Think of the Teachers:
Acceptance of tablets and knowledge transference in primary education
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE
Lorraine Odijk
6071740
MASTER INFORMATION STUDIES
HUMAN-CENTERED MULTIMEDIA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM
July 16, 2015
1st Supervisor 2nd Supervisor
Dr. André Nusselder Dr. Joost Meijer
1
Think of the Teachers:
Acceptance of tablets and knowledge transference in
primary education
Lorraine Odijk
University of Amsterdam Graduate School of InformaticsScience Park 904, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Lorraineodijk@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This study focuses on the role of the teachers in primary education when implementing tablets in the classroom. Two elements are being investigated. First, to what extent the tablet is accepted as a means of teaching from the perspective of the teacher. Second, whether the tablet contributes to knowledge transference between teacher and pupil.
Furthermore, two hypotheses were investigated. The first is that teachers need more education in the use of the tablet in the classroom. The second is that the tablet contributes positively to the knowledge transference between teacher and pupil.
A survey was held among teachers in primary education. The purpose of this study was to critically asses the current situation of tablet implementation. Identifying barriers that may or may not have been identified already. Technology seems to be one of the factors that but was deemed one of the most important barriers in this research.
Categories and Subject Descriptors
K.3.1 [Computers and Education]: Computer Uses in Education.
General Terms
Documentation, Performance, Design, Reliability, Human Factors, Theory.
Keywords
Education, tablets, knowledge transference, ICT, classroom, teachers, barriers, typology of teachers beliefs and practices.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the year 2015, the buzzword concerning education seems to be innovation. The Dutch government is trying to create a new policy wherein the future of education will be tied to technological developments. The government uses social media in order to get people involved, which they try to accomplish through the
grassroots movement #onderwijs2032. This movement should help to contribute to a renewal of the curriculum of schools, both primary and secondary [13].
In a letter to the House of Representatives of the Dutch Parliament, the demand for educational reform is unequivocally related to technological advancements and developments in today’s society. Their letter states that it is no longer possible to separate education from technology and their effects on one another. The basis for this assumption is that digital literacy is set to be one of the most important characteristics of the generations to come [15].
In order to enable this process of educational reform, technological innovation will be an important element in creating and organizing the current curriculum of the schools [12]. An example of such an innovation that reforms the current curriculum is the introduction of so called Steve Job schools. These schools’ entire curriculum is based around Apple’s iPad.
While most research confirms the belief that technology provides a positive stimulus, there are some challenges that implementing technology in education faces. One of these challenges is the lack of knowledge about teachers’ acceptance of the used ICT. Some research has been done concerning the extrinsic dimension, which is comprised of first order barriers such as lack of adequate hardware and software [7]. Furthermore, the research mainly concerns the students and the technology. While both of these elements are very important for technological innovation in the educational system, without accurate knowledge of the incentives of adopting a technological innovation for teachers, the implementation of technology in educational reform will remain a great challenge. The viewpoints and philosophies of the teachers are the fundamental ideas which are key to successful integration of technology [2]. In order to investigate acceptance of technological innovation in primary education, the tablet will be taken as point of departure.
The purpose of this study is to critically assess the current situation of tablet implementation by identifying the level of acceptance of knowledge transference through the typology developed by Mama and Hennessy(2013), which is further elaborated on in the literature review. The use of this typology should be considered as another step closer to successfully integrating ICT in the educational reform program. As stated before, this will be done from the viewpoint of primary school teachers because they are vital in the successful implementation and adoption of technological innovations. The decision to focus on primary school teachers has been made because the ownership of tablets in primary school is significantly lower than secondary
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Conference’10, Month 1–2, 2010, City, State, Country.
2 school [6]. This could mean that in primary school the role of the teacher in the successful implementation of technology is more important. Furthermore, the tablet will be seen as a tool through which knowledge can be transferred. As such, this research will investigate the acceptance of this form of knowledge transference by the teachers and if they see potential in the development of tablet education.
The area of tablet implementation within education is not only important for future generations but it is also important that research can deliver evidence which ICT elements, to which tablets can be assigned, can be used positively and which might, in the end, turn out not to be as successful or contributing as hoped. The goal of this research, as stated before, is to critically assess, but also to regard opinions on tablet integration in order to find out if this is the most beneficial way of transferring knowledge to pupils in primary school, from the perspective of the teacher.
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Concept of tablet education
In the beginning of 2012 tablet research was still in the earliest stages of implementation [6]. Three years later, the amount of research that has been done indicates that education and technology cannot be separated anymore. While students and technology have been central to the research, with positive results, the role of the teachers is still somewhat unclear.
Within the concept of the use of tablets, the “many to many” idea is mentioned often [10]. This idea revolves around the concept of ever present mobile technology. According to Moran, Hawkes and El Gayar(2010), within the educational system, this would imply that the technology is always available but not necessarily focused solely on the learning process. Furthermore, both the student and the teacher are active participants in the learning process, which creates an open two way form of creating knowledge [10]. The flexible environment of tablet education has given rise to a number of advantages. For instance, both the teacher and the student have access to the same learning environment, students also have access to the same hardware and software as the teachers, there are multiple cost savings and standardization decreases the need for technical support [3]. Although advantages have said to be found in the area of collaborative learning and creativity, the use of tablets also blurs the lines between teachers and students, making it a difficult process to comprehend. As connectivity increases and students are developing as experts of technology more and more every day, shifts between pedagogy and practice arise [18]. These shifts indicate that the tablet as intermediary could have a different impact on the learning processes of the pupils [18]. These shifts greatly influence the barriers that can be identified in the implementation process of tablets, as will be discussed in section 2.2.
Even though most of the research findings profess the advantages of tablet use in education, there are some like Traxler(2010), who urge caution and express concerns regarding the architecture of the curriculum. Although he argues that an advantage is the diminishing of control of the teacher as a gatekeeper of knowledge, and thereby a lesser stranglehold on learning, he also states that the architecture of the devices will not lessen the reservations of the system and therefore the situation will not change [17].
However, the solution to this problem is currently found in collaborative spaces and communities. The movement towards the cloud offers students and teachers many more adaptive learning possibilities [6]. This is an element of tablet integration which looks promising and provides economically advantageous, sustainable and flexible solutions [14].
2.2 Barriers of ICT implementation
However, if the advantages of tablet implementation have already been identified, the question remains why successful implementation has yet to be reached. According to Duran(2000) teachers are not getting prepared sufficiently for the use of ICT for educational purposes [4]. This can be identified as a barrier of ICT implementation in the educational system when compared to the shifting role of the teacher in the 21st century, as stated by Goktas, Yildirim and Yildirim [5]. Multiple studies have been conducted that have investigated the possible barriers for integrating information and communication technology within educational environments [2,4,5,6,8,9,10,16,18]. Some of the main barriers that have been identified are:
- Lack of administrative support - Lack of appropriate materials - Lack of technical support - Lack of ICT skills
- Lack of skills for ICT integration - Lack of time
- Lack of appropriate course content - Lack of in-service training
From this list of mainly identified barriers, Goktas, Yildirim and Yildirim(2009), state that, contradictory to other literature, “lack of time,” “lack of appropriate administrative support,” and “lack of appropriate course content and instructional programs,” were not identified as barriers in their research [5]. It is therefore interesting to see which barriers will emerge from this research because of the specific focus on tablet implementation.
2.3 Pedagogical knowledge transference
When analysing the concept of education with use of the tablet, there is one particular aspect that is in the centre of it all. This is the way in which knowledge is being transferred. While it was first and foremost teachers who supplied the knowledge with the help of books, this relationship seems to change.According to Des Bordes and Ferdi(2008) it might therefore be necessary to think of knowledge and information within an new epistemology, as they state in what can be viewed as a manifesto [3]. This epistemology shift can for instance be recognized in shifts of ownership of knowledge, access to knowledge, collaborative knowledge and the value of knowledge, which can for example be recognized in citizen empowerment and ownership. Although this is an entire debate on its own, the reason for mentioning it is, the area of tablet education seems to change the way knowledge is being transferred with emphasis on the changing role of the teacher.
A similar switch has happened before, according to Britzman and Pitt(1996). They investigated a switch from the traditional teacher
3 towards an interaction between teacher and student where both learn from each other. They state:
The returned question has nothing to do with pleasing the teacher but, instead, may provide a direction for an engagement with the temporality of student learning: [C]asting learning backward and forward and providing more space for the student to consider her or his own conflicts in learning [1].
This quote was related to the different answers students provide the teachers with. From the perspective of Britzman and Pitt, the real art of transferring knowledge in the pedagogical sense is a constant two way learning process in which the temporality of the student can be placed.
This research can be placed within the context of tablet education where the same problems arise. In order to be able to place it correctly within this context, it is important to look at different learning types that have been identified in combination with some changes that the tablet, within the context of mobile technology, has enabled.
According to Jacob and Issac(2014), four different learning types can be distinguished. First there is behaviourism; learning through observing behaviour and getting feedback/reinforcement. Second there is Constructivism; learning through the interaction of experiences and ideas. Third, there is situated learning; this is in other words “context- aware” learning. Fourth, there is collaborative learning; learning through sharing and recording. Especially the fourth one has been realized to a large extent with mobile technology and cloud services [8].
These learning types are an important factor within the area of acceptance and implementation of the tablet. Research done by Tondeur et al.(2012) states that there is a strong correlation between the implementation of ICT in the classroom and the typology of a teacher [16]. It can be distilled from Britzman and Pitt(1996) and Jacob and Issac(2014) that successful pedagogical knowledge transference lies in the combination of their research. This would mean that the two-way learning process wherein knowledge is being transferred, is correlated with the learning types that characterise the teacher, as stated by Tondeur et al. [16].
2.4 Typology of teacher beliefs and practices
In light of the advantages, the barriers that have been identified and the act of transferring knowledge, it is logical to assume that a model should be used for data analyses which combines these elements. The typology, developed by Mama and Hennessy(2013), of teacher beliefs and practices concerning ICT use in classrooms does exactly this. Mama and Hennessy state that educators and policymakers should apply more emphasis on the benefits of modes of teaching within particular aspects of education[9]. They explain that from this statement a special interest developed towards teachers’ beliefs about ICT and the role technology plays on the changes in pedagogy.The typology that they developed was based on their findings. This was based on commonalities found in the responses that reflected across the data. The categories were as follows:
- Competence/Home-use - Classroom practice
- Perspective on ICT in education
- Beliefs about the value of ICT use in teaching
- Beliefs about the value of ICT use in learning - Perceived impact of ICT use on practice
The categories proved to be able to structure the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and practice. In sum, this is useful because it provides a different aspect of technology integration that, especially in this case, is very dependent on the people that need to implement them. The difference between the typology and this research is that the scope will not be ICT but will be the tablet, as a form of ICT implementation, in the classroom.
3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Based on the foregoing motivation and the literature research. The following hypotheses were made:
H1: Teachers need more education in the use of the tablet H2: The tablet contributes positively to the transference of knowledge from teacher to pupil.
Additionally, the research questions that will be answered are as follows:
R1: To what extent is the tablet an accepted means of teaching from the perspective of the teacher?
R2: Is knowledge transferred from teacher to pupil more efficiently when the tablet is used?
4. METHODS
As was shown in the literature study and the introduction, the amount of research that has been done leaves gaps to be filled in. In this research the focus lies on the acceptance of tablets in primary education with an emphasis on the transference of knowledge. While the focus has mainly been on students and technology, the typology that Mama and Hennessy(2013) introduce, offers the opportunity to look at acceptance and knowledge from the viewpoint of the teachers’ beliefs and practices. This typology has been used to conduct a survey and analyse the data. This means that the results of the research can be used to compare with the findings of Mama and Hennessy. This study uses a survey as a quantitative and interviews as qualitative research method. By using quantitative research methods, the focus of the objective scientist is being underlined. This decision has been made because of the focus on the teachers’ believes and opinions, in order to analyse the data with as little bias as possible. This has been combined with qualitative research in order to establish a better framework for analysing the difficult and complex area of opinions and beliefs as scientific results. Furthermore, it also tries to answer the direct call of Hermanni, Müller and Jauch(2015) who state that: “diversifying the number of outcome measures to offer higher degrees of validity to authentic practice [and] extending the analysis of outcome measures across time to allow measurement of different stages of teacher change/learning and impact on students” [7].
In order to gain a significant amount of data, the process was divided into three parts. Based on the literature and the typology, a pair of interviews were held as further exploratory research. This decision has been made because the interviews formed a framework for formulating the questions for the survey. The interviews were coded with the use of the typology which resulted in the following categories:
- Technical specifics - School
4 - Technical skills teacher
- Pupils’ use of tablet - Teaching material - Teachers’ control - Curriculum development - Teachers’ education
These categories can each be divided into the typology of Mama and Hennessy. The interviews were meant as a data collection method which provided initial insight.
The primary data collection method was the survey. In the survey the categories of Mama and Hennessy(2013) will serve as constructs for multiple statements which, in sum, will test the importance of each category according to the participants. The survey, which was completely in Dutch, contained open ended and closed questions, which were answered on a 5-point Likert-scale. The decision to incorporate open and closed questions has been made to provide the participants with more room to elaborate on the subject and give them the opportunity to provide answers that might not have been part of the typology of Mama and Hennessy. This not only provides them with more space to elaborate on the subject but it can also be used to see whether the results of the closed questions are in concurrence with the open questions. The complete survey can be found in Appendix A.
4.1 Participants
For the survey the number of respondents was set for >50, to obtain significant results. The target group is primary school teachers in the Netherlands. Age and gender are taken into account in the data analyses by executing cross-tabulation. 73 participants took part in the survey. 58% of the participants were below 30, 23% were between 30 and 45 and 19% were above 45. Furthermore, 84% was female and 16% male. Most of the participants, 56%, had less than five years of teaching experience and 21% had between five and ten years teaching experience. This means that the results are mainly representative for the younger primary school teachers. However, older generations often have more trouble incorporating and using new technologies which is why it can be stated that the results of this survey weigh more heavily due to a significant group of young participants, who use technology more than the older generations.
4.2 Analysis
The open ended questions were analysed in the same manner as the interviews in order to get comparative results with both the interviews and the closed questions. The closed questions were each based on the typology. One of the categories of the typology was used to test H2 and one question in particular was analysed in order to test H1. The categories were analysed and bar charts were created in order to visualize the results. Furthermore, cross-tabulation was used to see if gender and age have a significant relation to specific questions. Research question one was answered through the complete analysis of the bar charts and the cross-tabulation. The second research question was answered through the analyses of one category. All within the analytical framework of the typology.
5. RESULTS
5.1 Interviews
As preliminary research, two interviews were conducted with teachers who are actively participating in primary education. They were both female of respectively 24 and 26 years old. The coding was done with the same categories as the open questions. The complete coding can be found in section four. The results can be found in figure 1 and are visible in the chart, where I1 and I2 both represent their respective interviews.
Figure 1
As can be seen in figure 1 the two interviews have been set in the same bar chart in order to compare the amount of times a statement was made which can be attributed to the categories. Interview one had more focus on the teachers and the technical specifics while interview two also regarded the status of the tablet within the current curriculum. As a preliminary research it was clear that the technical specifics were a very important barrier that prevented full tablet implementation. A barrier that has not been mentioned often in literature thus far. Along with this barrier the second interviewee indicated that digital technologies do not stimulate the fine motor controls that young pupils need in their education, therefore writing, for instance, is essential.
5.2 Data-analysis
The data has been separated into two parts. The open questions have been analysed with the use of the same coding that was used with the interviews. From the closed questions bar charts were made that summed the total of the statements that were divided into that specific category.
5.2.1 Technical specifics and education
As stated before, the data from the open questions were analysed in the same fashion as the interviews were. This offered the same opportunity to compare both questions with each other. The first question posed, asked about the barriers that teachers come across when trying to implement the tablet. The second question posed, revolves around improvements teachers would like to see happen when implementing the tablet. The results are shown in figure 2.
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Figure 2
Again the trend of the technical specifics was deemed as the most important barrier that the teachers came across. It is interesting that, when asked about the barriers, the technical specifics are deemed most important while the second questions indicates that primary school teachers do not necessarily want to improve this. This might be due to insufficient knowledge or involvement in the technical process. However, analysing the results portrays that the education of the teachers is deemed important when asked about improvements.
Along with the results portrayed in the bar charts, some of the more prominent answers were written down that indicate more specifically what the barriers were in each category. For instance, the technical specifics, which proved most prominent as a barrier in the open questions, mainly concerned a lack of Wi-Fi connection or batteries dying too quickly. Therefore, teachers refused to use them out of fear of the tablets not working properly, or in this sense the network connection not being sufficient. One result from the interview was in concurrence with the results of the open questions: the lack of stimulation for the fine motor controls. This was mentioned in an interview and was a recurring answer in the open questions. In the first open question, the teachers also indicated multiple times that the social aspect of the classroom teaches pupils social values which are lost when they dive into the educational world of the tablet.
5.2.2 Positively trending tablets
The closed questions were statements that could be answered on a 5-point Likert scale. On average there were six questions per category. The categories were copied from the typology of Mama and Hennessy. Analysis of the categorical data was done by using two-way tables and counting the number of answers for each statement. The marginal distribution was transformed into percentages. The bar charts that are portrayed correspond with the typology. The order is as follows:
1. Competence/Home-use 2. Classroom practice
3. Perspective on ICT in education
4. Beliefs about the value of ICT use in teaching 5. Beliefs about the value of ICT use in learning 6. Perceived impact of ICT use on practice
The difference between the typology and the use of the typology in this research is that the general term ICT has been replaced with a specific focus on the tablet.
Figure 3
The first category, home use and competency, focused on the teachers’ ability to handle the tablet at home for personal purposes, see figure 3. Furthermore, questions were posed whether teachers believed the pupils to be further in their development regarding tablet use. Overall, in the entire category the results proved to be a contradiction. Though the teachers found themselves capable enough to handle the tablet for personal use, they also regarded pupils more skilled. However, the overall results portray a 41% positive result of teachers competence.
Figure 4
The results for the second category proved to be even more conclusive, see figure 4. Questions were asked that regarded the belief in the positive effect tablets have on teaching. While most teachers see the potential of the tablet, they do not see the necessity of the tablet within education. It is regarded as a useful tool but other substitutes might have more advantages. The perspective of the teacher with regards to tablet implementation as a positive influence on the curriculum of primary schools is 49.7% of the participants.
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Figure 5
The third category, perspective on ICT in education, or in this case the tablet, proved to be very consistent, see figure 5. The majority of the teachers see the tablet as a form of technology that improves the quality of education, but at the same time requires new strategies and skills in order to achieve successful implementation. Therefore, the biggest result in this section emerged from the question, whether teachers should receive more education on how to use the tablet. This was grotesquely answered with ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree,’ This is also visible in figure 5, where 42% regards the tablet as a tool that improves education in primary schools but this is in light of the personal improvements and education the teachers desire.
Figure 6
The fourth category, beliefs of the value of ICT in teaching, focuses on the tablet as a valuable asset for the teachers, in the sense that it operates as an assistant which reduces perceived workload, see figure 6. This category also focused on the increased independent learning element which could be stimulated by the tablet. Results indicated that even though there is some positive influence, primary school children are not far enough in their learning journey that the tablet enables them to learn independently. However, 43,3% of the participants agree that the tablet provides added value for the pupils.
Figure 7
The fifth category, focused on the beliefs of the value of ICT in learning, see figure 7. Learning has many elements to it, therefore the focus has been on knowledge transference in this category. The results indicated that teachers, according to 46,4% of the participants, belief pupils have the ability to receive more personalised education which enables them to engage their own intellectual level at their own pace. Teachers also indicate that the pupils are more motivated to study with the tablet, but this might also be because it is still new. Even though teachers believe the pupils have more personalised education because of the tablet, it does not mean that they learn easier or faster.
Figure 8
The sixth and last category, focused on the perceived impact of ICT in practice, see figure 8. The perceived impact of the tablet on the educational system in general seems to be positive. Although the percentages are closer together then the other categories, 38,2% agrees that the software is sufficient and easy to use. However, 26,7% answered neither agree or disagree, which is close to the 38,2%. The trend is still leaning towards overall positive results. The software that is available is easy to use and schools engage in initiatives to implement the tablet more and more. However, even if the results indicate a positive trend, many teachers indicate that the school is still in the beginning stages of implementation.
5.2.3 Cross – Tabulation
In order to see if gender and age had any significant impact on the results, cross tabulation was used. The reliability level was 95% with a p-value of 0.05. No results turned out to be significant for gender. This can be due to the fact that 84% of the participants were female.
Cross-tabulation with the age of the participants did not turn up any significant results, except for one question. The correlation between the age of the participant and whether or not they felt that the pupils were further along in their use of the tablet turned out
7 to be significant. This is not surprising. The tablet is relatively new and it would seem logical that older people might have more trouble with new technology. Age in this sense does matter [17].
5.3 Hypotheses
The first hypothesis (H1) states that teachers need to be educated more in the use of tables for educational purposes. The second hypothesis (H2) states that the tablet contributes positively to the transference of knowledge. Both hypotheses are tested using a chi-square test. This test checks if the given answers differ significantly from the expected answers. For these tests a reliability level of 95% is used. H1 was surveyed using a closed question that directly asked whether the teachers believed they needed more education in the area of tablets. The test uses the following null- and alternative hypotheses:
Null Hypothesis: Teachers do not need to be educated more in the use of tables for educational purposes
Alternative Hypothesis: Teachers need to be educated more in the use of tables for educational purposes
The chi-square test yielded a p-value of zero, indicating that the null hypothesis can be rejected, and the alternative hypothesis can be assumed, meaning teachers do believe that they need more training in the use of tablets for educational purposes.
H2 was surveyed with five closed questions in one category, and the test was performed on the sum of the number of answers per category. For H2, the following null- and alternative hypotheses are formulated:
Null Hypothesis: Tablets don’t contributes positively to the transference of knowledge
Alternative Hypothesis: Tablets contribute positively to the transference of knowledge
Again, the chi-square test yielded a p-value of zero, indicating that the null hypothesis can be rejected, and the alternative hypothesis can be assumed, indicating that teachers feel that tablets contribute positively to the transference of knowledge.
6. DISCUSSION
As a result of this study it can be concluded that the extrinsic dimension, as discussed in the introduction weighs more heavily in the execution of tablet implementation in primary education. The extrinsic dimension is the area where first order barriers consist of inadequate hardware or software, or in this case the hardware and the network. These results imply that there should be a shift in focus from an intrinsic dimension to an extrinsic dimension. Although the participants indicated that they desired more education in the ways of using the tablet as a means for teaching, the shift towards technology inadequacy is one that needs to be addressed. Certainly, if Traxlers’(2010) worries about the architecture of the operating systems are taken into account, which is clearly a problem within the implementation of the tablet.
Furthermore, in contrast to what Moran, Hawkes and El Gayar(2010) state, the technology should focus on the learning process because that is where the participants see the most value in use of the tablet [10]. In the sense that the learning process is becoming more personalised because of it. One problem that needs to be addressed within this area is the access of teachers and pupils to the same learning environment. Although software is
available that focuses on the pupils and teacher-friendly usability, teachers experience a serious lack of surveillance when the pupils are working on the tablets. This is in contradiction with Des Bordes and Ferdi(2008) who state that teachers and pupils do have access to the same learning environment and that hardware and software are easily accessed by both parties. It seems this study indicates the opposite. This might be due the nature of the research, where Des Bordes and Ferdi performed literature research and in this study both qualitative and quantitative methods were used. Teachers are indeed insufficiently prepared to deal with these situations, as is in concurrence with Duran(2000) [4].
This study is also in concurrence with the conclusion of Goktas, Yildirim and Yildirim (2009), who state that lack of time, lack of administrative support and lack of appropriate course content and instructional programs hardly play a role as barriers in the process of tablet implementation [5]. However, teachers do indicate that the instructional programs could be better. For instance, the pupils are rarely allowed to provide different answers because of the rigid structure of the software, which is stated as an advantage of ICT by Britzman and Pitt(1996) [1]. Regarding the tablet, the participants of the survey indicate that it is not possible for students to provide different answers, which contradicts Britzman and Pitt.
This directly influences the shifts in pedagogy that are discussed by Wexler(2014). The tablet influences the learning process of the pupils in the sense that it provides them the ability to have and attain an education that is fitted to their learning process. Based on the results of this study and the arguments indicated by Wexler, it can be stated that through personalisation of the educational curriculum, the role of the teacher changes from classroom teaching to personalised coaching [18].
This personalisation also has a direct effect on the learning types distinguished by Jacob and Issac(2014). They separated the learning types into four different types. Behaviourism, constructivism, situated learning and collaborative learning. Based on the results of this study it can be stated that the first three learning types all merge in the tablet environment. Pupils use a range of different media types within the tablet environment, creating an immersive learning environment, which enables the first three learning types to blend together. The last learning type, collaborative learning, has been one that is still very difficult to achieve. However, teachers did indicate that there is a need to collaborate more.
Based on the literature research, it could be stated that the combination of the research from Britzman and Pitt(1996) and Jacob and Issac(2014) would enable pedagogical knowledge transference in the most beneficial way. This statement can now be contradicted by the results of this study. The learning types can no longer be separated because of the multimedia tablet. If the learning types can no longer be separated from each other because of the tablet, where does that leave the position of the teacher if they are no longer necessary in the process of combining the different learning types? This again corresponds with the shifts in pedagogy and teaching that were touched upon by Wexler(2014). Then there is still the question of the teacher in the two-way learning process, which according to Britzman and Pitt(1996) is an important element in knowledge transference. As the results of this study indicate the two-way learning elements are not present in the tablet learning environment. Pupils are not given the ability
8 to provide different returning questions or conflicts they encountered. If the benefits of the tablet are to reach its full potential, the two-way learning process in combination with the tablet, is something that needs to be researched.
It can be stated that the most important implication of this study is the shift from the intrinsic dimension to the extrinsic dimension, which disables teachers from using the tablet due to technology deficits. This also makes them wary of using the tablet due to the fact that improvising when technology fails, in front of the classroom, is a very difficult feat. Furthermore, because of the contradicting results of this study, there is an adamant need for more research. As long as the technology barrier provides the most implications it would continue to be very difficult to investigate the extent of the implications the tablet has on the educational curriculum and the role of the teacher within a classroom setting.
7. VALIDITY
This study has been conducted entirely in Dutch and thus the participants are natively Dutch. Therefore, the conclusion of the study can only account for this target group. However, results can be used for future studies. The target group of this study was primary school teachers. During the process it became evident that the pupils in the lower classes were still a little too young to actually engage the tablet on a daily basis.
Furthermore, tablet integration in the educational system is a field of research that is still in its embryonic stage. More and more research emerges but a lot more research needs to be done. IPad schools have already been founded before the learning advantages of the tablets are known and its potential exhaustively researched. This research hopes to provide a critical assessment of the stage in which tablet implementation is currently successful. The gap that has been investigated solely focuses on teachers, who are, in essence, vital in the successful implementation of all ICT. The analysis of the data has been conducted with the typology developed by Mama and Hennessy(2013). This decision has been made because it focuses on beliefs and practices which provides a clearer view of acceptance, while at the same time making the results more subjective. However, in the case of this research, this is exactly what is necessary in order to draw conclusions on what teachers feel needs to be improved.
Knowledge transference has also been a part of this research. Though results turned out positively, much more research is necessary to draw solid conclusions. In order to see the advantages of the use of tablets longitudinal research is necessary. Suggestions for future research can be found in section 8 Future Work.
7.1 Data collection
The primary method for data collection was the survey. The interviews provided some preliminary ideas on what route the research was probably going to take. However, no conclusions can be drawn from the interviews because the number of interviews is not significant. The typology turned out to be a very suitable means of survey data analysis. However, the application of the typology within the survey may be subject to a subjective view of the researcher because questions were formulated in a certain sense. This does not make the results any less valid, but it does mean that the perspective needs to be taken into account as
well as the fact that more research needs to be done, in which case this research can help as a building block. Participants of the survey were mainly female and had less than five years of teaching experience, or five to ten years of teaching experience. Therefore, conclusions mainly apply to this group.
7.2 Teachers
No significant conclusions on the type of teacher from respondents could be made because results were inconclusive. However, regarding knowledge transference, it could be concluded that teachers belief that the tablet increases personalisation of the education curriculum and that this is indeed a positive development.
Teachers also indicated that the tablet is currently seen as a new toy for the pupils which might make it more interesting and which motivates the pupils more than it might in a few years. This is an element which can only be researched over time. In conclusion this research can be seen as an appeal for better technology which is necessary for the successful implementation of tablets in primary schools. Better networks and hardware seem to be needed.
8. FUTURE WORK
As stated before, it would seem that there is still more time needed in order to really see the benefits of tablet education. It is not fully implemented yet, but conclusions that are drawn make for interesting debates. One could for instance look at IPad schools. Based on the conclusion of this study, especially the knowledge transference element, it would seem that it is unknown whether those pupils actually learn better or even in the same way as other primary schools.
The main studies that can be based on this study are longitudinal studies that for instance compare IPad schools with regular primary schools. Secondary school can be investigated with the help of the same typology. A longitudinal study that looks at knowledge transference is one of the most important future studies that can be derived from this research. And the impact of technological deficits in education need to be researched in order to test if this is indeed a barrier that weighs heavily on the implementation of the tablet in education.
Lastly, because there was no significant conclusion regarding the learning type of the teachers who participated in the research, the combination of the research of Britzman and Pitt and Jacob and Issac lends itself for another study, where pedagogical knowledge transference can be investigated.
9. CONCLUSION
In conclusion this research builds on embryonic research and, as the results indicate, tablet implementation in the educational system has not left this stage yet. Therefore, this study can be seen as a continuation of previous research which adds another barrier and identifies areas within tablet implementation that need to be researched in order to make it successful. Overall, the results indicate a positive attitude towards tablet implementation. The first research question, to what extent the tablet has been accepted as a means of teaching from the perspective of the teacher, can mainly be answered through the data from the survey. With the use of the typology of Mama and Hennessy it becomes clear that teachers do try to use the tablet more and more. However, the technical specifics and adequacy of the teachers
9 leaves much to the imagination. The technical specifics were the strongest barrier that emerged from this study. Teachers are willing to implement the tablet and they do see the advantages but they are afraid that the technology will fail them when they try to use it. As the results of the open questions indicated, the fact that writing is deemed a very important skill for learning fine motor controls makes teachers hesitant to adopt the tablet in the full curriculum. Overall the believe of the teachers is that there might be another technology that is better suited for educational purposes.
The second research question, whether knowledge is transferred more efficiently from teacher to pupil with the use of a tablet, can only be answered with another question mark. The results of this study do confirm that teachers see the positive potential of personalised education which would enable pupils to learn at their own pace. Teachers also indicate that the pupils enjoy working with the tablet because it is new and therefore exciting. However, conclusions cannot be drawn on whether the pupils learn easier or faster using the tablet. It would seem longitudinal research is needed for this area of research.
When looking at the results of the survey there is one fundamental difference between the barriers that have been identified in the literature and the barriers that emerged from the survey results. While the survey was in concurrence of the fact that teachers need more education in the area of tablet implementation, another barrier was stated, which was more significant. This barrier is the technical specifics. The conclusions are mainly that network connections are not sufficient enough, that batteries are insufficient to sustain teaching for multiple teachers in multiple classrooms and teachers have problems with the different operating systems. This conclusion paves the road for some problematic views on tablet implementation. These problems are not easy to solve and conclusions can be drawn that the technology is, as of yet, not developed enough. Therefore this study can be seen, as stated before, as an appeal for better technology which is necessary for the successful implementation of tablets in primary education. As well as an incentive to focus on the growing need amongst teachers to get educated in the use of tablets in the classroom.
9.1 Typology
In comparison with the typology of Mama and Hennessy(2013) this research draws mainly the same conclusions. They state that the typology is useful for strengthening and transforming the role of the teacher in the educational system and the role they play with technology [9]. They also note that word-processing is still the main application that is being used instead of pedagogical engaging activities. From the interviews that have been conducted for this study, the same conclusion can be drawn. Furthermore, this study is in concurrence with their general conclusion which is that the technology infrastructure is not sufficient but at the same time noting that it probably never will be. It will probably always remain inadequate for the teachers [9]. This research contributes to this conclusion by adding that it is not merely the infrastructure that needs to be improved but that there is need for a standard regarding tablet education. This would not eliminate problems with the network connection but it would solve some problems for operating systems.
10. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study has been conducted for a Master of Science degree in Information Studies. I want to thank my supervisor, André Nusselder for the role he has played in supervising this study and giving me feedback when it was much desired. I want to thank Fleur Kelder for helping me get through hard times and helping me with critically assessing the interviews. I want to thank Tirza Huisingh for helping structure my thesis in the final stages and for being critical. Furthermore, I want to thank my second examiner, Joost Meijer who was kind enough to accept the role of second examiner and was flexible in picking a date for the defence. Lastly, I want to thank everyone who has played a role in making this thesis happen and allowing me to graduate.
11. REFERENCES
[1] Britzman, D. P., & Pitt, A. J. (1996). Pedagogy and
transference: Casting the past of learning into the presence of teaching. Theory into Practice, 35(2), 117-123.
[2] Chen, F. H., Looi, C. K., & Chen, W. (2009). Integrating technology in the classroom: a visual conceptualization of teachers' knowledge, goals and beliefs. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25(5), 470-488.
[3] Des Bordes, A., & Ferdi, S. (2008, January). Do Knowledge and New Technologies Need a New Epistemology?. In 16th
BOBCATSSS Symposium 2008-Providing Access to Information for Everyone (BOBCATSSS 2008).
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin.
[4] Duran, M. (2000). Preparing technology-proficient teachers. In Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education
International Conference (Vol. 2000, No. 1, pp. 1343-1348). [5] Goktas, Y., Yildirim, S., & Yildirim, Z. (2009). Main
Barriers and Possible Enablers of ICTs Integration into Pre-service Teacher Education Programs. Educational
Technology & Society, 12(1), 193-204.
[6] Heinrich, P. (2012). The iPad as a tool for education: A study of the introduction of iPads at Longfield Academy, Kent. Nottingham: NAACE: The ICT Association.
[7] Hermanni, H. V., Müller, K., & Jauch, S. (2015). EduTab– facilitating ICT integration through continuous support and Design Based Research. Journal of the European Teacher
Education Network, 10, 38-46.
[8] Jacob, S. M., & Issac, B. (2014). The mobile devices and its mobile learning usage analysis. Proceedings of the
International MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists 2008 Vol I IMECS 2008, 19-21 March, 2008, Hong Kong.
[9] Mama, M., & Hennessy, S. (2013). Developing a typology of teacher beliefs and practices concerning classroom use of ICT. Computers & Education, 68, 380-387.
[10] Moran, M., Hawkes, M., & El Gayar, O. (2010). Tablet personal computer integration in higher education: Applying the unified theory of acceptance and use technology model to understand supporting factors. Journal of Educational
Computing Research, 42(1), 79-101.
[11] Morris, M. G., & Venkatesh, V. (2000). Age differences in technology adoption decisions: Implications for a changing work force. Personnel psychology, 53(2), 375-403.
10 [12] Moyle, K. (2010). Building innovation: learning with
technologies.
[13] Onderwijs 2032. Accessed 02/07/2015 at
www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/onderwijs-2032
[14] Sultan, N. (2010). Cloud computing for education: A new dawn?. International Journal of Information
Management, 30(2), 109-116.
[15] Toekomstgericht Funderend Onderwijs. Accessed 02/07/2015 at
http://curriculumvandetoekomst.slo.nl/kamerbrieven-onderwijs2032 .
[16] Tondeur, J., van Braak, J., Sang, G., Voogt, J., Fisser, P., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. (2012). Preparing pre-service
teachers to integrate technology in education: A synthesis of qualitative evidence. Computers & Education, 59(1), 134-144.
[17] Traxler, J. (2010). Will Student Devices Deliver Innovation, Inclusion, and Transformation?. Journal of the Research
Center for Educational Technology,6(1), 3-15.
[18] Wexler, D. H. (2014). Integrating computer technology: Blurring the roles of teachers, students, and
experts. Computing and Educational Studies: A Special
11
Appendix A
Tablet acceptation amongst primary school teachers
Q16 Welkom bij de enquête voor mijn Master Thesis. Voor mijn scriptie doe ik onderzoek naar de acceptatie van de tablet in het basisonderwijs. De enquête bestaat uit een aantal stellingen en twee open vragen. De vragen gaan allemaal over het gebruik van de tablet binnen het basisonderwijs. De vragen zullen gaan over een persoonlijk perspectief vanuit de docent en het perspectief vanuit de school waar de docent mee te maken heeft. De enquête begint met wat persoonlijke vragen. Vul alle vragen alstublieft zo nauwkeurig mogelijk in zodat de resultaten zo representatief mogelijk zijn. De antwoorden van de stellingen zijn in het Engels vanwege de data analyse. De schaal daarentegen is hetzelfde als in het Nederlands. Alvast bedankt!
Q1 Wat is uw leeftijd? < 30 (1) 30 - 45 (2) > 45 (3) Q2 Wat is uw geslacht? Man (1) Vrouw (2)
Q3 Hoeveel jaren bent u docent? < 5 (1)
5 - 10 (2) 10 - 20 (3) > 20 (4)
Q4 Wat is uw hoogst genoten opleiding? MBO (1)
HBO (2) WO (3) Anders (4)
Q5 De volgende stellingen richten zich op uw persoonlijke tablet gebruik.
Strongly Disagree (1)
Disagree (2) Neither Agree nor
Disagree (3)
Agree (4) Strongly Agree (5)
Ik kan goed omgaan met de apps die beschikbaar zijn voor tablets. (1) Soms vragen leerlingen vragen over de tablet waar ik geen antwoord op weet. (2) Ik kan de leerlingen duidelijk vertellen wat ze moeten doen met de tablet. (3)
Ik merk dat leerlingen verder zijn in het gebruik van de tablet dan ik (4)
Ik maak thuis dagelijks gebruik van een tablet (5)
Ik voel mij goed in staat om lest te geven met behulp van de tablet (6)
12
Q8 De volgende stellingen gaan over de overtuiging van de docent tot het gebruiken van de tablet bij het lesgeven.
Strongly Disagree (1)
Disagree (2) Neither Agree nor
Disagree (3)
Agree (4) Strongly Agree (5)
Ik geloof er in dat de tablet er aan kan bijdragen dat het onderwijs kan worden hervormd en dat dit van positieve aard is (1)
Ik zie de potentie van het gebruik van de tablet voor mijn leerlingen (2)
Ik vind het belangrijk dat mijn leerlingen vaardig zijn in het gebruik van de tablet (3)
Ik wil nooit meer lesgeven zonder het gebruik van de tablet (4)
Q9 De volgende stellingen gaan over het algemeen perspectief op tablet implementatie in het basisonderwijs
Strongly Disagree (1)
Disagree (2) Neither Agree nor
Disagree (3)
Agree (4) Strongly Agree (5)
Het gebruik van de tablet zorgt voor een betere
onderwijskwaliteit (1)
De tablet zorgt voor een overgang van offline naar online en dit is positief. (2)
Leraren moeten les krijgen in het gebruik van de tablet (3)
De implementatie van de tablet eist nieuwe
onderwijsstrategieën en vaardigheden (4)
13
Q10 De volgende stellingen gaan over de waarde van de tablet met betrekking tot lesgeven
Strongly Disagree (1)
Disagree (2) Neither Agree nor
Disagree (3)
Agree (4) Strongly Agree (5)
De tablet is een verrijking van de lesstof (1) Ik heb behoefte aan professionalisering ten behoeve van tablet implementatie (2) Ik vind het belangrijk dat mijn leerlingen vaardig zijn in het gebruik van de tablet (3) Ik gebruik de tablet regelmatig om les te geven (4) Ik kan mijn leerlingen zelfstandiger laten werken doordat ik ze met de tablet aan de slag kan laten gaan (5)
Het gebruik van de tablet in het klaslokaal bespaart mij tijd (6)
De tablet vervangt een deel van het curriculum en dit is goed (7)
14
Q11 De volgende stellingen gaan over de waarde van het gebruik van de tablet ten aanzien van het leerproces
Strongly Disagree (1)
Disagree (2) Neither Agree nor
Disagree (3)
Agree (4) Strongly Agree (5)
Leerlingen krijgen meer vrijheid om op hun eigen tempo te leren door het gebruik van de tablet (1)
Door het gebruik van de tablet leren de leerlingen sneller en makkelijker (2)
Door het gebruik van de tablet kan ik mijn leerlingen meer leermateriaal aanbieden (3)
Door het gebruik van de tablet kan ik mijn leerlingen beter motiveren om te leren (4)
Door het gebruik van de tablet merk ik dat mijn leerlingen makkelijker leren (5)
15
Q12 De volgende stellingen gaan over docenten en school praktijken waar de tablet bij betrokken is. Let op! De vragen over software gaan specifiek over de software die wordt gebruikt op de tablet.
Strongly Disagree (1)
Disagree (2) Neither Agree nor
Disagree (3)
Agree (4) Strongly Agree (5)
Tijdens mijn opleiding tot leraar heb ik voldoende geleerd over de toepassingen van de tablet voor het onderwijs (1)
Als er een nieuwe software beschikbaar is dan gebruik ik deze meteen (2)
Ik geloof meer in procesmatig leren dan doelgericht leren (3) De onderwijssoftware begrijp ik (4) De onderwijssoftware is goed afgestemd op de leermethodes (5) De software moet verbeterd worden (6) De software heeft een
hoge mate van gebruiksvriendelijkhei d voor de docent (7)
Op schoolniveau is er een duidelijke visie op het gebruik van de tablet (8)
De school benadrukt en stimuleert het gebruik van de tablet in het klaslokaal (9)
Er zijn initiatieven die het gebruik van de tablet bevorderen binnen de school (10)
Het gebruik van de tablet wordt door de school belangrijk geacht (11)
Q14 De volgende vraag is een open vraag waar meer uitleg gegeven kan worden over de volgende stelling. De meeste belemmeringen die ik tegenkom met betrekking tot het gebruik van de tablet zijn:
Q15 De volgende vraag is een open vraag waar meer uitleg gegeven kan worden over de volgende stelling. Ik zou graag zien dat het onderstaande wordt veranderd ten aanzien van tablet implementatie in het onderwijs:
