-contin-tread.on below: I felt all my hair stood on end while I seem as if I am not treading on the ground)
[proi] hui na [mutambo muthihii [wi-e [wi-a-vh-a [ui-tshi-nga [ui-takal-el-w-a nga
vhatu-kana vhoṱhe]
(pro expl with game one reldet-past AgrS-consec-be-fv AgrS-ptc-seem AgrS-happy-appl-pass-fv by boys all: there is one game which all the boys seemed interested in)
4. [DPi [nga/ka [DPi copula DP]
Xitsonga:
[Kasi ku-basa ka yena [sw-a-nge [ku basa i ntswamba]
(and-yet to-be.white of her AgrS-pres-seem [copula milk: and yet her whiteness seems as if it is milk)
IsiXhosa:
[Intlokoi yi-a-khe [ii-ngathi [intlokoi y-imbokotho]
(head 9AgrS-of-him 9AgrS-seem copula-grinding-stone: his head seems as if it is a grinding stone)
[Le ntoi [ii-za ku-ba [ngathi y-into e-y-enz-iw-e l-iqhitala]
(this thing 9AgrS-come to-be seem thing reldet-AgrS-do-pass-pf copula-blunderer: this thing will seem to be something that has been done by a blunderer)
5. [DPi [nga/ka [DPj V]
Sesotho:
Banna ba-hlometse [jwalo ka ha [e-k-a] [ho-se [ho-u-w-a ntweng]
(men AgrS-armed-pf as-if Agr-seem-fv there-already there-go-pass-fv war-loc: the men are armed as if there is already going to war)
6. [V DPi [nga/ka [DPi V]
Sesotho:
Proi-oj-nj-kuk-a proj [jwalo ka ha [e-k-a] kej Ramotse ya fokol-a-ng]
(pro AgrS-AgrO-take pro as-if Agr-seem-fv I Ramotse reldet weak-fv-relmarker: he takes me as if I am Ramotse who is weak)
7. [V copula-DPi [nga/ka [DPi copula-DP]
IsiXhosa
[W-a-zi-v-a [e-bindek-ile [l-[elo lizwi limnandi [ngathi ilizwi l-ele-ntaka]
(1AgrS-past-refl-feel-fv 1AgrSptc-choke-pf copula-that voice Agr-sweet seem ilizwi copula-poss-bird: she felt choked with grief by that sweet voice as if it is one of a bird)
8. [V DPi [nga/ka [DPj V]
Xitsonga
[proi] ai-thy-a vana [mavitoj] [onge [yai-tswar-iw-e hi yena]
(pro AgrS-name-fv children names seem AgrS-give-birth-pass-pf by him: he gave the children names as if they were given birth by him)
[Mbhalati a-a-ri munhu w-o-rhum-el-a [mali]I [ingi [yii-nga-fik-anga khale?
(Mbhalati past-AgrS-be person AgrS-of-to-send-appl-fv money as-if AgrS-neg-arrive-neg long-ago?: Mbhalati was a person of sending money as if it didn’t arrive long ago?)
Lahaya hansi a-ku-tele hi [ngati]I [wonge ngatii i vuvendze bya komu
(there below past-expl-full-pf with blood as-if copula gore of beast: there below there is full of blood as if it is gore of a beast)
IsiXhosa
[Elo nxebai se-lii-mj-fanel-a [proj] ngoku [ngathi [wj-a-zal-w-a na-loi]
(that wound already-5AgrS-1AgrO-suit-fv now seem 1AgrS-consec-born-pass-fv with-it: that wound already suits him as if he was born with it)
9. [NP [reldet [nga/ka [TP] IsiXhosa
[proi] wi-a-yei-soloko [ei-na-[mehloj [aj-[ngathi [aj-lil-a iinyembezi]
(pro 1AgrS-past-1AgrS ptc-always 1AgrS ptc-with-eyes reldet seem 6AgrS-cry-fv tears: she always had eyes which seem as if they are crying tears)
[Y-into [e-ngathi [into a-yi-se-ntsha]
(copula-thing reldet seem neg-AgrS-still-new: it is an article which seems to be no longer new)
Xitsonga
Ekamareni a-ku-tsham-ile [manana Baloyii [loyi [ingi [ai-khunguvanyek-ile hi sw-a
n’wana w-a yena]f
(in-room past-expl-sit-pf mother Baloyi reldet seem AgrS-shock-pf with AgrS-poss child AgrS-poss her: in the room there sat the mother of Baloyi who seemd to be shocked by the things of her child)
[proi [loyii [ai-nge [proi hi ye n’wini w-a ntirho, proi ai-xw-ile mavhiki manharhu]
(pro reldet he-seem copula he owner AgrS-poss work, pro AgrS-stay-behind-pf weeks three: the one who seemed to be him the owner of the work stayed behind for three weeks)
Phatleng ho pere eo, ho-ne ho-thibaseb-a [lengetse [leo [e-k-a-ng [le-kut-il-w-e hantle]
(forehead-loc at horse that, AgrS-past AgrS-plaited-fv hair reldet
Agr-seem-fv-relmaker AgrS-cut-pf-pass-pf nicely: on the forehead of that horse, there was plaited hair which seemed as if it was cut nicely)
[hoo ekang]
Baki eo e-sa-moi-tsal-a proi [hoo [e-k-a-ng [e-tla-tloh-a [e-qhashoh-a]
(jacket that AgrS-still-her-pull-fv reldet AgrS-seem-fv-relmarker will perhaps it-burst: that jacket still pulls her to such an extent as if it will burst)
10. Expletive [nga/ka [DP V] Xitsonga:
[Ingi [nuna w-a-kwei ai-n’wij-siy-ile [proj] ni mali y-o-tlhariha]
(seem husband AgrS-of-her AgrS-AgrO-leave-pf pro with money AgrS-of-to-be.clever: It seems her husband left her with enough money)
[Onge [proi a-swii-pfumel-er-iw-a]
(seem pro past-AgrS-allow-appl-pass-fv: it seems as if it is allowed)
[Ngi [proi vai-ta-famb-a]
(seem pro AgrS-will-go: it seems they will go)
[Ungaka [proi ndzii-kuj-von-e [u-tsutsum-a]
(seem pro I-you-see-pf you-run: I seemed to have seen you running)
IsiXhosa:
[[proi] ei-vuk-a kusasa, [ngathi [ui-y-a esikolweni, kwathi kanti ui-ya-phangel-a]
(pro 1AgrS ptc-wake-fv morning, seem go-fv to-school, but in reality 1AgrS-pres-go-work-fv: while getting up in the morning, it seems as if he is going to school but in reality he is going to work)
[proi] kui-ngathi [proj] ndij-za ku-ba ne-siyezi]
(pro expl-seem pro I-come to-be with-dizziness: it seems as if I am going to be dizzy)
[proi] kwi-a-b-a [se-kui-ngathi [proj] uj-hamb-a emini]
(pro expl-past-be-fv already-expl-seem pro 1AgrS-walk in-day: it was as if he goes about in the day)
[i-ngathi [proi] ui-no-buhlobo]
(It seems as if he is friendly)
Kutheni [i-ngathi [u-funda into yokwenyani nje?] (why is it as if you learn something of the truth?) [pro] u-ngathi [u-cinga njalo]
Uku-li-shiya kw-a-m iDike, [s-a-si-ngathi [a-si-sokuze si-buy-e si-bonan-e] (when leaving Alice, we seemed as if we will never again see each other) [W-a-suka [w-a-ngathi [u-ne-qwakaza ngaloo mini a-ku-yi-bon-a le ntombi]
[(past-firstly past-seem with-peculiarity with-that day 1AgrS-tempor-her-see-fv this girl: he was at first as if he is peculiar on that day when he saw this girl)
Sesotho
[E-ne [e-k-ile [ha-ba-math-e], anthe ba-a-math-a
(Agr-past Agr-seem-pf neg-AgrS-run-neg, whereas AgrS-pres-run-fv: it seemd (it was as if) they are not running, whereas they are running)
Ka motsamao, [e-ne [e-hl-ile [e-k-a [ke motho ya kgathetse-ng]
(with walking, Agr-past Agr-really-pf Agr-seem-fv copula person reldet tire-pf-relmarker: in the way of walking, it was really as if (it really seemed) it is a person who is tired)
Hang ha a-realo, [y-a-k-a [ho-tjhomoh-ile sepekere hloohong ya hae]
(suddenly when he-say-so, Agr-consec-seem-fv Agr-snap-off nail in-head of him: suddenly when he says so, it seemed (it was as if) there snapped off a nail in his head)
Tshivenda
[[proi] hui-tou-nga [ṅwana uyu u-khou-fun-a zw-a tshikolo nga maanḓa]
(pro expl-realy-seem child this 1AgrS-contin-like-fv 8AgrS-poss school with strength: it really seems as if this child is liking schooling very much)
Musi tsimbi y-a u-bv-is-a tshikolo i-tshi –lil-a, [proi] zwii-tou-nga [na vhadededzi
vh-o-vh-a [vh-o-no-fhedza u-vhe-kany-a dzibugu dza-vho]
(when bell 9AgrS-of to-come.out-caus-fv school 9AgrS-ptc-ring-fv, pro expl-really-seem and teachers 2AgrS-pf-be-fv 2AgrS-pf-already-finish to-gather books of-them: when the bell for school-out rang, it really seems even the teachers had already gathered their books)
COMPARISON
The same verbs as above may appear in comparative constructions in Sesotho and Tshivenda:
Sesotho:P [e-k-a DP]
Ha proi kei-baj-tadim-a proj, [e-k-a [batho ba-i-that-is-a-ng mosebetsi]
(when pro I-them-look.at-fv pro, Agr-like-fv people reldet-refl-like-caus-fv-relmarker work: when I look at them they are like people who pretend to like work)
Tjhadimo ya hae e-a-hoh-el-a, [e-k-a [tjhadimo ya morena]
(appearance of him AgrS-pres-draw-appl-fv, Agr-like-fv of chief: his appearance fascinates, it is like that of a chief)
[DP e-k-a DP]
Proi bai-ne bai-na [le [ditsebe tse telele [e-k-a [ditsebe ts-a mmutla]
(pro they-past they-are with ears ADET tong Agr-like-fv AgrS-poss hare: they had long ears like ones of a hare)
[Ditaba tsena kaofela ho yena] [e-k-a [toro y-a bosiu]
(issues these all to him Agr-like-fv dream AgrS-poss night: all these issues to him are like a dream of the night)
[DP e-k-a DP]
[Dikeledi o-ne a-rerehel-a] e-k-a [motho ya shw-etse-ng mme]
(Dikeledi AgrS-past AgrS-be.weak-fv Agr-like-fv motho reldet die-appl-pf-relmarker: Dikeledi was weak like a person for whom the mother has died)
[DP reldet-ka-ng DP]
Proi-ka-bu-a [ntho [e-k-a-ng ntho eo]
(-pro AgrS-can-say-fv thing reldet-be.like-fv-relmarker that: he may say a thing like that)
Proi bai-tla-rek-a [dintho tse fokol-a-ng [tse k-a-ng sesepa]
(pro they-will-buy-fv things reldet few-fv-rel.marker reldet be.like-fv-relmaker: they will buy a few things which are such as soap)
Proi ha-ai-na [setswalle [se k-a-ng setswalle s-a motho enwa]
(pro neg-AgrS-is friendship reldet be.like-fv-rel-marker AgrS-poss person this: he does not have the friendship which is like the one of this person)
[reldet-ho-ka-ng DP]
Proi kei-utlw-a [ho-k-ang [seboko sa motho wa mosadi]
(pro I-hear-fv reldet-be.like-fv-relmarker weeping of person of woman: I hear what is like the weeping of a female person)
Proi a-utlw-a [ho-k-a-ng [modumo wa moya ha o-foka o-le hole]
(pro I-heard-fv what is like the sound of the wind when it blows being far away)
Tshivenda:
[DP nga (ptc) [DP]
[Ipfi ḽ-a-we, musi proi-ai-tshi-mj-mbudzis-a proj, ḽ-o-vh-a [ḽi-tshi-nga [ḽ-a mulwadze]
5AgrS-ptc-like 5AgrS-poss patient: her voice, when she asked me, was like one of a patient)
[proi] vhai-ond-a, [vhai-sal-a [vhai-tshi-nga [lwatsi]
(pro 2AgrS-lean-fv, 2AgrS-remain-fv 2AgrS-ptc-like blade-of-grass: she became lean and remained like a blade of grass)
[-nga sa [DP]
[Muthu w-a phirisipala u-fanela [u-nga [sa khosi]
(person 1AgrS-of principal 1AgrS-must to-be-like as chief: a principal must be like a chief)
Musi proi-ai-tshi-tandavhuz-a muthu, [ui-vho-nga [sa mathukhwi daledaleni]
(when 1AgrS-ptc-scold-fv person, 1AgrS-already-be.like rubbish rubbish-heap-loc: when she scolds a person, she is like rubbish in a rubbish-heap)
[DP nga (relat) [DP]
[Muthui [ai-no-nga [vho-Mabogo], a-thi-tsha-ḓo-dovha nd-a-mu-wana
(person 1AgrS-relat-like Mabogo, neg-I-no-longer-will-again I-consec-him-find: a person like Mabogo, I will no longer again find)
[[proi] ndii-ḓo-ṅwala [vhuṅwe vhurifhi, [vhuj-no-nga [uvho [he a-vha a-tshi-khou ṱuwa
naho]
(pro I-will-write another letter 14AgrS-relat-like 14this 14AgrS-past be 1AgrS-ptc-contin-leave with-it: I will write another letter which was like this one with which he was leaving)
THE VERB THI/RE
See i.a. Kinzela (1993) and Mabitje (1991) for a discussion of these verbs. They may appear in reported or indirect speech:
Mosadi enwa o-re: o-tla-tla
(Woman this she-says: she-will-come) Or to introduce ideophones:
Intombi i-th-e shwaka (girl she-thi-pf disappear)
Or to be used in expressions of time: [Aba bantu ba-th-e [be-fika apha]
(these people they-thi-pf they-arrive here: when these people arrived here)
THE [THI] CLAUSE IN ISIXHOSA
1. Distribution of the thi- clause
U-b-e-y-indodana [e-y-a-thi [i-s-e-ncinane] [y-ondl-ek-a kakuhle]
(he-be-perf-copula-young.man reldet-past-thi s-AgrA-young AgrS-feed-neut-fv well: he was a young man who while still young, was well fed) The relative clause with thi [eyathi isencinane]
b. After the complement [ukuze]:
Lo mfazi u-ya ku-tshona endlwini [ukuze [ba-thi bonke abantu be-phum-a enkonzweni] a-be sele-phel-e emehlaweni
(This woman AgrS-go-to-disappear in-house so-that, AgrS-thi all people AgrS ptc-come-out-fv service-loc, AgrS-be-subj already-be-finished eyes-loc: this woman will disappear into the house so that, when all the people come out of the service, she should already be out of view)
The thi-clause after ukuze is [bathi bonke abantu bephuma enkonzweni].
c. The initial position in the sentence:
[w-a-thi [e-sa-ty-a njalo lo mfo], wee cafucafu nje
(AgrS-past-thi AgrSptc-still-eat-fv so this chap, AgrS-past eat-a-little (ideo): while this chap was still busy eating, he just ate a little)
The thi-clause is [wathi esatya njalo lo mfo].
2. Complements of the thi-clause a. CP with a participial clause:
Present Tense thi + Participle followed by Subjunctive
(1) [Uthi [umfazi ephuma enkonzweni], [abe ebaleka.]
(When the woman comes out of the service, she is already running)
Perfect Tense thi + Participle followed by the consecutive
(2) [Uthe [ephuma nje] [wabe uThandeka esithi khwaphululu efuna ukuqonda
ukuba kwenzeka ntoni na.]
(Just as she went out, Thandeka suddenly stood up wanting to know what is happening)
(3) [Bathe [befika nje kwaDyonase] [bafika uTobhana emise abantu kakubi
ethetha esaa siZulu.]
(Just when they arrived at Jona’s place, they arrived while Tobhana let the people stand badly while he speaks that Zulu)
(4) [Uthe [efikelela kwiminyaka esibhozo] [wabe selencaza ngokwakhe kuyise.
(When he was 8 years, he already asked tobacco from his father)
(5) [Kwathi [ngenye imini [evela esikolweni] [uSipho wahlangatyezwa nguThemba.]
(Then on a certain day when he came from school, Sipho was met by Themba)
(6) [Wathi [esatya njalo ngokucengwa ngumsakwabo] [wee cafucafu nje wabuya
wayeka.]
(While she was still busy eating by being persuaded by her sister, she just ate a little and left (the others))
(7) [Ubeyindodana [eyathi isencinane] [yondleka kakuhle.]
(He was a little man who was well fed while still young)
Subjunctive thi with Participle followed by the Subjunctive
(8) Umfazi uya kutshona endlwini ukuze [bathi [bonke abantu bephuma
enkonzweni], [abe selephele emehlweni.]
(The woman will disappear into the house so that when all the people come out of the service, she should already be out of view)
Be-Past Tense thi with participle followed by the subjunctive
(9) [Ubungathi [usiva ukuthetha kwakhe ngobubele], [ungathandabuzi ukuba
okwenene umvundla uzeke indlela.]
(If you could hear how friendly he talks, you would not doubt that he takes after his father)
Future Tense thi with Participle followed by the Subjunctive
(10) [Uza kuthi [efika][abe efuna ukutya.]
(Just as he arrives, he already wants food)
Compound A-past tense thi with Participle followed by the Subjunctive
(11) [Wayesithi [efika esikolweni] [abe ebhala.]
(When he arrived at school, he was already busy writing)
b. CP with the Temporal mood:
Present Tense thi with Temporal Mood followed by the subjunctive
(12) [Uthi [ke umntu akuhlelwa yinto embi] [ahlekwe.]
(When something bad happens to a person, he is being laughted at)
(13) [Uthi [wakubeka eli] [zibeke eliya], wakuvela ngapha, zithi gqi phaya.
(When you put down this one, they put down that one, when you come out here, they appear there)
(14) [Uthe [akuphila uZola] [wamphuthuma engavumi umfazi ukubuyela emzini wakhe.]
(When Zola was healthy, he fetched his wife while she does not agree to return to his village)
(15) [Kuthe [kwakuba nje], [uXolile wacebisa ukuba bangalali, bandwendwele
yonke imizi enemoto.]
(When it was like this Xolile advised that they should not sleep and should visit all the villages which have cars)
(16) [Uthe [akuqonda ukuba makabe ulele uThandeka] [wavuka waphuma phandle
efuna ukuqonda ukuba ulele ngenyaniso na.]
(When he thought that Thandeka should be asleep, he got up and went outside while he wants to make certain that she is really asleep)
(17) [Uvuyisile yena uthe [akushiywa yedwa] [wakhupha umdiza watshaya.]
(When Vuyisile was left alone, he took out a cigarette and smokedf)
(18) [Uthe [uDavide akubona unina engcwenge ezi nyembezi] [weza kuye ecinga
ukuba unina uliliswa kukuba uyise engamthengeli iayisikhrim.]
(When David saw his mother with her eyes full of tears, he went to her
thinking that his mohter is being caused to cry because his father doesn’t buy an ice cream for her)
A-Past Tense thi with Temporal mood followed by the consecutive
(19) [Wathi [akufika emdanisweni] [akambona]
(When he arrived at the dance, he didn’t see her)
(20) [Wathi [akuphumelela ibanga le-J.C.] [waya kuthabatha izifundo zokonga
zengabula kwisibhedlele semishini.]
(When he passed J.C., he went to take assistant nursing in the missionary hospital)
(21) [Wathi [akubuya ngelo xesha abuya ngalo] [wamxelela ubungozi aphezu
kwabo]
(When he returned at that time he returned, she told him about the danger he is in)
Compound A-Past Tense with Temporal mood followed by the subjunctive
(22) [Wayesithi [ke akuba neziqabu], [amapolisa afike.]
(Just when he was busy to recover, the police arrived)
(23) [Wayesithi [akuvuka] [ayibalisele abantu abasecaleni kwakhe le nto yala
maphupha amkhathazayo yonke imihla]
(When he was getting up, he told people next to him about the thing of these dreams which worry him every day)
(24) [Uza kuthi [akwamkela] [angasebenzi] (When he gets money, he doesn’t work)
Be-Past Tense thi with Temporal Mood followed by the subjunctive
(25) [Ubesithi [akulamba] [alile]
(When he is hungry, he cries)
c. CP with a [xa] clause:
Present Tense thi with xa followed by the Subjunctive
(26) [Uthi [xa aphuma kwenye indlu], [athane nqwakaqha noZola]
(When he comes out of the other house, he unexpectedly meets Zola)
Perfect Tense thi followed by the Consecutive
(27) [Kuthe [xa liqalayo ukujika] [babuya abakhwetha]
(When the sun began to turn, the boys from the initiation returned)
(28) [Uthe [xa aya emnyango kwenye indlu] [lwabonakala luvuleka ucango]
(When he went to the entrance of the other house, the door was visible as open)
(29) [Uthe [xa akude kufuphi nendlu yakhe] [kwaye kudlula uZola]
(When he was near his house, there passed Zola)
A-Past Tense thi with xa followed by the Consecutive
(30) [Wathi [xa aqala ukugingqa] [ixhego laqala lazibeka phezu kwakhe iintonga
zalo]
(When he began to stand up, the old man began to spoil him)
Future Tense thi with xa followed by the Subjunctive
(31) [Uza kuthi [xa agulayo] [angabi namali]
(When he is getting ill, he has no money)
Compound A-past tense thi with xa followed by the subjunctive
(32) [Wayesithi [xa amkeleyo] [ahlawule amatyala]
(When he received money, he pays his debts)
Be-Past tense thi with xa followed by the subjunctive
(33) [Ubesithi [xa athethayo] [aphekuze nangezandla]
(When he was busy talking, he shows also with his hands)
Present Tense thi with ukuba followed by the subjunctive
(34) [Kuthi [ukuba kungokuhlwa] [ibe ngathi akuyi kusa kungagwetywanga]
(When it is evening, it seems as if it will not become light without there being judged)
(35) [Uthi [ukuba into akayiqondi], [angayiyeki idlule nje]
(When he doesn’t understand something, he doesn’t leave it and just passes by)
Perfect Tense thi with ukuba + Subjunctive followed by the consecutive
(36) [Ithe nje [ukuba imoto idlule kuye], [yema]
(Just when the car passed her, it stopped)
(37) [Phezolo ndithe nje [ukuba ndimbone esiza] [ndaqonda ukuba namhlanje uza
kudibana nekaSiphiwo]
(Yesterday evening just when I saw her coming, I knew that today she will meet the daughter of Siphiwo)
(38) [Ithe [ukuba isibeke isitulo esi] [le ntombi yee gqada phandle]
(Just when she put down this chair, this girl jumped outside)
A-past tense thi with ukuba + Subjunctive followed by the consecutive
(39) [Bathi nje [ukuba bafike ekhaya] [wabe lo mfo selephandle]
(When they arrived at home, this man was already outside)
e. CP with a kuba clause:
Present Tense thi with kuba followed by the Subjunctive
(40) [Uthi [kuba ekwazi ukubaleka] [asishiye sonke]
(Because he can run, he leaves all of us behind)
Perfect Tense thi with kuba followed by the consecutive
(41) [Kuthe [kuba ibe ingumyeyezelo wathi ukuba athi cakatha owokuqala
umkhwetha] [awa kuye onke amehlo]
(Because it was a loud cry when the first boy arrived, all eyes fell on him)
(42) [Zithe [kuba iinkomo bezisandul’ ukuphuma ziselukrozo ukuqabela]
[kwavakala isandi ukuthi dungu kwazo]
(Because the cattle have just now came out while being in a row to walk, there was audible the sound of their scattering)
A-past tense thi with kuba followed by the consecutive
(43) [Lathi [kuba ichibi belinzulu] [wakhutshwa sesithe pitsi ukuzala isisu]
(Because the pool was deep, he was taken out with his stomach already full of water)
f. CP with an Infinitive clause:
(44) [Wathi [ukuya endlwini] [wabe engasanyatheli]
(When he went to the house, he no longer touched the ground)
(45) [Kuthe [ekukhangelweni] [kwafumaneka ukuba ungaphambili kuKhawuta]
(When it was looked up, it was found you are older than Khawuta)
g. Thi with the consecutive
(46) [Zithe [iimpobole zamadoda ngobo busuku azagoduka] [zalala kwalapha
ebhotwe]
(It happened that the old men did not go home that night, they slept also here at the chief’s place)
(47) [Kuthe [kwacaca ukuba asikapheleli engakabikho uSiqungu]
(It was clear that we are not as yet all there while Siqungu was not yet present)
h. Thi with mhla
(48) [Wayesithi [mhla ke angekhoyo] [abuze emanesini ukuba akukho bantu
bebekhe baza kumbona ngaphandle kwala mapolisa kuthiwe hayi]
(The day when he was not here, he asked the nurses whether there aren’t people who will maybe see him except the police, and it was said no)
i. Thi with naxa
(49) Ebesithi naxa akowabo akhe amnike inqawa aqhumise
(Even at home he gave him his pipe and allowed him to smoke)
j. Thi + Njengokuba
(50) Kuthe njengokuba ubusuku busiya buhamba, uThandeka waziva enqwaleka
mpela.
(As the night went on, Thandeka really felt drowsy)
k. Thi + ngenxa
(51) Kuthe ngenxa yolu qhekezo, walalisa abaqeshwa bakhe apho emotweni.
(Because of this burglary, he allowed his workers to sleep in the car)
l. Thi + phambi kokuba
(52) Uthe phambi kokuba aye emsebenzini waya kubika kumkhwekazi wakhe.
(Before he went to work, he went to report to his mother-in-law)
m. Thi + kanti
(53) Kuthe kanti ehamba nje, akaphilanga
(54) Uyeva ukuba kuthe kanti ehleli nje unomninawa?
(Do you hear that he nevertheless has a younger brother?)
n. Thi with Ideophones Intransitive Ideophones
Ingxowa ithe khamnte (The bag is empty)
Transitive Ideophones
Nda-yi-thi rhawu indoda (I glared at the man)
3. Agreement of the thi-clause
a. [proi] AgrSi-thi [DPi VP]
The subject DP of the CP after the clause determines the agreement of the thi-clause:
[Lo mfazi] u-ya ku-tshon-a endlwini [ukuze [[proi] bai-thi [[bonke abantu]i bei-phum-a
enkonzweni] a-b-e [sel[e-phel-e emehlweni]
(this woman 1AgrS1-go to-disappear loc-house so.that pro2 AgrS2-thi all people2 AgrS ptc2-come.out-fv loc-service AgrS1-be-subj already-AgrS1 ptc-end-pf loc-eyes: this woman will disappear into the house so that, when all the people come out of the service, she should already be out of view)
The deficient verb a-b-e above appears in the subjunctive mood after the
complementizer ukuze and the present tense of thi. The complement clause with
be-phuma is a participial clause after thi.
b. [proi] AgrSi-thi [VP DPi]
The subject DP of the complement clause determines the agreement of the thi- clause:
[proi] ui-th-e [ai-ku-phil-a uZolai], [proi] wi-a-mj-phuthum-a ej-nga-vum-i umfazikj]
(pro1 AgrS1-thi-pf AgrS1-temp-healthy-fv Zula1, pro1 AgrS1-consec-AgrO1-fetch-fv AgrSptc1-neg-agree-neg woman1: when Zola was healthy he fetched his wife while she does not agree)
The clause with thi has the Temporal mood, and, because thi is in the past tense (perfect tense), the main clause with wamphuthuma has a consecutive mood.
[proi] kui-th-e [xa a-thi u-ya-hamb-a uBhuqa, [kw-a-fik-a iintombi e-zi-ne]
(pro expl-thi-pf when AgrS1-say AgrS1-pres-go-fv Bhuqa, expl-consec-arrive-fv girls adjdet-AgrA-four: when Bhuqa said he is going, there arrive four girls)
The expletive ku- appears with thi in the perfect tense and the main clause with
kwa-fika must then have a verb in the consecutive. d. [Subji-thi [proi-VP]
[UVuyisile yena]i ui-th-e [ai-ku-shiy-w-a yedwa], wi-a-khupha umdiza w-a-tshay-a]
(Vuyisile he AgrS1-thi-pf-AgrS1-Temp-leave-pass-fv alone, AgrS1-consec-take-out sigarette AgrS1-con-sec-smoke-fv: when Vuyisile was left alone, he took out a sigarette and smoked)
e. [proi] AgrSi-thi [[proi] VP], [subji-VP]
[proi] ii-th-e [ukuba [proi [ii-sij-bek-e [isitulo esi]j, [le ntombi]i –y-ee gqada phandle]
(pro9 AgrS9-thi-pf ukuba pro9 AgrS9-AgrD7-place-subj, this girli AgrSi-thi jump
outside: just when she put down this chair, this girl jumped outside)
THE VERB [RI] IN TSHIVENDA
With an Infinitival clause as complement of [ri]:
[proi] [vhi-o-ri [u-bv-a] vhaṅwe vh-a-sal-a
(pro AgrS2-pf-ri to-leave-fv, others AgrS2-consec-stay-fv: when they left, others remained behind)
The Infinitive clause is [u-bva] above after the verb ri in the perfect tense. The reference is to an expression denoting time in the past. It is followed by a consecutive verb [vha-sala].
[proi] [Vho-Ragalavhandai] [vhi-o-vh-a [vhai-tshi-ri [u-zw-a], proj] [wj-a-pf-a na fhasi
hu-tshi nderendere]
(pro Ragalavhanda AgrS-pf-be-fv AgrS-ptc-ri to-speak-fv, pro you-cons-hear-fv also underneath AgrS-ptc ideo (be shaken): when Ragalavhanda was speaking, you heard even the earth being shaken)
[yi-a-ri [thekhisii] [u-ṱuw-a na-e] [y-a-mbo-ḓi-y-a [y-a-mu-swik-is-a]
(AgrS-consec-ri taxi to-leave with-her, AgrS-consec-at.once-go-fv go-fv-her-arrive-caus-fv: when the taxi left with her, it at once went and it let her arrive)
[Zwifhungui zwii-ri [u-amb-a], [zwi-a-dzinginy-is-a [na dziṱhoho]
(powerful-men AgrS-ri to-speak, AgrS-consec-shake-caus-fv even heads: when the powerful men speak, they cause even the heads to shake)
With a participial clause as complement of ri:
[Khamusi [mukalahai vhi-o-ḓo-ri [vhei henengei nnḓa], [vh-a-vho-humbul-a uri
khamusi vh-o-hangw-a zwiṅwe zwithu]
that maybe AgrS-pf-forget-fv certain things: maybe the oldman when he should be there outside, he already remembered some things)
[Vhe henengei nnḓa] above is the participial clause afte [ri]:
[H-a-ri [ḓuvha ḽi-tshi-vho-ṱodou-nzhungwa nga thavha], [a-vha [a-tshi-ri ‘thi tanwi hafhu hafha hayani]
(expl-consec-ri sun AgrS-ptc-already-almost-set by mountain, she-then she-arrived again here at-home: when the sun was about to set by the mountain, she arrived again here at home)
The participial clause is [ḓuvha ḽi-tshi-vho-ṱodou-nzhungwa]
[H-a-ri [vh-o-no-fhedz-a vhurifhi] [vha-vhu-dzhi-a [vha-vhu-ne-a Thiathu]
(expl-consec-ri AgrS-pf-already-finish-fv letter, AgrS-consec-it-take-fv AgrS-it-take Tshiathu: When he already finished the letter, he took it and gave it to Thiathu) [vho-no-fhedza vhurifhi] is the participial clause.
Expression of time with [ri]:
Zwino [hu-mbo-ri [nga muṅwe musi nga matsheloni] [vha-ri [vha-fhindutshela vhengeleni]
(Now expl-immediately-ri [at one time in morning], he-decided he-go to-shop: now when it was at one time in the morning, he decided to go to the shop)
The expression of time above is [nga muṅwe musi nga matsheloni]
[H-a-ri [nga tshifhinga tsha musi vhathu vh-o-no-switul-a], [h-a-vha [hu hone vhathu vha-tshi-vhuya hafha hayani]
(expl-consec-ri with time of day people AgrS-pf-already-breakfast, expl-cause-be expl present people AgrS-ptc-return here home-loc: by the time when people had first meal of the day, it was then that people were present coming back here to home)
The expression of time is [nga tshifhinga tsha musi vhathu vho-no-switula]
THE VERB TE IN EXPRESSIONS OF TIME (TSONGA) -te [loko-] [CP]
U-te [loko a-fika ekaya], [kutani a-pfuxa n’wana a-n’wi-hlambisa]
(When he arrived at home, then he woke up the child and washed her) [Dyamba ri-te [loko ri-hlometela], [ri-tlhava miseve ya rona emisaveni] (When the sun peeped through, it stabbed its arrows on the earth) [Hudeni u-te [loko a-ha-ku-heta] [ivi a-gwedlha mati ya-khulukisa thyaka]
(When Hudeni was still finishing, he hoisted up the water and let the dirt run away)
[Ku-te [loko va-hetile ku-hlaya mali] [a-kombisa leswaku u-navela leswaku Masungi a-sungula ku-nghena xikolo]
(When they have finished to count the money, he showed that he likes that Masungi should begin school)
[Ku-te [loko va-tirhile swinene] [thicara a-byela vana hikwavo ku-huma] (When they really worked, the teacher told all the children to go out) [Ku-te [loko ku-hundze mavhiki mambirhi] [munhu lowu a-fika] (When two weeks have passed, this person arrived)
[-te [CP], [CP]
[U-te [wa-ha-fonisa sweswo], ku-ta fika Mukhari ku-ta-pfuxerisana na yena]
(When he was still phoning thus, there will arrive Mukhari, there will let discuss each other with him)
[Siku rin’wana u-te [Maluleke a-ha-tshamile] [a-hlamala ku-vona va-fika emutini wa yena]
(A certain day when Maluleke was still staying, he was astounded to see they have arrived in his village)
[Va-te [va-ha-ku-fika], nsimbi yi-ba
(When they were still arriving, the bell rang)
[U-te [a-nga-si-fika laha a-a-lava ku-ya-tshama kona], [hiloko a-vona tiva ra mati] (When he has not as yet arrived where he wanted to go and stay, it is then he saw a pool of water)
[U-te [ku-heta sweswo fihlula] [ivi a-khoma ndlela a-kongoma efemeni]
(When there was finished with breakfast, he took the road and went straight to the firm)
[Matsena u-te [ku-chika emovheni] [kutani a-pfula heke a-nghena endyangu] (When Matsena ascended from the car, he opened the gate and went in to his family)
[ku-te [CP], [CP]
[Ku-te [ku-nga-si-oma ni marha kwalaho], [ku-ta ku-ta-nghena ntlhanu wa tilori] (When there has not as yet been dried up saliva there, there will come five lorries) [Ku-te [hi nkarhi wo-chayisa], [a-vitana vanhu hikwavo]
(When it was time to leave work, he called all the people)
THE VERB RE IN EXPRESSIONS OF TIME AND CAUSE (SESOTHO) the verb re in various verbal forms with tenses:
e re e itse e tla re
e ka re e tswa re e ye e re e tle e re e ile ya re e ne e re e ne e itse e ne e tla re e ne e ka re e ne e ile ya re e ne e ye e re e ne e tle e re e ka be e re e ka be e itse e ka be e tla re e ka be e ile ya re e ka be e ye e re e tla be e re e tla be e itse e tla be e ile ya re e tla be e ye e re e no re e se no re ha e a re ha e tlo re e se re e ke se re ha e tso re ya re Possible complements of re Participial verb moo + Relative ha + Ptc kaha + Indic. Mohla + Relat. hobane + Subj. leha + Ptc. hoba + Subj. hola + Ptc. hoja + Ptc.
re in present or future: Subjunctive
re in past tense or potential: Consecutive re in habitual: habitual verb on [-e]
Example sentences [e-re]
[e-re [ha + PTC.] [SUBJUNCTIVE]
[Ere [ha a-qeta ho-ja], [a-tsamaye]
(When he finished eating, he goes away)
[e-re [leha + PTC], [SUBJUNCTIVE]
[Ere [leha ho-thwe re-a-shapuwa ke bo-ntate], [ba-re-buelle] (Although it is said we are beaten by father, they plead for us)
[e-re [hobane + Subjunctive], [Subjunctive]
[Ere [hobane a-bolele jwalo], [a-di-thobise] (Because he talk like that, he let them go away)
[e-re [moo + RELAT.], [Subjucntive]
[Ere [moo a-ikutlwang hore o-mathile ho lekane], [ebe hona a-e-bolayang] (When he heard that he has run enough, it is then he kills it)
[e-re [kaha + Indicative], [SUBJUNCTIVE]
[Ere [kaha o-sa-le monyenyane], [ho-kgethwe e mong] (Because he is still young, there is chosen another one)
[e-itse]
e[-itse [PTC], [CONSECUTIVE]
[Eitse [re-bua le yena hantle], [a-hana ho-mamela] (When we talked to him nicely, he refused to listen)
[e-itse [ha+PTC],[CONSECUTIVE]
[Eitse [ha-ba-nyona], [ba-ipata morung]
(When they saw me, they hid themselves in the bush)
[Eitse [hoba diphoofolo di-nwe metsi], [tsa-aloha]
(When the animals finished drinking water, they went to graze)
[e-tla-re]
[e-tla-re [PTC], [SUBJUNCTIVE]
[Etlare [ke-sa-le mona], [ke-nne ke-o-thuse ka mosebetsi] (When I shall still be here, I will help you with the work)
[e-tla-re [ha+PTC], [SUBJUNCTIVE]
[Etlare [ha pula e-na], [o-se-ke wa-tla mosebetsing] (When it will rain, you shouldn’t come to work)
Re with Ideophones Intransitive Ideophones
Ntate o-itse hene (My father was silent)
DEFICIENT VERBS
See also i.a. Duncan (1989), Nxumalo (2004), Sithole (2003), Baumbach (n.d.), Doke (1965), Van Eden (1956), Doke (1967), Du Plessis, Visser (1992).
Contents
Deficient verbs: 1. Duration in time
1.1 A short time ago:
IsiXhosa: sandula, khova IsiZulu: sanda, qede Xitsonga: heta Tshivenda: bvou
Sesotho: tswa (morpheme)
1.2 By or before now or a particular time IsiXhosa: se
Xitsonga: se Sesotho: setse, se
Tshivenda: no, vho (morphemes) 1.3 Not by a particular time
Tshivenda: athu
Sesotho: eso (morpheme or deficient verb) IsiXhosa: athu
1.4 Not at any time
IsiZulu: bonaze, kaze, bange, bonange, ke IsiXhosa: ze, soze
Tshivenda: vhuya 1.5 Within a short time
IsiZulu: nce Tshivenda: ṱuwa 1.6 After everything else
IsiXhosa: phetha Xitsonga: za
1.7 Without an interval of time between events Xitsonga: namba, vhela
Tshivenda: dzou, edzou Sesotho: fihla
1.8 In the time between two events Sesotho: tswa Xitsonga: pfa 1.9 A certain time IsiXhosa: phatha Xitsonga: tshuka 1.10 First in time IsiZulu: qale
IsiXhosa: qala, fike, vele 1.11 After an unspecified time
Xitsonga: kala, kondza, sala, engeta, vuya IsiXhosa: sala
Sesotho: sala, ba, tloha 1.12 Consecutive time
Sesotho: nto, ba
Tshivenda: kona, ḓo, mbo-ḓi, konou IsiZulu: qede, nele, buye, ze
IsiXhosa: ye, ze, andula, suka, de 1.13 Compound tenses
Sesotho: be, ne, ile, tla-be Tshivenda: vha
IsiZulu: be, ye, zobe Xitsonga: va
1.14 At some time in the past Sesotho: ka, ile
1.15 A while ago IsiXhosa: ze, ye
1.16 Irregular times
IsiZulu, ye, ke, qabuka Sesotho: ke
Xitsonga: hetelele 1.17 Up to a certain time
Xitsonga: kondza
1.18 At one moment of time only Xitsonga: khanga
1.19 Next morning Tshivenda: vuwa 1.20 In earlier times
Tshivenda: tsha
1.21 The time for or during the night Sesotho: lala
1.22 During a length of time Tshivenda: ndo (morpheme) 1.23 Not for many times
Sesotjo: tshwana, tshoha 1.24 At some time in the future
Tshivenda: yo
1.25 Up to now and at this moment Tshivend: kha-ḓi, tshee
1.26 The time for or during the morning Sesotho: tsoha
2. Continuative
IsiXhosa: phikela Xitsonga: va, karhi
Tshivenda: endela, sala, khou Sesotho: eketsa, nna, ntse
3. Iterative
IsiZulu: phinde, buye Tshivenda: dovha Xitsonga: engeta, tlhela Sesotho: boela, pheta
4. Contrast
Sesotho: mpa
5. Concessive
6. Completive Xitsonga: ve 7. Request Sesotho: ka Tshivenda: dzou 8. Manner
IsiXhosa: shiya, phantse, fana, tshetsha, hle, khawuleza
IsiZulu: hle, suke, phose, vele, mane, simze, cishe, sheshe, thathe, babala, shaye, sale
Xitsonga: hatla, hatlisa, rhanga, phose, ngaku Sesotho: hla, fela, batla, nyafa, phakisa, tswatswa Tshivenda: ro, ṱoḓou, tou, lala, sokou
9. Obligation
Sesotho: tshwanetse Xitsonga: fanele Tshivenda: fanela
IsiXhosa: ze, musa, mele, fanele, nge
10. Habitual
IsiXhosa: kholisa, fudula, hlala, soloko, dla, hlalele, mana
IsiZulu: hlale, hleze, hlalele, zinge, de, vele, kholisa, dane, yaye, jwayele, damane, vama
Xitsonga: dzumba, hamba, phika, tala, tama, tolovele, tshamele Tshivenda: anzela, anza, ṱolou, ḓowela, dzulela, ita, ḓi
Sesotho: hlola, tlwaetse, ye/be/hle/nne
1. Duration in time
Diration indicates the time during which an event or state exists, lasts or continues.
1.1 A short time ago
The deficient verb indicates an action that has just recently been completed.
IsiXhosa:
Sandula with an Infinitive clause:
Abantwana [ba-sandul’ [u-ku-fik-a]
(Children2 AgrS-2-just.now prepref-to-arrive-fv: the children have just now arrived)
Khova with an Infinitive clause:
Iinkomo [zi-khov’ [u-ku-phum-a]
(cattle10 AgrS10-just.recently prepref-to-come.out-fv: the cattle have just recently came out)
IsiZulu
sanda with an Infinitive clause:
Abafazi [ba-sanda [u-ku-dl-a]
Qede with an Infinitive clause:
Amadoda [a-qede [u-ku-lim-a]
(men6 AgrS6-just.now prepref-to-plough-fv: the men have just now ploughed)
Xitsonga:
heta with an Infinitive clause: this deficient verb is derived from the verb heta (finish,
complete). It frequently appears with a morpheme combination of [-aha-ku-]: Vana [a-v-aha-ku-het-a [ku-tsal-a xikambelo]
(children2 past-AgrS2-still-to-finish-fv to-write-fv examination: the children have just now finished writing the examination)
However, the durative interpretation is only evident in the morpheme combination [-aha-ku-] and the verb heta seems to retain its aspectual meaning.
Tshivenda:
bvou (<bva-u-): this deficient verb is derived from the verb bva (come out) followed
by an Infinitive clause. The infinitive morpheme [u-] may be responsible for the coalescence of the final vowel –a of bv-a to –o above. It frequently appears with a morpheme combination of [-kha-ḓi-] (still) as in Xitsonga above:
Vhana [vha-kha-ḓi-bvo [u-ḽ-a]
(children2 AgrS2-still-just.now to-eat-fv: the children have just now eaten)
Sesotho:
Sesotho has no deficient verb with this meaning of duration as above, but instead it has a prefixal morpheme tswa with the same meaning:Monna enwa [o-tswa-sheb-a [bahabo]
(Man2 this2 AgrS2-just.now-look.for-fv his.family: this man has just now been looking for his family)
1.2 By or before now or a particular time IsiXhosa:
se with a participial clause: se may appear in a contracted form as a prefix or in a
CP:
a. Abantwana [ba-se [be-fik-ile]
(children2 AgrS2-already AgrSptc2-arrive-pf: the children have already arrived)
b. Abantwana [se-be-fik-ile]
(children2 already-AgrSptc2-arrive-pf: the children have already arrived) When the subjectival agreement of the participial clause consists of a vowel u in class 3 or i in class 4 and 9, a semivowel has to appear between se and the vowel in the contracted form:
Class 3: se-w-u-:
Lo mthi [se-w-u-khul-ile]
Class 4 and 9: se-y-i:
Le ndoda [se-y-i-mk-ile]
(this man9 already-y-AgrSptc9-leave-pf: this man has already left)
When the subjectival agreement of the participial clause is in class 1 or class 6, i.e. –
e-, se changes to sele:
Class 1:
sel-e-Umntwana [sel-e-mk-ile]
(child1 already-AgrSptc1-leave-pf: the child has already left)
Xitsonga:
se with a clause in the dependent mood: se may also appear either as a prefix or in
a CP as above:
a. [proi] [ui-se [ai-famb-ile]
(pro1 AgrS1-already AgrSdep1-go-pf: he has already gone)
b. [proi] [se-mii-hundzulux-e miehleketo ya n’wina?]
(pro 2pp already-you-change-pf thoughts of you: have you already changed your thoughts?)
Sesotho:
setse (<sala) with a participial clause:
Banna [ba-setse [ba-bu-ile le yena]
(men2 AgrS2-already AgrSptc2-talk-pf with him: the men have already talked with him)
Se with a participial clause, either as prefix or with a CP as above:
a. Banna [ba-se [ba-bu-ile le yena]
(men2 AgrS2-already AgrSptc2-talk-pf with him: the men have already talked with him)
b. Banna [se-ba-bu-ile le yena]
(men2 already-AgrSptc2-talk-pf with him: the men have already talked with him)
When the subjectival agreement morpheme consists of a vowel, the participial agreement morpheme coalesces with se:
Class 3: [o-se [o-V] [o-s-o-V] Class 1: [o-se [a-V] [o-s-a-V] Class 4 and 9: [e-se [e-V] e-s-e-V] Class 6: [a-se [a-V] [a-s-a-V] Class 1: o-se a-fihl-ile
o-s-a-fihl-ile
Tshivenda:
Tshivenda has two prefixal morphemes to express the meaning above:
-no-: Vhana vh-o-no-fhez-a [u-ḽ-a]
(children2 AgrS2-pf-already-finish-fv to-eat-fv: the children have already finished eating)
-vho-: Mudededzi u-vho-ḓivh-a avha vhana
(teacher1 AgrS1-already-know-fv these children: the teacher already knows these children)
Summary
Deficient verb Morpheme
Xitsonga se se
Tshivenda - no, vho
Sesotho setse, se se
IsiXhosa se se
1.3 Not by a particular time Tshivenda
Negative atu with Infinitive clause: Mme a-nga [a-vha-athu [u-vhuy-a]
(Mother of-me neg-AgrS2-yet to-return-fv: my mother has not yet returned)
Sesotho:
Prefix: negative eso with verb ending [-e]:
Bana [ha-ba-eso-j-e]
(children2 neg-AgrS2-yet-eat-e: the children have not as yet eaten)
Deficient verb: negative eso with Infinitive clause with verb ending [-e]:
Bana [ha-ba-eso [ho-j-e]
(children2 neg-AgrS2-yet to-eat-e: the children have not as yet eaten)
IsiXhosa:
Prefix: negative morpheme [-ka-]:
Abantwana [a-ba-ka-qond-i]
(children2 neg-AgrS2-yet-understand-neg: the children do not as yet understand)
Xitsonga:
Prefix: negative of se above:
Vana [a-va-si-dy-a]
(children2 neg-AgrS2-aleady-eat-fv: the children are not as yet eating)
1.4 Not at any time IsiZulu
IsiZulu has a number of deficient verbs which appear in the negative with a complement clause in the subjunctive. These deficient verbs refer to actions or
events which did not take place or happen at any time at all. They refer to past or future events.
Past events:
[-bonaze]: Abafazi [a-ba-bonaze [ba-dl-e loku kudla]
(woman2 neg-AgrS2-never AgrS2-eat-subj this food: the women have never eaten this food)
[-kaze]: [proi] a-ngii-kaze [ngii-dl-e amakhiwane]
(pro neg-I-never I-eat-subj figs: I have never eaten figs)
[-bange]: Abantwana a-ba-bange [ba-y-e eKapa]
(children2 neg-AgrS2-never AgrS2-go-subj Cape Town-loc: the children have never gone to Cape Town)
[-bonange]: [proi] [a-sii-bonange [siihlal-e lapha]
(pro neg-we-never we-stay-subj here: we have never stayed here)
Future events:
[-ke]: negative potential of –ke:
[proi] [ai-nge-ke [ai-dlal-e]
(pro1 AgrS1-neg-ke AgrS1-play-subj: he will never play)
IsiXhosa and isiZulu
These two languages have a deficient verb ze which appears in the negative with the meaning as above:
IsiXhosa –ze : Past events:
Perfect tense negative of ze with a subjunctive clause: Aba bantu [a-ba-z-ange [ba-banj-w-e]
(these people2 neg-AgrS2-ze-neg AgrS2-catch-pass-subj: these people were never caught)
Negative of compound tense with be with a subjunctive clause:
Aba bafazi [be-be-nga-z-ange [ba-mi-nced-e proi]
(these women2 past-AgrS2-neg-ze-neg AgrS2-AgrO1-help-subj pro1: these women never helped him)
Negative of compound tense with past tense [a] with a consecutive clause: Lo mntu [w-a-y-[e-nga-z-ange [w-a-b-a na-lo ithuba lo-ku-hlal-a]
(this person1 AgrS1-past-ye AgrS1-neg-ze-neg AgrS1-consec-be-fv with-it time of-to-sit-fv: this person never had time to sit)
Future events:
Negative of soze with a subjunctive clause:
[proi] [a-sii-soze [sii-y-e phaya]
(pro neg-we-never we-go-subj there: we will never go there)
Tshivenda:
The deficient verb vhuya appears with the negative of the potential followed by a complement clause with the consecutive:
[proi] [ndii-nga-s-vhuy-e [ndi-a-muj-fun-a [proj]
1.5 Within a short time IsiZulu:
-nce with a subjunctive clause:
[proi] [ngii-zo-nce [ngii-dl-e]
(pro I-fut-soon I-eat-subj: I will presently/soon eat)
Tshivenda:
-ṱuwa with a participial clause:
[proi] [ndii-ḓo-ṱuw-a [ndii-tshi-fhedz-a]
(pro I-fut-soon-fv I-ptc-finish-fv: I will soon finish)
1.6 After everything else IsiXhosa:
-phetha with a subjunctive or consecutive clause:
a. [proi] [ndii-pheth-a [ndii-ncam-e]
(pro I-ultimately-fv I-despair-subj: I ultimately despair)
b. [proi] [ndii-pheth-e [ndi-a-sel-a iwayini]
(pro I-ultimately-pf I-consec-drinkfv wine: I at last drank some wine)
Xitsonga:
-za with a clause in the dependent mood:
[Vanhu] [va-za [va-etlel-a hi ndlala]
(people2 AgrS2-ultimately AgrS2-sleep-fv from hunger: the people ultimately sleep from hunger)
This deficient verb may appear within the following moods and tenses:
(a) Indicative mood : Positive Present tense
[Va-za [va etlela hi ndlala]]
(They ultimately sleep because of hunger)
Perfect tense
[Va-zile [va-etlela hi ndlala]]
(They have ultimately slept because of hunger)
Future tense
[Va-ta-za [va-etlela hi ndlala]]
(They will ultimately sleep because of hunger)
[A-va-za [va-dya]]
(They were ultimately eating) [A-va-zile [va-dya]]
(They had ultimately eaten)
(b) Potential mood
[Va-nga-za [va-dya]] (They may ultimately eat)
Indicative mood : Negative Present tense
[A-va-zi [va-etlela hi ndlala]]
(They do not ultimately sleep because of hunger)
Perfect tense
[A-va-zangi [va-etlela hi ndlala]]
(They have not ultimately slept because of hunger)
Future tense
[A-va-nge-zi [va-etlela hi ndlala]]
(They will not ultimately sleep because of hunger)
A - Past tense
[A-va-nga-zi [va-dya]]
(They were not ultimately eating) [A-va-nga-zangi [va-dya]]
(They had not ultimately eaten)
Potential mood
[A-va-nge-zi [va-dya]]
(They may not ultimately eat)
(c) Dependent mood Present tense
[Ndza-tsaka loko [va-za [va-dya]] (I am happy when they ultimately eat)
Perfect tense
[Ndza-tsaka loko [va-zile [va-dya]]
Future tense
[Ndza-tsaka loko [va-ta-za [va-dya]] (I am happy when they will ultimately eat)
A - Past tense
[Ndza-tsaka loko [a-va-za [va-dya]]
(I am happy when they were ultimately eating) [Ndza-tsaka loko [a-va-zile [va-dya]]
(I am happy when they had ultimately eaten)
Potential mood
[Ndza-tsaka loko [va-nga-za [va-dya]] (I am happy when they may ultimately eat)
Dependent mood : Negative Present tense
[Ndza-tsaka loko [va-nga-zi [va-dya]]
(I am happy when they do not ultimately eat)
Perfect tense
[Ndza-tsaka loko [va-nga-zangi [va-dya]]
(I am happy when they have not ultimately eaten)
Future tense
[Ndza-tsaka loko [a-va-nge-zi [va-dya]]
(I am happy when they will not ultimately eat)
A - Past tense
[Ndza-tsaka loko [a-va-nga-zi [va-dya]]
(I am happy when they were not ultimately eating) [Ndza-tsaka loko [a-va-nga-zangi [va-dya]]
(I am happy when they had not ultimately eaten)
Potential mood
[Ndza-tsaka loko [a-va-nge-zi [va-dya]]
(I am happy when they may not ultimately eat)
(d) Infinitive mood : Positive
(They want to ultimately learn Xitsonga)
Infinitive: Negative
[Va-lava ku-nga-zi [va-dyondza Xitsonga] They want not to ultimately learn Xitsonga)
1.7 Without an interval of time between events Xitsonga:
-namba with a clause in the dependent mood:
Buruku ri-chip-is-iw-ile. [proi] ndzi-o-namba [ndzii-xav-a na rona]
(trousers5 AgrS5-cheap-caus-pass-pf.pro I-just-at.once I-buy-fv also it(5): the trousers were on sale. I just at once also bought it)
-vhela with a clause in the dependent mood: [Ntiyiso] [u-vhel-e [a-xav-a saka ra mugayo]
(Ntiyiso1 AgrS1-at.once-pf AgrS1-buy-fv bag of mealie.meal: Ntiyiso at once bought a bag of mealie meal)
Tshivenda:
-dzo/-edzo with an Infinitive clause:
[proi] [ai-swik-a [ai-muj-humbel-a [proj] uri [aj-ḓ-e [aj-edzo [u-amb-a na-ei]
(pro1 AgrS1-arrive-fv AgrS1-AgrO1-ask-fv pro1 that AgrS1-come-subj AgrS1-at.once to-talk-fv with-him: he arrived and asked her to come and talk with him at once)
Sesotho:
-fihla with clauses in various moods:
Present Tense –fihla with Present Tense Participle: Ha-ke-na ho-senya naho, [ke-fihla [ke-ya hona jwale] (I cannot waste time, I am going immediately)
Future Tense –fihla with Subjunctive:
[O-tla-fihla [a-ye ho-mmona ha ba-ka-mmolella moo a teng] (He will immediately go to see him if they can tell him where he is) Future Tense –fihla with Present Tense Participle:
Ha ke-fihla hae, [ke-tla-fihla [ke-ya le ntate Kgauteng]
(When I arrive at home, I will immediately go with father to Johannesburg) Potential –fihla with Consecutive:
Ekare ha re-fihla teng, [re-ka-fihla [ra-ya moo haeno]
(If we can possibly arrive there, we can immediately go to your home) Perfect Tense –fihla with Consecutive:
[Ke-fihlile [ka-ya le yena haeso ha ke-mo-fumana]
Subjunctive –fihla with Subjunctive: Ere ha ba-mpolella, [ke-fihle [ke-ye teng] (When they tell me, I immediately go there) Consecutive –fihla with Consecutive:
Ho-fihleng ha ka, [ka-fihla [ka-ya ha malome]
(When I arrived, I immediately went to my uncle’s place) Imperative –fihla with Subjunctive:
[Fihla [o-ye wena], o-tla-qala ho-bona nnete ya seo ke-o-bolellang sona
(Go immediately you, you will begin to see the truth of that which I am telling you about)
Infinitive –fihla with Present Tense Participle: Ha-ke-batle [ho-fihla [ke-ya teng]
(I do not want to go there immediately)
Summary
CP1 CP1
Present Tense Present Tense Participle
Future Tense Subjunctive
Future Tense Present Tense Participle
Potential Consecutive
Perfect Tense Consecutive
Subjunctive Subjunctive
Consecutive Consective
Imperative Subjunctive
Infinitive Present Tense Participle
1.8 In the time between two events Sesotho:
-tswa with a participial clause:
Present Tense –tswa with a Participle:
Nke-ke ka-sebetsa serameng [ke-tswa [ke-kula hakana] (I cannot work in the garden while I am so ill in the meantime) Future Tense –tswa with a Participle:
[O-tla-tswa [o-lema ka tshimong], nna ke-sa-ya-ratha patsi
(You will plough in the field in the meantime, I am still going to cut wood) [Le-tla-tswa [le-nkemetse ho-fihlela ke-kgutla]
(You will wait for me in the meantime until I return) Potential –tswa with Participle:
[Le-ka-tswa [le-thotse ho-se hokae], le-tla-bua hamorao
Consecutive –tswa with a Participle:
[Ba-ile [ba-tswa [ba-eme moo], yaba ke-ya-ba-kgella metsi
(They stood there in the meantime, and then I went to give them water) Subjunctive –tswa with a Participle:
Bua o-qete [ke-tswe [ke-bua le nna], o-mphe sebaka
(Speak and finish so that I should speak in the meantime, you should give me an opportunity)
Imperative –tswa with a Participle: [Tsoo [o-sebetsa], ke-tla-tla ho-o-thusa
(Work in the meantime, I will come to help you) Infinitive –tswa with a Participle:
Ho-ka-ba molemo [ho-tswa [le-eja]
(It may be good of you to eat in the meantime)
Xitsonga:
-pfa with a clause in the dependent mood:
Tatana u-khomiwile hi ndlala swinene, hikwalaho loko manana a-ri-karhi a-sweka vuswa yena [u-pfa [a-nwa tiya].
(Father is very hungry that’s why when mother is busy cooking the porridge he (father) drinks tea in the meantime)
1.9 At certain times IsiXhosa
phatha
Abantwana [ba-phatha [ku-thetha], [ba-phathe [ku-zola]
(Children agr-now to-talk, agr-now to-be silent: now the children talk, then they keep quiet)
Xitsonga
-tshuka with a clause in the dependent mood:
Vana va xikolo lexi va na mikhuva leyinene. [Vo- tshuka [va-xwerile] kambe minkarhi yo tala va-fika hi nkarhi exikolweni.
(The children from this school have good manners. They sometimes/unexpectedly come late but most of the time they arrive at school in time)
1.10 First in time
The deficient verb [-qala/-qale] appears in both isiZulu and isiXhosa with the
meaning above. In both cases its complement clause may have either a subjunctive or consecutive clause depending on the tense of the clause with the deficient verb:
IsiZulu
[U-qale [a-thandaz-e]
