In what way do different internalization styles for religion influence physical activity?

In what way

do different internalization styles for religion

influence physical activity ?

F

l

oris ten Ca

t

e

Floris ten Cate

10447857

Naam begeleider: Noah Millman & Svenja Wolff

Abstract

Religious involvement seems to lead to several health benefits. In this study was examined how different internalization styles for religious behavior influence physical activity.

It

was proposed that identified regulation for religion would lead to an increase in physical activity. Different questionnaires were used to asses degree ofreligiosity,

internalization style for religion and physical activity. 181 participants from the Christelijke Hogeschool Ede, Universiteit van Amsterdam and Hogeschool van Amsterdam were

recruited. The results revealed no increase in physical activity due to internalization style. Further research is needed to examine where these health benefits for religious involvement come from.

Throughout life people have to regulate their behavior in order to maintain jobs, relationships, and to grow as a human being. A lot of tasks that involve regulating behavior will be compulsory and as such may not be enjoyable per se. Doing the laundry, washing dishes, calculating tax return. All these tasks will be uninteresting for most people but we do them cause they are needed to manage the external world (Deci, Eghrari, Patrick, & Leone, 1994) .. Human nature has a broad spectrum in which it can have an active or inactive nature . A lot of this has to do with the ability to-self regulate behavior. Humans can be very persistent, they can work under hardship and carry on even in the harshest of conditions. They can show effort in learning new skills, and grow as a person every day. On the other hand humans can be irresponsible, apathetic and show no signs of willingness to grow as a human being. In a healthy development people become better at learning to effectively regulate behavior.

In life people can develop either an impersonal orientation or an autonomous orientation regarding the regulation of behavior (Vallerand, 1997). When people fail to regulate behavior they develop an impersonal orientation (Williams, Grow, Freedman, Ryan & Deci, 1996). When people are impersonally oriented people feel little agency over their lives and feel their environment as oppressive (Williams, Grow, Freedman, Ryan & Deci, 1996). Impersonal orientation is correlated with social anxiety, self-derogation and depressive symptoms (Williams, Grow, Freedman, Ryan & Deci, 1996). When people are autonomous in their orientation they interpret the environment as supportive and regulate their behavior according to interests and values (Weinstein, Deci & Ryan, 2011 ). A lot of research has shown that the autonomous orientation is correlated with high self-actualization, self-esteem and ego development (Sheldon, Ryan, Deci & Kasser, 2004). Studies done by Williams, Freedman & Deci (1998) have shown that when people are autonomously motivated to engage in healthier behavior ( e.g. quitting smoking, eating healthier, working out more) they are more likely to succeed in changing the behavior and maintaining this change over time. The same results came forth in studies done by Williams, McGregor and Kouides (2006).

When people are failing to regulate their behavior they do not act with intention or they do not act at all (Ryan, 1995). This can be the result of not valuing a activity (Ryan,

1995), not feeling competent to do so (Bandura, 1986) or not expecting it to yield the desired outcome (Seligman, 1975). One of the ways a person can fail to self-regulate behavior is by not exercising enough and even fail to force themselves to do so when their health is at risk (Mullan, Markland, Ingledew, 1997). At this moment in time the world faces an obesity

epidemic. The population of the US is facing an average increase of 0.9kg of bodyweight each year (Contaldo & Pasasini, 2005). According to statistics by the World Health Organization (2014) there were an estimated 600 million obese adults worldwide and 41 million children under-five classified as obese in 2014. Obesity brings a lot of health risks as cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, cancer and even cognitive dysfunction (Mitchell and Hill, 2011 ).

Another form of self-regulation can be in the form of practicing ones religion. Attending church, saying grace at dinner, praying before going to bed are examples of regulating behavior. In the available literature regarding religion, there have been many findings about the possible positive health outcomes for ones who practice religion. Religious involvement would lead to lower blood pressure (Levin & Vanderpool, 1989). Lower rates of cancer (Jarvis & Northcott, 1987), heart disease (Friedlander, Kark & Stein, 1986), and stroke (Colantonio, Kasi & Ostfield, 1992). Other studies suggest that religious involment even might help with the impact of stress on physical and mental health (Kendler, Gardner, & Prescott, 1997; Krause & Van Tran, 1987; Pressman, Lyons, Larson, & Strain, 1990). Several other studies have found that religious involvement is associated with lower mortality (Hummer, Rogers, Nam, & Ellison, 1999; Strawbridge, Cohen, Sberna, & Kaplan, 1997).

To explain self-regulation, Deci and Ryan (2008) developed self-determination theory. This theory states that all human beings have fundamental psychological needs and these needs consist of the need for autonomy, the need to be competent and the need for relatedness. When people engage in behavior they are in line with, they are behaving autonomously. There is a desire to regulate their behavior, to guide this behavior in accordance with their views and values. When people succeed in being autonomous this also means internalizing and integrating external regulations and learning to effectively manage drives and emotions. We will be focusing mainly on the need for autonomy in this research. But further needs consist of the need to be competent and the need for relatedness The need to be competent means that people want to feel as if they can handle their environment, and the need to feel relatedness means that people want to feel connected to other people.

The self-determination theory on need for autonomy has two assumptions about human nature (Ryan & Deci, 2003). The first is that people are inherently active and proactively initiate engagement with their environment. The second is that people have an evolved tendency toward integration and organization of psychic material. The first assumption forms the base for intrinsic motivation whereas the second assumption forms the base for internalization. Intrinsic motivation is when a person engages in an activity because it

is enjoyable. The activity is done without external pressure but solely because someone wants to do it. Internalization forms the base for extrinsic motivation. When people feel pressured or are driven by external motivators they are extrinsically motivated to perform a task or activity (Ryan and Deci, 2003). There are three different types of internalization and thus the degree of autonomy of resulting behavior. The first is introjection. Introjection is the least autonomous form of internalization (Deci and Ryan 1985). A classic example would be that children are rewarded if they do well in school and punished if they fail in school (Grolnick, 2003). Due to the fact that children (and people in general) are not recognizing the internal importance, the behavior does not feel voluntarily and results in unstable motivation and performance (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Because individuals feel controlled, introjection often leads to negative well-being (Kernis & Paradise, 2002). When individuals are pressured but still identify with the value of the behavior they speak of identified regulation whereas the most autonomous form of internalization is integrated regulation where needs, values and experiences are congruent with the behavior (Kernis & Paradise, 2002).

Considering the above sense of autonomy is influenced by the type of motivation people feel when they engage in activities. Is the activity enjoyable in its own right, or is it because consequences face when the activity is not pursued, or something in the middle? The way in which people face tasks and activities differs a lot along that spectrum. In the following research, the focus will lie on the relation between religion and sport and the influence identified/introjected regulation for religion has on the relation between the two. Research done by Ryan, Rigby & King (1993) examined whether there was a difference in introjected and identified regulation in religious behavior, concerning psychological well- being. Both groups showed equal amount of church attendance, praying and other religious behavior. However their research showed that when people are regulating their religious behavior through introjection, religion is negatively associated with psychological well-being. When people are identified with their regulation there was a positive correlation between religious behavior and psychological well-being. Another study done by O'Connor & Vallerand (1990) wanted to examine the relation between religiosity and four kinds of motivation; intrinsic, self- determined extrinsic (integrated), non-self-determined extrinsic (introjection) and amotivation (impersonal orientation). The results showed that there is a continuum from amotivation to intrinsic motivation. Depression had a strong positive relation with amotivation. Furthermore life satisfaction, meaning in life and self-esteem had negative

correlations with amotivation and non-self-determ ined extrinsic motivation. These correlations were positive for intrinsic motivation and self-determ ined extrinsic motivation.

The following research will examine whether there is a moderating effect of identified internalization/introjected internalization of religious behavior on physical exercise. The independent variable being degree of religiosity and the dependent variable time spent on physical activity. The two moderators being introjected and identified regulation of religious behavior. The hypothesis is that no relation exists between religious behavior and physical exercise but that it is moderated by identified/introjected regulation. As discussed above introjected regulation of religious behavior is negatively correlated with psychological well- being, while identified regulation of religious behavior is positively correlated with psychological well-being. Since exercise is correlated with psychological wellbeing (Skead & Rogers, 2016) it is hypothesized that identified religious behavior would lead to more physical exercise and introjected religious behavior would lead to less physical exercise. If a moderation is found for identified religious behavior, this would help explain how religious involvement could be beneficial for physical health as found in the literature.

Method

Participants

181 students from either the UvA (Universiteit van Amsterdam), HvA (Hogeschool van Amsterdam) or the CHE (Christelijke Hogeschool Ede) participated in this study. Of these participants 90 were male and 91 were female. Furthermore 100 participants were religious while 81 were not. The only inclusion criteria was that participants had to be eighteen in order to participate. The age range of participants was 18-28 years.

Measures

For this research several questionnaires were used. The main questionnaires were the

The Religious Commitment Inventory

(RCI-10), (Worthington et al 2003) and

The Godin-

Shephard Leisure-Time Phisical Activity Questionnaire (L

TPA) (Amireault & Godin, 2015). The questionnaires used to check for mediation were the

Religious Self-Regulation

Que

s

tionnaire

(SRQ-R) (Ryan, Rigby & King, 1993) and the

Exersic

e

Self-Regulation

Questionnaire

(SRQ-E) (Ryan and Deci, 2000).

The RCI-10 (Worthington et al 2003) was used to measure degree of religiosity. The questionnaire can be divided in two subscales, namely

Intrapersonal Religious Commitment

and

Interpersonal Religious Commitment.

The internal consistency for the RCI-10 is, a = 0.93. For the subscale

Intrapersonal Religious Commitment

reliability was a = 0.92 and for the

Interpersonal Religious Commitment

reliability was a

= 0.92. The test-retest reliability

coefficients for the RCI- 10 was .87 and for

Intrapersonal

and

Interpersonal

.86 and .83 (Worthington, Everett, Wade & Hight, 2003 ). The questionnaire consisted of 10 questions. An example of a question would be: "I like reading books and magazines about my religion". Answers would be given on a 5 point Likert scale. 1 being not true at all and 5 being completely true. All questions were translated in Dutch for this research since all participants were Dutch and to avoid miscommunications. After translation the RCI-10 still had a very high reliability of a= 0.97.

The L TP A ( Amireaul t & Godin, 2015) was used to measure time spent on physical activity. For this questionnaire participants were asked how much time was spent on physical activity for more than 15 minutes. in a typical 7 day period. They could fill in the fitting amount into three different categories namely strenuous, moderate and mild. Strenuous exercise being hockey, football etc. Moderate exercise being swimming, tennis etc. Mild exercise being walking, bowling, playing golf etc. To calculate the outcome, strenuous was multiplied by 9, moderate by 5, and mild by 3. This was all added to make a total sum. With the total sum a participant can be placed in one of the three categories; active (24 or more), moderately active (14-23) and insufficiently active (14 or less). This questionnaire was translated in Dutch for this research.

The

SRQ-R

(Ryan, Rigby & King, 1993) is focused around the reasons why someone is engaging in religious behavior. Questionnaire is developed and validated by Ryan, Rigby and King (1993). The questionnaire consists of 4 main questions that can be answered by scoring 1 to 5 on following items. Each main question is followed by three items. The scale has two subscales namely introjected regulation and identified regulation. An example of a main question would be: "When I tum to god I often do is because", this is followed by an item e.g. "I enjoy spending time with him". Scores were calculated by averaging the items within those subscales. This questionnaire was translated in Dutch for this research. After translation there was still a high reliability of a = 0.94. At the end of the questionnaire some demographic variables were asked under which age, gender, education level, place of birth and type of religion affiliated with.

For this research participants were needed that were engaging in religious activity. For that reason participants from the CHE were recruited. During their lunch time they were asked if they would like to fill in a questionnaire about religion and physical exercise. At this school 100 participants were willing to fill out a questionnaire. Filling out a questionnaire took a participant around 10 minutes. The same questionnaire was handed out on the UvA were 81 participants were willing to fill out a questionnaire. After filling out the questionnaire participants were free to ask about the purpose of the study and thanked for cooperating. Participants did not receive any credit or rewards.

Analysis Description

Before running the analyses the decision was made to exclude people that scored the minimum score of 10 on the RCI-10. This due to the fact that the research question was in which way identified or introjected religiosity moderates physical activity.

If

a person is not religious at all he or she cannot be placed into one of the two categories. After excluding all non-religious people several descriptive statistics were examined for all variables. Extreme outliers on the L TPA questionnaire (scores above 200) were also excluded from the analyses.

Next step was running the moderation analyses. A moderation analysis is used to determine whether the relationship between two variables depends on (is moderated by) the value of a third variable. In this case there is a continuous dependent variable ( degree of religiosity) and continuous independent variable (physical activity), which is modified by a dichotomous moderator variable (identified of introjected regulation).

The standard method of determining whether a moderating effect exists, which entails the addition of an (linear) interaction term in a multiple regression model was used. A moderator analysis is a multiple regression equation with an interaction term. Firstly a linear regression between the predictor variable and the outcome variable was done and all assumptions were examined. Then two multiple regression analyses were done to examine the interaction between predictor*moderatorl

7

outcome and predictor*moderator2

7

outcome. All assumptions were checked as well.

Results

This dataset consisted of 113 participants of which 53 were male and 60 were female. After checking for outliers two extreme outliers on the L TP A scale were removed. Participant

150 and 167 scored above 200 for L TP A which is considered an extreme outlier. Also all participants that scored the minimum (10) on the RCI-10 were excluded from the analyses. In table 1 all the means and standard deviations of the questionnaires are displayed

Variables

Subjects Total (N=l 13) Religious commitment

LTPA

Identified Regulation Scale Introjected Regulation Scale

30.2 (10.7) 58.4 (34.5) 12 (4.8) 15.9 (6.5) Ta bie 1.

Means of standard deviations of questionnaires

After conducting a Shapiro-Wilk test on all scales to check the assumption of normality there was found that all scales violated the assumption of normality. Scores on the LTPA deviated significantly from normal, D (113)

=

.871, p < .001 as did scores on the RCI- 10, D(l 13) = .954, p = .001, the scores on the scale for identified regulation, D(l 13) = .889, p < .001, and for introjected regulation, D(l 13) = .935, p < .001. Since linear regression is fairly robust and can forgive non-normality this didn't pose a problem yet.

A simple linear regression was done between degree of religiosity and physical activity to see whether degree of religiosity was a significant predictor of physical activity. Before interpretation of the results main assumptions of linear regression were checked. These being 1) The assumption of additivity and linearity 2) homoscedasticity 3) independence of errors 4) normally distributed errors. By looking at the scatterplots it was assessed that the assumption linearity and homoscedasticity were violated. The assumption of independence of error was assessed through the Durbin-Watson test which revealed that this assumption was met with a value of 1.95.By looking at the normal P-Plot of regression standardized residual there was assessed that the assumption of normally distributed errors was violated, since there was a curve in the graph. Since linear regression can forgive some violations of assumptions and the fact that a large sample was used (N=l 13) the central limit theorem can be applied (Field,2009). The most problematic assumption violation was the one of linearity, since if you do a linear regression, you want to have a linear model, otherwise the model is invalid (Field,2009). Even so a simple linear regression was conducted. After reviewing there could be concluded that degree of religiosity was no significant predictor of physical activity R2 = .004, F (1,111) = .47, p = .496. When looking at the bootstrapped regression model it showed a non-significant negative trend between religion and physical activity, B = 64.71, Bl = -.208,

p = .524, 95% CI [-.84, .43]. The formula would be: physical activity (B) = 64.71

+

(-.208 * degree of religiosity(B 1 ). This means that physical activity would decrease with - .208 for an increase of degree of religiosity.

Next a multiple regression was done with the interaction between degree of religiosity and identified internalization for religion. Before interpretation of the output all assumptions were checked. The same assumptions apply as with linear regression with the addition of multicollinearity which means that there shouldn't be a strong correlation between one or more predictors (Field, 2009). By looking at the scatterplot there was assessed that the assumption of linearity and homoscedasticity was violated. The assumption of independence of errors was met (Durbin-Watson = 1. 97). By looking at the normal P-Plot of regression standardized residual there was assessed that the assumption of normally distributed errors was violated, since there was a curve in the graph. The assumption of multicollinearity was violated with a VIF value of 10.36. According to Field (2009) a VIF value greater than 10 is cause for concern. This implies that the RCI-10 is measuring intrinsic motivation as well as degree of religiosity. The results showed that there was an increase of 0.08 in explained variance by the second model , which was not significant

R

2 = .012,

F

(1,110) = . 90, p = .346. Furthermore no significant regression equation was found

B

= 75.5, Bl= -1.092,

B2

=.

029,p

= .288. This would mean that physical exercise is not moderated by identified internalization for religion.

The last analysis consisted of a multiple regression to examine the interaction between degree of religiosity and introjected internalization of religion on physical activity. Again before interpretation all assumptions were checked. As was the case in the other analyses homoscedasticity and normality were violated, the assumption of independence of errors was met (Durbin-Watson = 1. 95). The assumption of normally distributed errors was violated, by looking at the P-Plot it could be seen that there was a curve in the graph. Assumption of multicollinearity was met (VIF = 2.59). There was an increase in

R

2 of .005, which was not significant

R

2 = .-009,

F

(1,110) =

.

509

,

p

= .477. Again a non-significant regression equation was found

B

= 62.93, Bl = .067,

B2

=. -0.17,

p

= .479. This would mean that physical exercise is not moderated by introjected internalization for religion.

Discussion

For this research the hypothesis was that the influence the degree of religiosity has on physical exercise is moderated by the internalization style someone has for religion.

Hypothesized was that identified internalization would lead to more physical exercise while introjected would not. The reasoning behind this hypothesis was that people who are

behaving identified according to their religion have better psychological health. Research has shown that exercise and good psychological health are related (Skead & Rogers, 2016). After reviewing the results there seemed to be a non-significant trend towards the opposite, it might be the case that people that are more religious engage in less physical activity, this result however was not significant. When looking at the results of this research one has to keep in mind that multiple assumptions were violated and therefor the results could be less or not trustworthy at all.

An alternative explanation for the found results however could be that when people sacrifice a lot of their free time to practicing their religion they have less time to engage in physical activity. Seeing as there is a reduction in physical activity with the increase of religious commitment, this could be explained in time reduction. The more a person spends on a certain hobby or religion, less time is available to be spent on other things. Religion might be time consuming in terms of reading the bible, attending church or seeking social interaction with fellow members of your religion.

An interesting question however remains, where do these previously named health benefits for religion come from? Seeing as religion is related to physical health benefits (Ryan, Rigby & King, 1993). Perhaps the satisfaction for the need of autonomy and the feeling of intrinsic motivation is what fuels these health benefits. Then again it might be due to the fact that religion promotes healthier behavior such as drinking less alcohol or

consuming less meat (Jarvis & Northcott, 1987). However in the available literature regarding self-determination theory there is a consensus that the feeling of autonomy and intrinsic motivation is a positive predictor for well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2003). As such the findings in this study don't necessarily conflict with these findings in other studies or the theoretical framework of self-determination theory. Seeing as religion is correlated with health benefits it could be possible that this is due to a feeling of autonomy in their lives and not with religion per se. Religion could be replaced with guitar playing or drawing that gives someone a feeling

of autonomy and is pursued with intrinsic motivation. In this sense you could say that guitar playing could provide physical health benefits for someone.

It

would be interesting for future research to examine how identified and introjected internalization of behavior could lead to physical health consequences. A research question for future research could be in which way the satisfaction for need of autonomy and how intrinsic motivation influences physical health.

If

people could be aware in what ways their physical health is influenced by intrinsic motivation and need for autonomy, perhaps more people would follow their interests instead of following things pressured by money or their surroundings.

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