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Universiteit van Amsterdam Amsterdam Business School

MSc Business Administration – Marketing

Master Thesis

The Influence of Advertising Messages on the Willingness to Use of the 3D Body Scanner

Supervisor: Dr. Andrea Weihrauch Student: Annabelle Plueckthun Student number: 11375825

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I

T

ABLE OF

C

ONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS I 1 STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY 1 2 ABSTRACT 2 3 INTRODUCTION 2 4 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

4.1 VIRTUAL TECHNOLOGIES AND THE BODY SCANNER 5

4.1.1 TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS 5

4.1.2 THE 3D BODY SCANNING TECHNIQUE 6

4.2 RETAIL SHOPPING 7

4.2.1 SHIFT TOWARDS ONLINE SHOPPING 7

4.2.2 SHOPPING IN A PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 9

4.2.3 THE FUTURE OF RETAIL: DIGITAL IN-STORE EXPERIENCE 11

4.3 BODY IMAGE AND BODY CONCERNS 14

4.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF CONVENIENCE AND SAVING TIME 15 4.5 MARKETING COMMUNICATION IN LAUNCHING NEW PRODUCTS 17

5 RESEARCH GAP 18 6 RESEARCH QUESTION 19 7 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS 19 8 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 20 8.1 HYPOTHESES 22 9 DATA & RESEARCH METHOD 23 9.1 SUBJECTS AND SETTING 23 9.2 VARIABLES 24 9.2.1 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES 24 9.2.2 DEPENDENT VARIABLES 25 9.2.3 MODERATING VARIABLE 26 9.2.4 CONTROL VARIABLES 26

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II 9.3 DATA COLLECTION 26 9.3.1 SAMPLING 27 9.4 PILOT TESTING 27 9.5 METHOD 28 10 RESULTS 28

10.1 DESCRIPTIVE AND FREQUENCY STATISTICS 28

10.1.1 WILLINGNESS TO USE 32 10.1.2 BODY SATISFACTION 33 10.1.3 SHOPPING BEHAVIOR 34 10.2 RELIABILITY ANALYSES 34 10.2.1 BODY SATISFACTION 34 10.2.2 SHOPPING BEHAVIOR 34 10.3 ANOVA 35 10.4 PROCESS 36 11 CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 38 11.1 DISCUSSION 38 11.2 CONCLUSION 41

11.3 LIMITATIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS 42

12 REFERENCES 45

13 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 56

14 APPENDIX 56

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1

1 S

TATEMENT OF

O

RIGINALITY

This document is written by Student Annabelle Plueckthun who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.

I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.

The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

Amsterdam, June 23rd, 2017

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2 A

BSTRACT

Based on a convenience sample of two-hundred and fifty consumers, this thesis examined how different forms of advertising messages influence the willingness to use of the 3D body scanner among shoppers with different levels of body satisfaction. It was hypothesized that for shoppers with high body satisfaction, the willingness to use the 3D body scanner would be higher when faced with a functional advertising message compared to an emotional one. For shoppers with low body satisfaction it was hypothesized that their willingness to use of the 3D body scanner would be higher when faced with an emotional message rather than a functional one.

A one-way between groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) as well as a simple moderation analysis using the PROCESS tool in SPSS were run on the sample. However, the results conducted within this thesis showed no significant relationship between the advertising message of the scanner and its willingness to use among participants. Although insignificant, the results showed that a higher level of body satisfaction has a slightly positive effect on the willingness to use of the body scanner.

Keywords: body satisfaction, 3D body scanner, digitalization, emotions, marketing communication,

advertising message, vanity sizing, millennials, shopping behavior

3 I

NTRODUCTION

Living in the age of digitalization, modern technologies play an increasingly important role in our daily lives. We are urged to adapt to ever changing machinery and develop new skills to keep up with our dynamic environment (Kotter, 2012). Of course, technological progress does not come to a halt in consumer behavior. As our shopping habits and preferences change in the face of this new era and shift more and more towards digitalization, we come to value time efficiency and being able to shop wherever we are and whenever we feel like it (Miller, 2012). As the importance of modern technologies is increasing day by day, this research is aimed at investigating the role that technology, particularly, the 3D body scanner can play in the shopping process and to what extent shoppers are willing to use it.

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3 Some American malls offer the body scanning service of the company MyBestFit to their customers (Clifford, 2011). In a circular booth, shoppers get their bodies measured by low-power radio waves in a matter of seconds. The system then matches the individual’s measurements with its database containing the measurements of clothes from various stores. Customers then receive a printout, listing the sizes at each store that are supposed to fit them best. Luxury American department store Bloomingdale’s teamed up with the tech company Bodymetrics, providing customers with a new shopping experience (Krasley, 2015): In the store, sales people guide shoppers through the scanning process and help them set up a Bodymetrics account, which is done via iPad directly on the spot. The scanning process works like hitherto described, except that the full body scan is then sent to the previously set up account, and is immediately accessible. Sales people can promptly advise customers with the help of the scan, visible on the iPad, and give them recommendations of clothing that supposedly fit them perfectly.

IMAGE 1: BODYMETRICS BOOTH

As mentioned above, this research aims to find out what kind of marketing communication is best used to advertise the body scanner. The form of advertising is relevant as consumers could experience very different reactions to the technology: On the one hand, these kinds of scanners cannot only save consumers valuable time by showing what fits them right away, but also spare them the frustration brought about by trying on jeans that are somewhat too small (Clifford, 2011). On the other hand, the

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body scanner reminds shoppers of their perceived flaws by employing precise measurement techniques that expose every roll and even the tiniest bumps on their bodies (SCMP.tv, 2016). Especially in America, waistlines have gotten bigger over the last few years, which in turn has motivated the phenomenon of vanity sizing (Cassutt, 2008; Aydinoğlu & Krishna, 2012; Hoegg, Scott, Morales, & Dahl, 2014). Vanity sizing describes the alteration of product sizing, enabling consumers to fit into a smaller size than they usually would, to stimulate sales. The downside of this process is that different brands employ different sizing charts, which leads to a lack of orientation for the shopper who might need an American size 4 in one store but a size 6 in another (Cassutt, 2008). This, in turn, does not only generate confusion but also frustration, especially for female shoppers who might react negatively to needing a bigger size than they are used to (Hoegg, et al., 2014). By decreasing their self-confidence and possibly altering their feeling of satisfaction with their bodies, vanity sizing can have detrimental effects on the shoppers’ self-esteem (Crocker & Park, 2004; Grabe, 2008). Even though the body scanning technique can aid in unscrambling the confusion about clothing sizes and enable quick, easy and reliable measurements (Istook & Hwang, 2001; Clifford, 2011), the reasons stated above also account for reluctance towards this accurate measurement technique (Klara, 2015). In his article for Adweek, Robert Klara refers to the emotional component of using technologies such as the body scanner. He especially alludes to women who feel reminded of their imperfections when facing this method of highly precise body measurement and therefore shy away from using the scanner.

Taking the above into consideration, it is highly relevant for practitioners to know how to best account for the different advantages and disadvantages in their communication efforts. Regarding advertising messages, there are different possibilities of accentuating the two sides of functionality and emotion incorporated in the body scanner (Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999). On the one hand, emotional appeals in the scanner’s advertising message, such as (self-) love, could evoke positive feelings in relation to the body scanning technique and thereby increase customers’ willingness to use it (Kotler & Armstrong, 1994). On the other hand, rational appeals are often interpreted as more credible, therefore leading to an increase in positive beliefs and a decrease in uncertainty, possibly stimulating the willingness of customers to use the body scanner (Holbrook, 1978; Stafford & Day,

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5 1995). Thus, the objective of this research was to examine how altering the marketing messages of the 3D body scanner influences the willingness of shoppers with varying levels of body (dis-) satisfaction to use it. This was done by utilizing three different advertising messages, each including one of the neutral, functional or emotional stimuli, according to Pollay’s advertising appeals (Pollay, 1983). Based on previous research concerned with body image and self-esteem (Crocker & Park, 2004; Halliwell, Dittmar, & Howe, 2005; Grabe, 2008), it is hypothesized that shoppers with higher body satisfaction will experience a higher willingness to use of the scanner when being faced with a functional advertising message. On the other hand, those with lower body satisfaction will experience a higher willingness to use the scanner when being exposed to a more emotional advertising message.

This research attempts to amplify how the body scanning technique can be marketed efficiently, examining whether a more functional, or a more emotional form of promotion achieves higher engagement with the service. Furthermore, increasing the usage of technologies, such as the body scanner, can not only lower return rates (Bain, 2015) due to purchasing the wrong size, but also generate customer loyalty based on positive emotions associated with the store or brand and higher levels of recall (Choi & Thorson, 1983; Goldberg & Gorn, 1987; Page, Thorson, & Heide, 1990).

In the following, this research will present the status quo on the topic within the literature review, followed by the research gap and the conceptual framework clarifying the drawn-up hypotheses. Afterwards, the research method and data collection will be outlined. Consequently, the findings of the conducted experiment will be presented, as well as discussed and summarized. Finally, this thesis will conclude with the limitations of the study at hand and further research implications.

4 L

ITERATURE

R

EVIEW

In this chapter, the relevant literature necessary to sketch the status quo on the topic will be introduced and elaborated on. Then, the research gap and the subsequent research questionin order to fill it, will be outlined.

4.1 V

IRTUAL

T

ECHNOLOGIES AND THE

B

ODY

S

CANNER

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We live in a society that is consequently looking to improve and simplify processes, actions, and chores we just do not want to do. We are always on the edge, looking for excitement and something new – something better. In the past few years humans created drones to deliver packages and even pizza (Crowe, 2016; Reid, 2016), improved sensor technology significantly to finally put self-driving cars on our roads (Mearian, 2016), designed humanoids and accurate robots to replace manual labor (Schulz, 2013), invented augmented and virtual reality to get a whole new gaming experience (Zyda, 2005) and implemented body scanners that can create a virtual fitting room (Elejalde-Ruiz, 2014; Klara, 2015). These and countless other innovations affect us in our daily routines by making our lives easier and offer big enough benefits that can almost make us forget about their disadvantages.

4.1.2 THE 3DBODY SCANNING TECHNIQUE

The research conducted within this thesis will focus on delving deeper into the 3D body scanning technique, its role in the shopping process and its influence on body perceptions of shoppers who might use it. In the retail context, body scanners “capture the outside surface of the human body by using optical techniques, in combination with light sensitive devices, without physical contact with the body” (Istook & Hwang, 2001, p. 121). Some retailers, mostly overseas, are already using the technology in stores to help shoppers easily and quickly find clothing that fits.

Advantages of the technique are not only speed but also accuracy in measurement (Istook & Hwang, 2001; Clifford, 2011; SCMP.tv, 2016). Customers are enabled to find the jeans they are looking for in a fraction of the time they would usually spend on picking out the right cut, material and fit (TechCrunch, 2012). In addition, a sales person, facilitating appropriate counseling, guides them through the whole process. In doing so, the whole procedure is made more human and facilitates social interaction, which is especially important for females and is even proven to have a therapeutic effect while shopping(Luomala, 2002; Noble, Griffith, & Adjei, 2006).Customers receive their body scan in their account; therefore, they can access the data repeatedly, which provides convenience especially for tech-savvy “millennials” (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2013). Advantages for the retail industry are manifold and range from the ability to create clothing that fits better, to significantly

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7 improving the process of (mass-) customization in the apparel industry (Clifford, 2011; Krasley, 2015) to decreasing return rates due to wrong sizing, saving retailers billions annually (Bain, 2015). Within the “Size USA” study, the American Textile Clothing Corporation utilized the body scanning technique to establish accurate measurements for the American population, determining target customer size and shape to maximize fit across size ranges and product categories (SizeUSA, 2003). Even the Army profits from the technology in being able to design better fitting Kevlar vests for women for utmost safety (Krasley, 2015).

A potential downside of the body scanning technique is its effect on the vulnerability of the customer (Klara, 2015). Seeing one’s body from unfamiliar angles and being fully exposed due to highly precise measurement leaves not the tiniest inch of one’s figure to the imagination (Clifford, 2011; SCMP.tv, 2016). Thus, women especially are rather reluctant to make use of the technology, in order to prevent being faced with their flaws (Klara, 2015). This is especially daunting in times where body image and skinny models on runways still determine young girls’ self-confidence and possibly their positioning in society (Halliwell, Dittmar, & Howe, 2005; Aydinoğlu & Krishna, 2012). Focusing on emotional well-being, tech companies like Bodi.me already work on interfaces not containing visual avatars to prevent mental breakdowns in fitting rooms, cursing all the shopper’s previously eaten treats when shopping for a new pair of jeans (Bazley, 2015).

4.2 R

ETAIL

S

HOPPING

4.2.1 SHIFT TOWARDS ONLINE SHOPPING

During the last few years, shopping shifted more and more to an online context (PwC, 2016). In fact, 2016 was the first year in which consumers did most of their purchases online, according to the annual survey by comScore and UPS (comScore, 2016), which gives the saying “e-commerce is retail’s new storefront” a whole different meaning (Morrison, 2015).

At the same time, competition amongst retailers becomes stronger, leading to a decrease not only in prices, but also in shipping costs and time. Amazon now offers free two-hour shipping in certain locations, creating a virtual shopping experience that more and more resembles the real one and enables near-instant gratification (Kushmaro, 2017). Moreover, online shopping becomes

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increasingly effective by improved product descriptions and images. Online fashion retailers like Asos even provide a short video clip showing a model who wears the object of desire on a runway together with 360-degree product views. The option to compare prices is far easier to make use of online. Additionally, the variety of choice is nearly endless in the online context, contributing to the convenience factor of online shopping (Kim & Park, 2005; Miller, 2012). Many sites curate reviews or deals from various online stores and even provide special vouchers, like kortingscode.nl, which makes it easy to get good deals in a matter of minutes. In case a problem arises, many web stores, such as Asos, offer kind and quick customer support, sometimes via Live Chat, which helps customers get answers to their questions easily. Search tools provide easy navigation, saving time and nerves while shopping.

Eventually, when heading to check-out, customers can save their payment and shipping details to check out quickly. Services like PayPal One Touch even enable hassle-free check-out, as the name suggests, with just one click. Another plus is the ability to keep an eye on the running total, making it easier to stick to one’s budget online and furthermore saving one the embarrassment of having to return the shirt that did not fit in said budget while standing at the register (Leamy, 2017). When it comes to returns, many retailers do not charge customers for sending their unwanted orders back anymore. What is more, services like Jack Threads’ tryouts program or Zalon by Zalando offer shoppers the possibility to order a whole outfit in anticipation that they will return the items that do not suit them (Kushmaro, 2017).

The underlying reasons for the shift towards online shopping are manifold. Amongst the most significant ones is obviously convenience (Kim & Park, 2005; Miller, 2012), the ease of not having to leave the sofa to shop the item you want or not having to respect the opening hours of your local stores. Online shopping is proven to stimulate customer loyalty due to saving time and increasing shopping possibilities (Eastlick & Feinberg, 1999; Noble, Griffith, & Adjei, 2006).

Furthermore, online shopping enables customers to avoid crowded stores (Kim & Park, 2005). They have more time to look at the pieces they desire without having to rush because they see the check-out line getting longer every minute. There are no lines in front of the changing rooms or

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9 registers, which is especially convenient for men, who are more time conscious and more sensitive to waiting in stores than women (Grewal, Baker, Levy, & Voss, 2003; Noble, Griffith, & Adjei, 2006).

In addition, Kim and Forsythe (2008) found evidence that the technology of virtual try-on can not only convey product information by simulating the act of physically trying on clothes, but that it also acts as a form of additional entertainment while shopping online. The interactivity and involvement connected to this technique redefine the term “shopping experience” in a wholly different way by playfully reducing the risk of buying the wrong item while simultaneously increasing enjoyment (Kim & Forsythe, 2008).

The negative effect on physical stores generated by the shift in consumer behavior towards shopping online becomes apparent in malls closing and consumers only visiting physical stores to engage in a phenomenon called “showrooming” (Close, 2016; Rapp, Baker, Bachrach, Ogilvie, & Skinner Beitelspacher, 2015). Showrooming is the act of visiting a shop only to examine a product before going online and purchasing it for a lower price. Overall, that means that having a compelling online presence as well as a wide variety of choice, preferably in combination with low prices and free shipping, does not seem to be enough anymore for brick-and-mortar-stores.

4.2.2 SHOPPING IN A PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Comparing a physical shopping experience with a virtual one evokes the question whether the virtual experience stimulates the same feeling of satisfaction in the shopper. The online version of trying on clothes, be it by engaging in the virtual try-on technique or relying on previously acquired body scanning measurements, can act as a within-category substitute for going on a shopping spree in the “real world” (Vosgerau & Morewedge, 2016). In their food-related research, Vosgerau and Morewedge found out that cross-category substitutes provide a better satisfaction of a craving for a desired stimulus compared to within-category substitutes. This is the case because cross-category substitutes are “less likely to evoke a negative comparison to the desired stimulus” (Vosgerau & Morewedge, 2016, p. 901). Transferring these findings to the retail context would indicate that virtually trying on clothes would not satisfy the consumer when “craving” to go shopping, shining a different light on the previously mentioned findings of Kim and Forsythe (Kim & Forsythe, 2008).

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However, while an increasing number of consumers tend to engage in online shopping, a different aspect of the primary shopping process ceases to exist: social interaction. By buying online, we exclusively interact with a computer or mobile device, as long as we do not make use of customer service. The human need for social interaction unavoidably suffers from the shift towards online shopping. It is not a new insight that shopping is not only product-oriented but also motivated by experience (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982; Westbrook & Black, 1985; Havlena & Holbrook, 1986). Women, especially have a strong sense of community and are prone to social interaction (Grewal, Baker, Levy, & Voss, 2003; Noble, Griffith, & Adjei, 2006). Furthermore, particularly those consumers that go on a shopping spree to engage in retail therapy value and even seek social contact (Atalay & Meloy, 2011; Kim, Kang, & Kim, 2005; Luomala, 2002). For example, having a nice off-topic talk with a friendly sales person and getting a fresh view on the issue that led to seeking retail therapy in the first place. All this is hardly possible when virtually purchasing.

Another advantage of shopping in a brick-and-mortar store is the possibility to be physically surrounded by the clothes of interest and experiencing a pleasant store atmosphere. Women value the sense of atmosphere and the possibility to browse through racks of clothing, which is not possible when going on a virtual shopping spree (Noble, et al., 2006). Furthermore, purchasing an item and being able to take it home right away stimulates mood enhancement via immediate gratification, which is not yet realizable when shopping online, even with same day and overnight delivery (Atalay & Meloy, 2011).

Ultimately, the possibility to touch clothes and being able to try them on right away is reserved for shopping in a real environment. By doing so, customers can feel fabrics, eyeball cuts and try on differently styled clothing items before purchasing them, minimizing the risk of having to return a piece that does not fit as well as expected (Foley, 2016).

However, trying on several pieces and not having the variety of choice offered by the internet to choose from is dread-inducing and demands sacrifices in terms of time and convenience; luckily, the age of digitalization offers working parents and busy young professionals some possibilities to enjoy the best of both worlds (Ackerman & Gross, 2003).

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11 4.2.3 THE FUTURE OF RETAIL:DIGITAL IN-STORE EXPERIENCE

By means of technical innovations integrated in physical retail environments, shoppers can often take advantage of interactive tools and access to a wider assortment online when visiting a shop. This lets them try on clothes and find the right fit of jeans in a more effective and timesaving manner.

Next to the body scanning technique, retailers started to include various other technological innovations to brick-and-mortar stores, adding a digital angle to enrich the customers’ shopping experience. One way of doing so was found by Nadia Shouraboura in cooperation with Amazon, when they launched the first Hointer store in Seattle in 2012 (Hointer; Klinefelter, 2013). The idea for the shop was developed when discovering that men value the speed and convenience offered by online shopping but that this often results in “getting wrong sizes, bad fits, uncomfortable materials, and the dilemma of do-I-really-want-to-go-through-the-hassle-of-returning-this” (Hointer). By including minimalistic store design, mobile technologies, e-tags and in-store sensors, Hointer gets by without any human assistance, while offering a physical store with all the perks of shopping online. Customers only need to download the Hointer App, scan the QR code (see image 2) of all the jeans they are interested in and then click on “try on”. The chosen clothes then drop through a chute into a fitting room. The payment works via the app and lets customers check out via swiping their credit card through the self-checkout terminal (see image 3). What started out being a men’s jeans shop, expanded to a software platform for retailers, selling different items as well.

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IMAGE 2: SCANNING JEANS INSIDE HOINTER SHOP

IMAGE 3: HOINTER SELF-CHECKOUT

Yael Aflalo, founder of the fashion label Reformation, was inspired by Apple and Tesla for the design of her latest store in San Francisco (Segran, 2017). Her goal was to rethink space and optimize the shopping experience for her clients, who were starting to get upset about the usually crowded stores of the brand. To avoid packed stores and messy racks, the new store features

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13 touchscreen monitors that customers can use to browse through styles. Within the store, just a few best-sellers are out on display, giving a similar minimalistic store experience, just as Hointer does. The try on technique is also similar to the one previously explained: customers can click on the desired item on the touchscreen, which will then appear in the fitting room, ready for them to try on.

The American luxury department store Neiman Marcus launched the Memory Mirror in 2015, enabling shoppers to see outfits from a 360-degree angle by using a video screen and camera (Steele, 2015; CBS News, 2015). Clothing options can be compared side-by-side, videotaped and instantly shared by customers via social media or email, enabling a connection with friends and family to solve every shopping dilemma while still in the store. The mirror also shows items in different colors, saving customers the time of changing again in the fitting room.

In 2015, by implementing a digital showroom in their headquarters in Amsterdam, the American clothing brand Tommy Hilfiger revolutionized the shopping experience for its customers (Business Wire, 2015). An interactive touchscreen table (see image 4) that is connected to a four-meter-high wall lets shoppers engage with the technology and enables a seamless buying approach. Customers can digitally view every item of interest and can create custom orders via the screen. The system features all product categories of the sportswear and denim collection, showing key looks and offering a zoom-in function to get a closer look at the tiniest details. Information on garments provides the possibility to view different ranges of size and color without having to search for the actual piece of clothing. In creating this digital showroom, Tommy Hilfiger not only posts a new benchmark in the fashion industry, but paves a way for technological innovations to be integrated in brick-and-mortar-stores. The brand also makes an important step in terms of environmental protection and sustainability as the technique reduces sample production, makes physical order forms redundant, and diminishes the ecological impacts of shipping.

Whether these concepts are only used as a technologic gadget in a certain flagship store, hinting at individualization, or are soon to be tested by the vast majority of customers is yet to be determined.

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IMAGE 4: TOMMY HILFIGER DIGITAL SHOWROOM

4.3 B

ODY

I

MAGE AND

B

ODY

C

ONCERNS

It is well known that being exposed to media showing thin models, in commercials or on runways, has detrimental effects on body image perceptions of male and female consumers (Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002; Grogan, 2016; Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008). Institutions in fashion, such as the Victoria’s Secret fashion show or various fashion weeks, still feature thin models, even though they are not representative for the majority of the population (Elan, 2016). To date, being thin and having a model-type figure is still considered as a beauty ideal that many women strive for (Wertheim, et al., 1997), which is reflected by a booming weight loss industry, as well as many girls and young women positing to be dissatisfied with their bodies (Bearman, Presnell, Martinez, & Stice, 2006; Leaver, 2014). Body image plays an important role in building self-esteem and is often at stake, for example when shopping for clothes or watching commercials featuring thin models (Smeesters, et al., 2010). Clothing is often an indicator for a consumer’s self-concept, with many being willing to pay more to fit into a supposedly smaller size (Cassutt, 2008; Aydinoğlu & Krishna, 2012; Hoegg, Scott, Morales, & Dahl, 2014). In the worst case, body dissatisfaction can even reach as far as triggering

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15 eating disorders, favoring unhealthy eating habits to finally be skinny and feel accepted within society (Grabe, et al., 2008).

Unlike supermodels, the average woman often needs pants that are shorter in length and wider around the waist. Still, fashion brands rarely promote their pieces by using models with body types that resemble the vast majority of our society. Researchers were able to demonstrate that there is “no significant difference in the perceived advertising effectiveness, regardless of whether the advertisements displayed ultra-thin or average sized models” (Halliwell, Dittmar, & Howe, 2005, p. 410), making way for a change in the fashion industry. After Dove launched its “Real Beauty” campaign in the early 2000s (Bahadur, 2014), more brands started to launch marketing actions featuring women with average body shapes. Magazines, such as Sports Illustrated, began to fill their covers with beautiful plus-size models, while brands like American Eagle started to drop Photoshop for their campaigns to remind consumers that lingerie models have stretchmarks and dimples just as they do (Bazilian, 2016; Colon, 2016). This newfound perception of beauty becomes also visible on social media where buzzwords like #selflove and #bodypositive encourage adolescents to be proud of the body they are in and not to be bothered by beauty ideals that glorify thinness.

However, this movement is still in its infancy, offering much room for improvement when looking at big retailers and fashion institutions that still employ campaigns which give young women an unrealistic ideal of beauty and health. Advertising, however, might carry the potential to start making shoppers feel better about their bodies.

4.4 T

HE

I

MPORTANCE OF

C

ONVENIENCE AND

S

AVING

T

IME

Getting up early, getting the kids ready for school or kindergarten, trying to prepare a somewhat healthy breakfast and leaving the house to get to work as quickly as possible before getting on a nine-to-five hour shift, doing groceries and collapsing on the couch as upon returning home. This could be a typical day in the life of working parents, who feel like time is just running through their hands (Jabs & Devine, 2006). A similar scenario can be pictured for millennials, characterized as young professionals: trying to get in a workout before work, then off to the office, picking up a coffee on the way, working until late and trying to sneak in some errands after their shift. Both types of people,

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working parents and millennials, have something in common: they value convenience (Jabs & Devine, 2006; Miller, 2012)

Compared to the past, nowadays more families exist with both parents working full-time (Birkett, 2013; Pew Research Center, 2015; Doughty, 2016). This indicates that time is a valuable good for them, wanting to spend every free minute together with family members or friends, watching their kids grow up and not missing out on their most precious moments (Ackerman & Gross, 2003; Cassutt, 2008).

Being able to shop online in their pyjamas in the middle of the night, not having to wait in the store or doing groceries from their desk during lunch break is convenient for those who prefer to spend their valuable time with activities other than shopping (Bhatnagar, Misra, & Rao, 2000; Kim & Park, 2005; Miller, 2012). Furthermore, parents do not have to drag their children to the store with them; they can avoid big crowds and enjoy a wider variety when shopping online. Consumers also report less compulsive shopping and the convenience of discreet purchases facilitated by a virtual shopping spree (Miller, 2012). The fact that individuals now make more than half of their purchases online reflects this convenience of online shopping (comScore, 2016).

Furthermore, convenience is especially important for millennials (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2013). In this day and age, consumers do not have to wait for anything anymore, because everything is easily accessible within seconds. Millennials do not wait for their favorite show on TV, they just turn to Netflix and watch it online. They do not wait for a store to open in the morning, they just order what they want and need via the Internet in the middle of the night. Busy college students no longer waste time to prepare food or drinks at home; they go to the store around the corner and grab a ready-made salad and a coffee-to-go to save time. All this signalizes convenience for this generation (Turliuk, 2009).

However, convenience-seeking behavior is not a new phenomenon. Research from the first issue of the Journal of Marketing Research in 1964 proves that convenience was already important to shoppers back in that era (Cox & Rich, 1964). Online shopping might not have been possible at that

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17 time, but its precursor, phone shopping, was already in existence to facilitate consumers to save time when doing their shopping.

With regard to differences in gender, men are especially time conscious (Grewal, et al., 2003; Noble, et al., 2006). When it comes to shopping in physical stores, men are less likely to put up with waiting in lines, which makes them value convenience even more than women. Connecting to this insight, it was also found that men are more likely to engage in online shopping, which offers more convenience compared to shopping in brick-and-mortar stores, as was already mentioned before (Van Slyke, et al., 2002).

4.5 M

ARKETING

C

OMMUNICATION IN

L

AUNCHING

N

EW

P

RODUCTS

To launch new products successfully, it is important to design marketing strategies that positively influence consumer expectations within advertising campaigns (Benedetto, 1999; Lee & O'Connor, 2003). According to Lee and O’Connor, marketing strategies designed to leverage network effects are furthermore critical to success. The authors also stress the importance of marketing tactics aimed at motivating customers to purchase and use a new product early on in its life cycle, which is supposed to pave the way for superior product performance in the long run (Lee & O'Connor, 2003). The importance of early adopters to diffuse innovations was already recognized by Rogers, indicating that word of mouth is the most powerful source in doing so (Rogers, 1995). In connection to this thought, Beard and Easingwood name “opinion leaders” as an effective way to leverage word of mouth within the critical launching phase of a new product (Beard & Easingwood, 1996), which could be celebrities, bloggers, or simply experienced users and early adopters. With regard to users, a high level of engagement with the brand and even cooperation in fine-tuning innovations can function as an important marketing tool to launch new products and to reach adoption through consumers (Sawhney, et al., 2005).

When looking at communicating product innovations and formulating appropriate advertising messages, researchers are at odds (Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999). Regarding both the successful initial promotion between products and services, as well as emotional or rather functional appeals, evidence for success can be found on both sides of the spectrum. According to Copeland, consumers

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have two major motivations for purchasing a product or making use of a service: emotional reasons on the one side and rational reasons on the other (Copeland, 1924). Some evidence has been found for higher purchase intention of products due to rational commercials (Holbrook, 1978; Coulson, 1989; Stafford & Day, 1995), while some was found for commercials featuring rather emotional appeals (Choi & Thorson, 1983; Goldberg & Gorn, 1987; Page, et al., 1990).

Furthermore, in their analysis of rational and emotional appeals, Albers-Miller and Stafford concluded that differences in advertising products and services are brought about by different local cultures, influencing which appeals consumers adhering to those cultures value more (Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999). The authors refer to the difference between the Taiwanese and the Northern-American culture: while Americans react more positively to rational advertising for services, the Taiwanese “value conformity and group membership over achievement and individualism”, making them more prone to react to emotional appeals (Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999, p. 51).

5 R

ESEARCH

G

AP

The improvement of virtual technologies, such as the body scanner, to take human body measurements, already does and will further alter the way people shop, bringing rather big behavior changes with it (Klara, 2015). It remains unclear how to best address consumers in inviting them to use the body scanning service, which offers the potential to simplify the shopping process and spare customers considerable levels of frustration and wasting their time while shopping (Clifford, 2011; Krasley, 2015).

Little research has been conducted on whether the hesitation to use body scanners might lie deeper under the surface, brought about how consumers feel about their bodies and the vulnerability of being exposed, having all their flaws laid out in front of them. By taking into consideration how different forms of marketing communication can address these hidden concerns of consumers, implications about an appropriate marketing strategy could be drawn, which may increase the willingness of potential customers to use the body scanning technique.

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19 Opposing views exist whether a more emotional or a rather functional way of advertising a product or service achieves better results with regard to willingness to use or buy, respectively (Holbrook, 1978; Kotler & Armstrong, 1994; Stafford & Day, 1995). Some defend the view that an emotional appeal should be used for value-expressive products and that a rational appeal would suit a utilitarian product better (Bruzzone, 1981; Vaughn, 1986; Johar & Sirgy, 1991; Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999). However, as the body scanning technique can be interpreted in both ways, incorporating a functional component but also having emotional content, it remains unclear which form of advertising would promote it best. Furthermore, the body scanner gives consumers a highly precise representation of their body measurements, potentially providing them with some form of “reality check”, which might lead to social comparison. Here, a possibility exists to extend the investigations occupied with the relationship between social comparison and body dissatisfaction to a context including technological innovations, such as the body scanner, in a retail environment (Myers & Crowther, 2009).

Thus, the research in this thesis examines the relationship between marketing communication and the willingness to use of body scanning services amongst shoppers, and how this willingness to use is altered regarding individual body satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

6 R

ESEARCH

Q

UESTION

How do different forms of marketing communication influence the willingness to use of 3D body scanners among shoppers with different levels of body satisfaction?

7 M

ANAGERIAL

I

MPLICATIONS

This research aimed at giving insights into the efficient and effective promotion of the body scanning technique, depending on its marketing messages when communicating the scanner to audiences with different levels of body satisfaction. If marketed and managed effectively, the body scanner gives retailers the opportunity to decrease return rates in shopping online, as well as in physical stores, saving them billions of dollars. An appropriate advertising message can make shoppers feel good about themselves, enabling them to associate positive emotions with the brand and

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higher levels of recall, which in turn increases customer loyalty (Choi & Thorson, 1983; Goldberg & Gorn, 1987; Page, Thorson, & Heide, 1990). If customers are willing to use the body scanner, the technology offers them many benefits to improve and simplify their shopping experience, which, in turn, offers convenience and minimizes time costs, leaving them happy and satisfied, which is proven to result in higher willingness to purchase (Noble, Griffith, & Adjei, 2006; Markey, 2016).

Effectively advertising an innovative technique, such as the body scanner, can also be favorable for a brand’s image as it signals a concern for customers’ well-being, be it mentally or to fit shopping in physical environments into their busy schedules (Cassutt, 2008; Noble, et al., 2006; Jabs & Devine, 2006), which in turn stimulates customer satisfaction. Furthermore, when employing the body scanning technique in their stores, retailers signal a grasp for technology and innovation, giving themselves a modern image of being up-to-date (Taylor, 2016).

Becoming part of the “self-love-movement”, currently taking place in fashion retail, also indicates a sense for trends and recent actions in the industry. Thereby, an effective marketing campaign triggering the trend of body-love and awareness for beauty coming in all shapes and sizes, might positively influence consumers and attract them towards the brand. This can be seen by the example of Dove’s campaign for real beauty, which generated consumer interest and resulted in an increase of brand awareness (Bahadur, 2014).

Ultimately, the body scanning technique is already well adopted overseas; in Europe however, the technique is only known from airport security checks. Therefore, this research lays the foundation to further give retailers insights into effectively promoting the body scanning technique to finally implement it in the European fashion market. Employing the body scanning technique in stores like de Bijenkorf in Amsterdam would possibly attract customers and generate media interest, leading to a competitive advantage when looking at other businesses.

8 C

ONCEPTUAL

F

RAMEWORK

The research question of this thesis “how do different forms of marketing communication

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21

satisfaction?” is visualized in the following conceptual framework. The independent variables were

formed by three different ways of advertising the body scanner regarding its marketing communication: a neutral message, a functional message communicating time efficiency and an emotional message stimulating self-love. The dependent variable to be measured was the willingness to use of the body scanner. The level of body satisfaction, high or low, figured as the moderating variable in the experiment. Age, gender, and the likelihood of new technology adoption functioned as control variables.

The conceptual model expected that the relationship between the advertising message and the willingness to use of the body scanner would be moderated by the individual feeling of body satisfaction or dissatisfaction in combination with the scanning process. Being confronted with emotional appeals in advertising is said to make consumers feel good about a product or service, motivating them to purchase or use it respectively (Kotler & Armstrong, 1994). However, supporters of more informational appeals in marketing claim that functional messages are more credible and therefore reduce uncertainty, in turn leading to higher willingness to use or purchase a service or product (Holbrook, 1978; Stafford & Day, 1995).

IMAGE 5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The following hypotheses were set up to investigate, whether a functional or a more emotional approach would stimulate customers’ willingness to use the body scanner, and in how far this was related to customers’ personal satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their bodies.

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8.1 H

YPOTHESES

As mentioned by Ackerman and Gross (2003), consumers are prone to saving time, however for consumers low in self-esteem the positive aspect of saving time could be overridden by the fear of knowing their exact body size and being exposed to their perceived flaws. According to research investigating the influence of self-confidence levels on message perception, individuals with higher levels of general self-confidence have less difficulty of decoding messages such as those used in marketing (Lambert, 1968; Bither & Wright, 1973). Furthermore, individuals with higher levels of self-esteem are usually more concerned with product expertise, decreasing levels of perceived risk and suggestibility in advertising (Bearden, et al., 2001). Therefore, it was assumed that the following is likely to hold true:

H1: For shoppers with high body satisfaction, the willingness to use the 3D body scanner will be higher when faced with a functional advertising message (enhancing its time saving aspect) compared to an emotional one.

In his article for Adweek, Robert Klara states that women are especially reluctant to trying out the body scanner because they fear the feeling of being exposed to all of their flaws due to its precise measurement (Klara, 2015). Furthermore, various findings support the assumption that females often suffer from lower self-esteem and body satisfaction (Pingitore, et al., 1997). Marketers might need to reduce the women’s fear of feeling exposed for them eventually to use the body scanner. Emotional appeals, such as (self-) love, in advertising are proven to evoke positive emotions in customers and stimulate the willingness to purchase or use of products and services (Kotler & Armstrong, 1994). This lead to the second hypothesis:

H2: For shoppers with low body satisfaction, the willingness to use the 3D body scanner will be higher when faced with an emotional message (stimulating self-love/ the view that all body shapes are beautiful) rather than a functional advertising message.

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23

9 D

ATA

&

R

ESEARCH

M

ETHOD

The following chapter contains the setting of the conducted experiment, including associated variables. Furthermore, research and data collection method are explained with regard to research design, sampling process and form of analysis.

9.1 S

UBJECTS AND

S

ETTING

The participants for the study were recruited through the author’s personal network. They were from different countries and had varying backgrounds. The majority of respondents were students, with the rest being consumers working full-time.

The experiment was conducted via the online platform Qualtrics. First, the participants were familiarized with the body scanning technique by watching a short video about the procedure, before they were randomly distributed in one of three groups depending on the independent variable. Then, they were asked to state their willingness to use the scanner based on the accompanying advertising message that was presented to them on a ten point Likert scale, which scales people’s attitudes towards a certain topic based on ten given response options. Afterwards, participants were asked to fill out a short survey covering body satisfaction as well as demographics and shopping behavior.

The experiment consists of a 3 (message; functional, neutral, emotional) x2 (body satisfaction; high, low) within-subject design, testing in which cases shoppers are more or less likely to use the body scanning service (dependent variable levels). The three independent variables are formed by the messages aimed at encouraging the participants to use the body scanner: first, giving a neutral message to accompany the body scanning process. Second, communicating the service with a functional message indicating time efficiency, third, an emotionally oriented message, stimulating self-love. The individual level of body satisfaction or dissatisfaction moderates each independent variable setting.

The exact approach, divided into variables, data collection, sampling technique, questionnaire structure and data analysis method is explained in the following.

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9.2 V

ARIABLES

As stated within the conceptual model above, the experiment consisted of three variations of the independent variable, the measured dependent variable, as well as moderating and control variables.

9.2.1 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

The advertisement for the body scanning booth contained three different advertising messages, depending on which group the participants were randomly assigned to. The advertising message for the 3D body scanner, which the advertisement displayed, formed the independent variable of the experiment.

Many definitions of the term “advertising” exist. Within this thesis the definition given by Richards and Curran will be used. They compared various versions and summarized recurring elements in defining advertising as “a paid nonpersonal communication from an identified sponsor, using mass media to persuade or influence an audience” (Richards & Curran, 2002, p. 64).

The independent variable was manipulated based on the method of Hill et al. in their work on visualization in hedonic compared to utilitarian service settings (Hill, et al., 2004). The authors created different ads for the utilitarian (functional) and the hedonic service environment, in which each participant, upper-class university students, viewed only one version of after being randomly assigned to one setting. The text in both advertisement sets concentrated on key attributes of the service provision and was selected based on pretests. To formulate an appropriate advertising message adhering to either functional or emotional appeals within this thesis, it was resorted to the advertising appeals originally formulated by Pollay (Pollay, 1983; Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999). Within his work, the author listed forty-two different appeals to shape an advertising message either in a rational or in a more emotional way.

The first variation of the message functions as a baseline and introduces the body scanning technique with a neutral advertising message. Framing a functional (rational) advertising message was done by using appeals such as “effective”, “convenient” and “cheap”. This message aimed at stimulating factual content and by providing information concerning convenience regarding time

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25 efficiency and simplification of the shopping process. For the emotional advertising message appeals like “distinctive”, “nurturance”, “security” and “succorance” were assessed appropriate (Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999). The emotional form of the message aimed at making the consumer feel comfortable in the shopping environment. Furthermore, an emotional advertising message can be modeled into a form of self-affirmation, which possibly maintains a positive self-esteem and strengthens consumers against possible esteem threats by the precise body scan exposing their flaws (Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010).

Stimulus Advertising message communicated on the poster

Neutral The 3D Body Scanner will change the way you shop – find your perfect size!

Functional The 3D Body Scanner will change the way you shop – save time and find your perfect

size!

Emotional

The 3D Body Scanner will change the way you shop – feel beautiful and find your perfect size!

TABLE 1 ADVERTISING MESSAGES 9.2.2 DEPENDENT VARIABLES

The dependent variable that was measured within the underlying experiment was the shoppers’ willingness to use of the body scanner. Following the definition of Werner’s work on willingness to use of telemedicine for psychiatric care, the behavioral intention of willingness to use within this thesis was modified to the participants’ subjective perception about using the body scanner in a hypothetical situation in which they are shopping for clothing that fits them perfectly (Werner, 2004).

Within the survey, after having viewed one variation of the advertising message, the participants were asked to indicate their willingness to use of the service on a five point Likert scale, ranging from “very likely” to “very unlikely”. This form of measuring the dependent variable was also adapted from Werner’s work on the willingness to use of telemedicine for psychiatric care, which also puts participants in a hypothetical scenario and lets them state their willingness to use rating it on a scale ranging from one to five (Werner, 2004).

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9.2.3 MODERATING VARIABLE

The individual level of body satisfaction was employed as a moderating variable within the research conducted in this thesis. Frost and McKelvie define body satisfaction as how satisfied people are with their bodies, stating that it differs between men and women and is closely related to people’s self-esteem (Frost & McKelvie, 2004).

To test the influence of the individual level of body satisfaction on the relationship between different advertising messages and the willingness to use of the body scanning service, participants were asked to indicate their level of body satisfaction by answering various questions. Based on their choice, people were categorized towards one out of two groups, (rather) low or (rather) high level of body satisfaction. This method was adopted form the Body Satisfaction Scale (BSS) and simplified to a few general questions about body perception and satisfaction of the participants, following the main question assigning them to the two groups (Slade & Dewey, 1990).

Neutral message (NM) Functional message (FM) Emotional message (EM) Low body satisfaction (LBS) NM – LBS FM – LBS EM – LBS High body dissatisfaction (HBS) NM – HBS FM – HBS EM – HBS TABLE 2 COMBINATION OF MODERATING VARIABLE AND THE THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES 9.2.4 CONTROL VARIABLES

The goal of this research was to make assumptions applicable for a wide range ofshoppers of different gender, age, occupation and background. These details, as well as the likelihood to try out new technologies, were asked to be commented on in the questionnaire subsequent to the experiment.

9.3 D

ATA

C

OLLECTION

The data collection of this thesis was of primary type, collected via an online experiment, as well as a survey, using the platform Qualtrics. To reach participants, the link for the experiment was spread via social media, as well as via E-Mail to friends and family, which in turn were asked to further distribute the link.

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27 The medium of an online study enabled participants to accomplish the experiment and the incorporated survey at a point in time to their liking. Also, it generated faster responses and facilitated working on other parts of the research, while simultaneously generating survey or experiment responses (Ilieva, Baron, & Healey, 2002; Andrews, Nonnecke, & Preece, 2003). Furthermore, it enabled reaching more participants in a short period of time and assuring them anonymity of their data. Ultimately, it was cost-efficient and environmentally conscious in not having to provide paper-based questionnaires and compensate participants for their amount of work and possible travel expenses (Yun & Trumbo, 2000; Ilieva, Baron, & Healey, 2002).

9.3.1 SAMPLING

As previously mentioned, the experiment and survey link were distributed via social media and E-Mail, inducing convenience sampling. The subjects of the experiment were recruited via the author’s personal network and were of different origins, cultural and educational backgrounds as well as occupations. Hence, the sample is considered as convenient but also as rather representative for shoppers and the society as a whole, as variation among participants held.

Within the online experiment, subjects were randomly assigned to one out of three conditions, namely neutral, functional or emotional advertising message. This was done by using randomizers created via Qualtrics. The advertising message was manipulated using different wording and employing the exact propositions stated above.

Willingness to use

Neutral message Functional message Emotional message Low body satisfaction High body satisfaction Low body satisfaction High body satisfaction Low body satisfaction High body satisfaction n = 40 n = 40 n = 40 n = 40 n = 40 n = 40

TABLE 3 SAMPLE PLAN

9.4 P

ILOT

T

ESTING

To prevent any problems or ambiguities possibly occurring during the experiment and the included survey, a pre-testing trial period was included before launching the final experiment. Twelve

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participants took the experiment for a pilot test to point out any problems, incomprehensible instructions or programing errors. Furthermore, feasibility and needed time were tested to decrease the amount of future participants dropping out during the experiment procedure.

9.5 M

ETHOD

Using the statistics tool SPSS, descriptive statistics were employed to describe the sample. Relationships between participants’ levels of body satisfaction, or dissatisfaction respectively, and the willingness to use of the body scanner were analyzed using a t-test for dichotomized variables and Pearson’s correlations for continuous variables. Consequently, an ANOVA was conducted to determine whether differences between the three independent variables and their influence on willingness to use the body scanner existed. To test the effect of advertising message on the willingness to use under the moderation of body satisfaction, the PROCESS add on for IBM SPSS was used to conduct a simple moderation analysis, employing model one (Preacher & Hayes, 2004).

To facilitate reliable responses in the Qualtrics questionnaire (see Appendix), the dependent variable (willingness to use of the body scanner) was asked for within the same item that presented the participants with the independent variable (randomized advertising message). To be able to conduct necessary analyses, the two items were separated and two new variables were created manually.

10 R

ESULTS

10.1 D

ESCRIPTIVE AND

F

REQUENCY

S

TATISTICS

Three-hundred and sixty-two respondents participated in the survey. One-hundred and twelve questionnaires were excluded from the analysis due to incomplete data, resulting in a final sample size of two-hundred and fifty people. The high rate of survey abandonment may be ascribed to missing support of the video feature in Qualtrics when accessing the survey from mobile devices.

As mentioned, participants were randomly assigned to three different conditions, presenting them with three variations of an advertising message for the 3D body scanner. The groups were evenly

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29 distributed, with eighty-two participants who viewed the emotional advertising message, eighty-two who viewed the functional one and eighty-six who were exposed to the neutral advertising message.

Participants were between nineteen and seventy-four years of age with a mean age of 32.07 years (SD = 12.24). Six participants did not include their age. More than half of the participants were female. In total, the survey respondents consisted of hundred and three males (41.2%) and one-hundred and forty-seven females (58.8%). Among the respondents, one-one-hundred and forty-seven were German (58.8%), forty were Dutch (16%), seven were Belgian (2.8%), six were US-American (2.4%) and fifty (20%) stated to be from other countries. Confirming the previously made assumption, most participants were students with 41.6% and one-hundred and four in absolute terms (M = 1.75, SD = 6.48). The next biggest group of respondents (N= 102, 40.8%) was working full time. Twenty-three were working students and twenty were following an alternative form of occupation.

The majority of participants (54%) considered themselves as using new technologies when most of the people around them do (M = 3.48, SD = 1.026). Only 5.2% considered themselves as one of the last persons to use new technologies and 3.2% were skeptical of them. Most of the respondents (75.2%) did not know about the body scanner in fashion retail before responding to the survey (M = 5.75, SD = 0.433). Furthermore, the majority (67.2%) also had not used a body scanner before (M = 1.64, SD = 0.930). Seventy-nine people had used a body scanner for other purposes, such as airport security scans, while only three people had used a body scanner for fashion purposes.

Table four provides an overview of the means, standard deviations, and Pearson correlations of the most important survey items. As can be seen, the different shopping behavior variables are significantly and rather strongly correlated with each other. Doing shopping because one has to, not because it is fun is positively correlated with the dislike for trying on clothes; the same holds for wanting the shopping trip to be over as quickly as possible and the dislike for try on. Furthermore, wanting the shopping trip to be over as quickly as possible and shopping because one has to, not because it is fun exerts a strong positive correlation.

The relationship between advertising message and willingness to use of the body scanner is very small and not significant, which indicates the rejection of hypothesis one and two. Moreover, body

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satisfaction was slightly negatively associated with the advertising message and showed only a slightly positive correlation with the willingness to use of the scanner. Both relationships are not significant within the sample.

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Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1. Gender 1.59 0.49 2. Age 32.07 12.24 -0.09 3. Occupation 1.75 6.48 -0.07 0.67** 4. Country of Origin 2.09 1.59 0.05 -0.27** 0.01 5. Advertising Message 0.98 0.82 0.03 -0.01 0.07 -0.02 6. Willingness to Use 2.33 1.20 -0.06 0 0.08 0 0.01 7. Body Satisfaction 1.44 0.50 0.07 -0.21** 0.02 0.13* -0.01 0.05 (0.86) 8. New Technologies 3.48 1.03 -0.11 -0.07 -0.16* -0.01 0.04 0 0.04

9. Don’t Like Try On 3.92 1.86 -0.03 -0.04 -0.01 0.15* 0.01 0.16* -0.06 -0.04

10. Shopping Is No Fun 4.48 1.89 0.24** -0.06 0.01 -0.05 0 0.04 -0.04 -0.04 0.46**

11. Over Quickly 4.12 1.83 0.17** -0.06 -0.01 -0.08 0 0.08 0.01 -0.01 0.49** 0.80**

12. Like to Browse Racks 3.71 1.75 -0.19** 0.15* 0.01 -0.13* 0.03 -0.05 -0.12 0.04 -0.32** -0.34** -0.40** **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). TABLE 4 MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, CORRELATIONS

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10.1.1 WILLINGNESS TO USE

The willingness to use of the body scanner was measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “very likely” to “very unlikely”. Amongst all participants, more than half (64%) were likely to use the 3D body scanner, based on the advertising message presented to them. Less than one third (20.4%) were not willing to use it, 15.6% remained neutral.

Of the participants who were faced with the emotionally manipulated advertising message forty-nine people were (rather) likely to use the 3D body scanner, while fifteen were rather unlikely and only one was very unlikely (M = 2.39, SD = 1.063). Of those who were faced with a functional advertising message, fifty-three people stated to be (rather) likely to use the body scanner, while sixteen remained reluctant to using it (M = 2.32, SD = 1.236). Finally, of the eighty-six respondents faced with the control variable, eighty-five stated to be willing, while nineteen stated to be (rather) unlikely to use the 3D body scanner (M = 2.28, SD = 1.298).

Overall, sixty-four percent of the respondents were willing to use the scanner. Under the participants with low body satisfaction this number was even higher with almost sixty-six percent. Amongst shoppers with higher levels of body satisfaction the willingness to use was lower with only sixty-two percent in total.

Participants selected reasons to use the body scanner four-hundred twenty-two times, while they did so only one-hundred ninety-one times when selecting reasons against using it. The amount of reasons is relatively high because participants could select multiple choices at once in the respective section of the questionnaire. The most stated reasons for using the scanner were that it is interesting, followed by its time-saving ability and its ease of use. Respondents also favored the perfect fit of clothing the scanner supposedly guaranteed. Further motives were the detailed information it provides, its innovativeness and the ability to save money by finding clothing that fits right away.

The most popular reason against using the device was the fear of data leakage, followed by it being weird and making the participant feel uncomfortable. Furthermore, respondents expressed time concerns due to queues in front of the machine, as well as health concerns by possible radiation. Five people found the device provided no added value as it was not necessary for them to find their perfect

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33 size. Moreover, participants doubted that the machine could replace the advice of a sales person, or they wanted to make their own decision by trying on clothes. Other concerns were that the scanner “takes the fun away” and that its usage was not possible when shopping online.

10.1.2 BODY SATISFACTION

The moderating variable body satisfaction was measured by using four statements.

The clear majority (86%) of the respondents agreed at least somewhat to the statement “I feel

comfortable in my skin” (M = 2.63, SD = 1.213). Only 11.2% disagreed (to some extent) with that

statement, the rest remained neutral. Mixed results were found for the statement “I would not change

anything about my body” (M = 4.03, SD = 1.669). Of all respondents 47.2% agreed at least somewhat,

while 48% disagreed (somewhat) and 4.8% stayed neutral. More than two third (67.2%) agreed with the statement “I feel proud of my body” (M = 3.14, SD = 1.376). A group of forty-one people (16.4%) disagreed with it (to some extent). Lastly, participants were asked how satisfied they felt with their

bodies (M = 2.8, SD = 1.357). Almost three fourth (74.8%) answered this question with very,

moderately or slightly satisfied, while only 15.2% were unsatisfied with their bodies (to some extent). Twenty-five respondents (10%) remained neutral.

An overall body satisfaction measure was created by merging all four items into one and dividing this variable by four. The mean body satisfaction of all participants amounts to M = 3.14 (SD = 1.188). To divide participants into categories (high vs. low body satisfaction), the median split procedure was used. The median of body satisfaction was found at ! = 3, which led to a category formation of “high body satisfaction” when x ≤ 3 and “low body satisfaction” when x > 3. Based on these categories, one-hundred and forty participants (56%) had high body satisfaction levels, while one-hundred and ten participants (44%) had low body satisfaction levels.

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