The influence of group climate on inappropriate responses to problematic social situations by adolescents with MID in the secure juvenile facility Schakenbosch.
Jacqueline van der Linden
Datum : 22 juni 2014
Naam : Jacqueline van der Linden
Studie : Forensische Orthopedagogiek Studentennummer : 10092269
UvAnetID : 6353525
Onder begeleiding van : dr. G.H.P van Helm, Hogeschool Leiden
dr. G. J. J. M Stams, Universiteit van Amsterdam
Index
Abstract ... 2
Introduction ... 3
Adaptive behavior ... 4
Transactional processes in the group climate... 6
Need for structure in an open climate ... 8
Method ... 9 Participants ... 9 Measures ... 9 Statistical analyses ... 10 Results ... 11 Preliminary analyses ... 11
Structural Equation Modelling ... 11
Discussion ... 12
Literature ... 17
Appendix ... 26
Abstract
This quantitative study examines the influence of living group climate and inappropriate responses to four specific problematic social situations. The study was conducted amongst 120 adolescents with MID and behavioral problems who are currently under treatment in the secure juvenile facility
Schakenbosch. The results indicated that an open climate was negatively associated with inappropriate responses to accepting authority and accepting and giving help. Accepting and giving help and authority strongly predicted inappropriate responses to disadvantage. Inappropriate responses to authority also predicted inappropriate responses to competition. When the adolescents gained sufficient successful experiences in situations of accepting authority and accepting and giving help, they showed more adequate responses in situations of disadvantage and competition.
Keywords: Group climate, inappropriate responses, mild intellectual disabilities
Introduction
Having a mild intellectual disability poses many problems in our present-day society where ‘brains’ dominate over ‘brawn’ and where society becomes more and more complex, and less tolerant of deviant behavior (Boone & Moerings, 2007; Groeneweg, Van der Helm & Stams, 2013; Koomen & Van der Pligt 2014). Adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities (MID) show minimal differences in their appearance compared with their peers with average intellectual capabilities, and therefore most people think they can function in a normal way. In reality - to a large extent this is an illusion. Adolescents with MID are prone to develop psychiatric and behavioral disorders (Dekker, Douma, De Ruiter & Koot, 2006: Didden, 2006; Teeuwen & verhoef, 2009). They have less developed executive functioning and often show improper social behavior. Therefore, they experience more problems in a range of life domains, such as family, peers, school and often the law (Dekker & Koot, 2003; Dekker, Koot, Van der Ende & Verhulst, 2002; Teeuwen, 2012; Van Poelgeest & Embregts, in Ponsioen & De Groot, 2007). Psychiatric problems and substance abuse are common amongst adolescents with MID. Furthermore, they are difficult to treat as a result of their multiple handicaps. Complex social situations frequently results in conflict situations with these adolescents, because they have limited understanding of problematic social situations, lack learning capacity and have difficulties in taking perspective (Van der Helm, Hanrath & Jonker, 2011b). Often, residential treatment is necessary when problems escalate. Pedagogical staff is continuously managing conflict situations, especially between peers. Violence and aggression are common and these conflicts have a deteriorating effect on the social and educational climate.
Schakenbosch youth centre is a secure juvenile facility where adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities (MID) and borderline intelligence are being treated for severe behavioral problems. Their mission is to provide opportunities for the adolescents to be able to participate in society (Schakenbosch, n.d.). This is a very ambitious goal, knowing these youngsters do not have the ability to function well in complex social situations.
Adaptive behavior
A low level of intelligence is often accompanied with problems in various areas (Verstegen, 2005). These problems can be described as a limitation in executive functioning, especially adaptive behavior. Adaptive behavior is a combination of social, conceptual and practical skills needed to function in everyday life (Shalock et al., 2010). Adolescents with MID respond differently, compared to their peers with average intelligence to problematic social situations (Van Nieuwenhuijzen et al., 2005; Van Nieuwenhuijzen & Elias, 2006)
Studies have shown that adolescents with MID experience more problems with interpreting social situations, because they are less capable of selecting the relevant stimuli (Merrill, 2006). On account of their limited working memory, they cannot process information simultaneously (Van der Molen,Van Luit, Jongmans & Van der Molen, 2009). In addition, they focus mainly on negative information and have problems with detecting abstract information (Van Nieuwenhuijzen et al., in Van Nieuwenhuijzen & Elias, 2006). Adolescents with MID have limitations in separating main, and secondary issues and have
limitations in creating an overview of the situation (Willner, Bailey & Parry & Dymond, 2010). They are not capable of finding the essence of the information, resulting in processing a lot of information (Wit, Moonen & Douma, 2011). The consequence of this information processing disability is a lack of
executing complex cognitive strategies, such as forecasting, prioritizing and organizing. This results in a strong need for daily structure (Collot d’escury, Ebbekink & Schijven, 2009; Van Nieuwenhuizen, 2005). Adolescents with MID also have difficulties understanding the perspective of other people in complex situations (Collot d’Escury, Barnhard & Hartsink, 2004). The reduction in their working memory and the problems in the inhibition of irrelevant signals result in diminished interpretation of emotional expressions and social situations (Heij, Schaapman, Florisson & Wijnroks, 2013).
The cognitive process needed to obtain a fitting reaction to a social situation is called the social information process (SIP). Many researchers have found that behavioural problems depend on inadequate and hostile social information processing (Crick & Dodge, 1994; Van Nieuwenhuijzen et al., 2005; Van
Nieuwenhuijzen et al., 2006). To react appropriately in social situations an individual needs to encode and interpret social signs, think of possible responses and choose the best possible reaction (Crick & Dodge, 1994). Adolescents with MID encounter several problems, preventing them from successfully completing these phases. Their problems with language comprehension and difficulty in understanding someone else’s perspective lead to difficulty in estimating problematic social situations (Collot d’Escury et al., 2004).
Secondly, individuals with MID are more focussed on avoiding failure and frustration instead of focussing on the development of their skills, because they often have a long history of failure and interpret their capabilities as invariable (Masi et al., in Masi, Pfanner, Marcheschi & Poll, 1998). Therefore, these adolescents will be more likely to avoid complex situations or react with aggression (Van der Helm et al., 2012).
Furthermore, adolescents with MID learn mostly by experience. A representation of the situation is created based on information about past experiences stored in their memory. Their patterns of thought based on previous experiences indirectly affect their behavior (Van Nieuwenhuijzen et al., 2006). Therefore, their preconceived ideas of aggression influence their possible responses to social situations (Van Nieuwenhuijzen et al., 2006). This means adolescents with MID, compared with peers of average intelligence, devise either an aggressive or avoidance reaction in problematic social situations instead of an assertive solution (Van Nieuwenhuijzen, 2005).
In addition, these adolescents often have an unrealistic self-esteem; they either over- or
underestimate themselves (Elias, Vermeer & ’T Hart, 2005). When they underestimate themselves, they miss the confidence needed to execute an assertive solution. MID adolescents with excessive confidence avoid their problems; they cannot incorporate consequences of their own behavior (external locus of control), and express more oppositional behavior when confronted with their own behavior (Masi, Marcheschi & Phanner, 1998).
Finally, adolescents with MID cannot consider alternative behavioral options. Often they follow their most common reaction (Van Nieuwenhuijzen & Elias, 2006) and the most common reaction of
adolescents with MID and behavioral problems is often aggression. They are less able to deliberately suppress automatic responses in order to reach their goals (Bexkens, Ruzzano, Collot d’ Escury-Koenigs, Van der Molen & Huizenga, 2014). Treatment to reduce aggression needs to focus on teaching a new response in social situations and requires practice of social skills.
Transactional processes in the group climate
In addition to the social information process, the environment of adolescents with MID also influences their problems (transactional processes, Sameroff, 2009). Several studies have shown that particular social situations can provoke aggressive behavior (Van Bokhoven, Van Nieuwenhuijzen, Embregts, Vriens & Matthys, 2011; Van der Helm, Stams, Van Genabeek & Van der Laan, 2012a; Van der Helm et al., 2012b; Matthys, Maassen, Cuperus & Van Engeland, 2001). Van der Helm et al. (2012b) discovered a significant correlation in four specific social situations between inappropriate responses and direct and indirect
aggression. These four specific social situations are situations of disadvantage, competition, accepting and giving help, and accepting authority.
To pursue treatment goals, it is necessary that Schakenbosch teach adolescents to react to social situations in an appropriate manner. In cooperation with their parents the adolescents work on increasing their social competence. The educational climate is regarded as a tool for achieving this goal (Van der Helm, Stams, Van der Stel, Van Langen & Van der Laan, 2012c). The four situations described by Van der Helm et al. (2012b) are closely associated with an open and closed group climate. A positive or open group climate includes support of the pedagogical staff, sufficient opportunities to develop, and a positive group atmosphere1 (Van der Helm, Van der Laan & Stams, 2011c). In an open group climate there is a balance between necessary structure and flexibility for an individualistic approach. This requires the competence of the pedagogical staff to build a good working relationship with the
adolescents and their parents. In contrast, in a negative or closed group climate there is disproportionate use of repression, lack of flexibility and an absence of developmental opportunities (Van der Helm, 2011; Van der Helm, et al., 2011b). Researchers have found that an open group climate can contribute to
an increase in treatment motivation, more active coping, stabilization of personality problems and reduction of aggression (Van der Helm, 2011; Van der Helm et al., 2009; Van der Helm et al., 2012a; Van der Helm et a.., 2012c; Ros, Van der Helm, Wissink, Schaftenaar & Stams, 2013; for a discussion see Souverein, Van der Helm & Stams, 2013). In contrast, a closed group climate is associated with the use of passive coping, less treatment motivation, less empathy and emotional instability (Van der Helm, 2011; Van der Helm et al., 2012c; Van Der Helm, Boekee, Stams & Van der Laan, 2011a). An open group climate is positively associated with less aggression because an open group climate provides an opportunity for positive interactions and feedback (Groeneweg et al., 2013).
In an environment where aggression generates an insecure atmosphere, negative transactional processes between staff and adolescents pose difficulties in trying to create an open group climate (Van der Helm & Stams, 2012d). Fear of undesirable behavior, lack of safety and a negative attitude from the staff causes more interventions aimed at establishing over-control in a residential setting. These
interventions lead to reactance and aggression by the adolescents (Van der Helm et al., 2011a). In a secure juvenile facility, the imbalance of power provokes lack of trust and an increase of conflicts (De Dreu, Giebels & Van der Vliert, 1998). Grance and Patterson (2006) described these negative
transactional processes as a ‘coercive cycle’: the staff react to undesirable behavior with repression, causing the adolescents stop this behavior. Consequently, this change in the behavior of the adolescents functions as a reward for the intervention of the staff. For most of the adolescents, repression in a residential setting is not a change of environment compared to their previous living situation. Often they have been subjected to a problematic family life and negative experiences in previous residential facilities. However, repressive interventions do not produce long lasting positive behavioural changes in the
adolescents (Van der Helm, et al., 2012a). Likewise, the reaction of their peers to this behavior can reinforce undesirable behavior (for a discussion on punitive behavior of staff see: Van der Helm, Beld, Schaftenaar & Stams, 2014). The attitude of the staff against aggression plays a major role in
maintaining the negative transactional process between the adolescents and the staff. A negative, or
punitive attitude towards aggression is a strong predictor of the use of repression and seclusion (Knotter, Wissing, Moonen, Stams & Jansen, 2013).
Need for structure in an open climate
Adolescents with MID have a strong need for daily structure as they have difficulties in structuring the day themselves (Collot d’escury et al., 2009; Van Nieuwenhuizen, 2005). This makes it more difficult to create an open group climate when treating adolescents with MID. Meeting the needs of structure
without repression can be achieved by avoiding unnecessary rules, inflexibility, and punishment (Van der Helm & Stams, 2012). Staff needs to create the right balance between sufficient structure and flexibility in order to respond to individual needs and desires (Van der Helm, Boekee, Stams & Van der Laan, 2012).
The aim of this study is to investigate how group climate can influence inappropriate responses to four specific problematic social situations by adolescents with MID and behavioral problems who are being treated in Schakenbosch. The first hypothesis is that an open group climate is negatively associated with inappropriate responses in the four specific problematic social situations. These situations were situations of disadvantage, competition, accepting and giving help, and accepting authority. The second hypothesis is that a closed group climate is positively related to inappropriate responses in the four specific problematic social situations.
Method
Participants
The present study was conducted in a Dutch secure juvenile facility; Schakenbosch. The participants were adolescents between the ages of 12 to 18. The mean age of the respondents was 15.4. The study population consisted of 120 adolescents (55 male and 53 female, 12 unknown). All participants had mild intellectual disabilities (MID) or borderline intelligence and behavioral problems. All respondents approved and agreed with participating in this study and all names on the questionnaires were deleted and encoded in SPSS. Measures
In this study the participants completed questionnaires about living group climate (CGIC 8-15) and inappropriate responses (TOPS). The study was conducted over a one-year period. questionnaires were conducted four times during one year and were analyzed using SPSS and Amos.
The Group Climate Instrument for Children aged 8 to 15 years (GCIC 8-15) is used to measure group climate. This is an adapted version of the Prison Group Climate instrument (PGCI, Van der Helm, Stams & Van der Laan, 2011a). The original PGCI consists of 37 items rated on a five-point Likert-scale and has four factors: support, growth, repression and atmosphere. The original GCIC 8-15 consists of 14 items rated on five-point Likert-scale, ranging from ‘I do not agree’ (1) to ‘I totally agree’ (5) and has two factors; an open and a closed group climate. This questionnaire was adapted to the situation in
Schakenbosch by adding one item; ‘I have enough liberties’. Strijbosch, Van Der Helm, Van Brandenburg, Mecking, Wissink and Stams (2013) reported good construct validity and good reliability for both factors (open group climate α = .91, closed group climate α = .71). In the present study the reliability was found to be good for the factor ‘open group climate’ (Cronbach’s α = 90). The reliability for the factor ‘closed group climate’ (Cronbach’s α =.60) was satisfactory.
The Taxonomy of Problematic Social Situations-Adolescent (TOPS-A) is a self-report questionnaire used to measure inappropriate responses in the four specific problematic social situations. This
questionnaire is based on a teacher-report measure created by Dodge, McClaskey and Feldman (1985), where the responses of children to six specific social situations are assessed. Matthys et al. (2001) adjusted this measure in a reduced version with four factors. Van der Helm et al. (2012b) adjusted this measure for juvenile facilities. This measure consists of 22 items and has four factors; situations of disadvantage (7 items), situation of competition (5 items), situation of accepting and giving help (3 items), and accepting authority (6 items). The participant can react with three possible answers (‘I do not’, ‘I do sometimes’ and ‘I do often’). Van der Helm et al. (2012b) found support for construct validity of the four factors. Likewise, an overall internal consistency reliability of α =. 90 was found. Evidence was also presented for validity in relation to direct and indirect aggression and living group climate. The overall reliability for the TOPS- A in this research was α =.76. The reliability of the four factors was not satisfying; therefore items were removed from the factors ‘competition’, ‘accepting and giving help’ and ‘accepting authority’. This resulted in a reliability of α = .69 for ‘disadvantage’, α = .48 for ‘competition’, α = .42, and α = .61 of ‘accepting authority’. The ‘accepting and giving help’ contains two items. By reason of the limited number of items, the correlation described to estimate the reliability. An positive correlation was found between the two items of this scale (r = 284, p < .05). The reliability of the factors ‘competition’ was unsatisfying.
Statistical analyses
The first paragraph of the results section presents the means and standard deviations of the institutional climate scales for the four factors of the TOPS-A The correlations between these variables are described. The second paragraph presents the result of the analysis with the structural equation model (SEM). The SEM was used to test association between group climate and inappropriate responses in the four specific problematic social situations. A structural equation model was fitted to the data, testing a model where group climate is associated with inappropriate responses to four specific social situations. Only the
fitting model is presented. The model fit was evaluated by the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and the model Chi-Square (Iacobucci, 2009). The cut-off values applied to testing the model fit were; RMSEA < .07 (Steiger, 2007), TLI, CFI and NFI > .95 (Hooper, Coughlan & Mullen, 2008; Hu & Bentler, 1999).
Results
Preliminary analyses
Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations of the group climate scales, inappropriate responses and the four factors of the TOPS-A. A negative correlation was found between an ‘open group climate’ and a ‘closed group climate’( r = -.301, p < .01). ‘Open group climate’ proved to have negative associations with inappropriate responses (TOPS-A) ( r= - 215, p = < . 05). Moreover, a negative association was found for the factor inappropriate responses to ‘accepting authority’ ( r = -.334, p < .01). Inappropriate responses to ‘disadvantage’ was positively associated with inappropriate responses to ‘competition’ ( r= .242, p < .01), ‘accepting and giving help’ (r = 243, p < .01) and ‘accepting authority’ (r = 500, p < .01).
Inappropriate responses to ‘accepting authority’ was positive associated with inappropriate response to ‘accepting and giving help’( r = .247, p < .01). Furthermore, inappropriate responses to ‘competition’ was also positively associated with inappropriate responses to ‘accepting authority’ ( r = .431, p < .01). No association was found between ‘closed group climate’ and inappropriate responses in the different problematic social situations.
Structural Equation Modelling
To examine whether the model fitted the data well, the square values were calculated. The Chi-square test is used to test the overall model fit (kline, 2011). The model showed an good fit to the data (χ2(8) = 3.12 p =.93). The Chi-square is sensitive to the sample size (Hooper, et al., 2008). The fit indices
are less sensitive to the sample size (Sivo, Fan, Willta, & Willse, 2006). The indices showed a close fit to the data RMSEA= ,000, TLI = 1.17, CFI= 1.00, and NFI= .97. From figure 1 it can be derived that ‘open group climate’ is negatively associated with inappropriate responses to ‘accepting authority’ (p = .00). Inappropriate responses to ‘disadvantage’ and ‘competition’ were not directly associated with group climate. However, inappropriate responses to ‘accepting authority’ were positively related to inappropriate responses to ‘disadvantage’ (p =.00) and ‘competition’(p =.00). Therefore, inappropriate responses to ‘disadvantage’ and ‘competition’ predict problems with authority. Furthermore, inappropriate responses to ‘accepting authority’ were positively associated with inappropriate responses to ‘accepting and giving help’ (p =.01). Likewise, it can be derived from figure 1 that ‘open group climate’ was negatively associated with ‘closed group climate’(.00). In this study no significant correlation between ‘closed group climate’ and inappropriate responses to the four specific problem situations was found.
Discussion
This research examined the relation between group climate and inappropriate responses to four specific problematic social situations by adolescents with MID and behavioral problems who are currently being treated in Schakenbosch. Contrary to our hypotheses, we only found a relation between open group climate and problems with authority and accepting and giving help, and no relation with a closed group climate (hypothesis 1 and 2 rejected). Furthermore, we found that problems with authority and accepting and giving help strongly predicted problems with disadvantage. Problems with authority also predicted problems with competition.
It was first hypothesized that open group climate would be negatively associated with
inappropriate responses to the four specific problematic social situations. This association was confirmed for the adolescents in this study. However, this direct relation was not found for all four specific
problematic social situations. Open group climate was associated with inappropriate responses to the problematic social situations; authority and accepting and giving help. In contrast, Van der Helm et al.
(2012) found a negative association between open group climate and inappropriate responses to all four specific problematic social situations
Also, we found no relation between closed group climate and inappropriate responses to the four specific problematic social situations. This is contrary to the results of a previous study from Van der Helm et al. (2012b). These researchers found positive relations between closed group climate and inappropriate responses to the four specific social problem situations. Nevertheless, the absence of the relation between closed group climate and inappropriate responses in this study can be explained by the negative experiences in the history of the adolescents (Van der Helm et al., 2012a). Adolescents with MID often have a negative background; they frequently grow up in families with problems (Van Poelgeest & Embregts, in Ponsioen & De Groot, 2007). A closed group climate in a residential setting is often what they have been experiencing in other child-rearing situations. As a result, closed climate in residential settings does not affect their behavior because it is more of the same (Van der Helm, et al., 2012a).
Social problem situations and self- esteem
The different results of this study and the study of Van der Helm et al. (2012) about the relation between open group climate and inappropriate responses to the four specific problematic social situations can possibly be explained by the differences in participants. The study by Van der Helm et al. (2012) was not specifically directed at adolescents with MID, but was conducted amongst adolescents with several levels of intelligence. The limited intelligence of the adolescents in the present study can therefore be considered as the explanation for the absence of a direct relation between open group climate and inappropriate responses to disadvantage.
Because of their limited cognitive capability, adolescents with MID are constantly at a disadvantage in several domains of life. Adolescents with MID perform less on all areas of development compared to their peers, causing them to perform less at school and at work. Their disadvantages lead to a limited
chance of graduating, which in turn affects their employability and consequentially their future economic status. In addition, they are less capable at solving problematic situations in an assertive manner (Van Nieuwenhuijzen, 2005; Van Nieuwenhuijzen & Elias, 2006), as a result they often get involved in conflicts with others. Furthermore, they experience more stress from negative interpersonal relationships with their peers and others (Bender, Rosenkrans, & Crane, 1999), their peers accept them less (Freeman & Alkin, 2000) and they experience more stress caused by discrepancies between high expectations of themselves and reality (Janssen & Schuengel, 2006; Janssen, Schuengel, & Stolk, 2002). In summary, adolescents with MID are constantly in situations of disadvantage, which results in a continuous increased level of stress. Inappropriate behavior by adolescents with MID can be explained by the inability to cope with stressful situations, where externalizing behavior can be explained as a fight against losing control in stressful situations (Janssen & Schuengel, 2006). Constantly being in a disadvantage affects their self-esteem.
The self-esteem of adolescents with MID does not correspond with reality, they overestimate or underestimate themselves (Masi et al., 1998). The lack of control in these situations and the sense of failure result in an underestimation of their competence (Jones 2009; Jones 2012; Masi et. al, 1998). These
adolescents have an increased risk for depression and suicide (Masi, Marcheschi & Phanner, 1998). In contrast, other studies reported an overestimation of competence in adolescents with MID (Popovici & Buicặ-Belcia,2012; Masi et. al, 1998; Van Nieuwenhuijzen & Elias, 2006; Vermeer, Lijnse & Lindhout, 2004). The overestimation of competence can be considered as a strategy to cope with the feeling of failure in order to maintain a positive self-esteem, i.e. dissonance reduction (Nader, 2014). Adolescents who overestimate themselves have an increased risk for aggression, oppositional behavior and avoidance behavior when threatened by failures (Masi et al, 1998; Van Nieuwenhuijzen & Elias, 2006). Adolescents with MID lack also the confidence to choose and work on an assertive solution when they find themselves in problematic situations. In these situations they show aggressive responses more frequently (Van
Nieuwenhuijzen & Elias, 2006).
Inappropriate responses to disadvantages constitute a recurring pattern. The reaction of their environment to the inappropriate responses confirms their feelings of incompetence and gives them no opportunity to learn how to adequately respond. A feeling of competence is the key to escaping from this coercive cycle (Fontaine & Dodge, 2009). An open group climate decreases inappropriate responses to authority and accepting and giving help, which gives the adolescents the opportunity to have successful experiences in contact with adults. When the adolescents gain sufficient successful experiences, they receive the confidence to show an adequate response in disadvantageous situations.
In addition, confidence in performing an assertive response seems to have an impact on situations of competition. Situations of competition among adolescents are common in interactions with their peers, because peer relationships are very important (Lightfoot, Cole, & Cole 2009) as well as the opinion of their peers. They engage in social comparison in order to improve their perception of themselves. In
Schakenbosch they are confronted with problematic interactions with their peers on a daily basis, as a result their feeling of incompetence is often confirmed. By contrast, staff aims to reinforce positive behavior in order to enable adolescents to increase their confidence. When the adolescents gain sufficient successful experiences, they feel confident to show an adequate response in situations of competition.
Limitations of the study
There are some limitations in this study that have to be acknowledged. The unsatisfying reliability of the factors ‘competition’ and the limited reliability of the other scales of the TOPS-A can be explained by the number of items. In addition, the TOPS-A involves a complex level of social understanding, the questions require that the adolescents can assess their own behaviour in hypothetical situations.
Adolescents with MID experience difficulties in answering questions about abstract situations (Finlay & Lyons, 2001). This can affect the reliability of the Questionnaire. The results of this study should
therefore be interpreted with caution.Secondly, the administration of the questionnaires has not been standardized. A portion of the participants was able to fill in the questionnaire independently, whereas part
of the respondents needed support from the researchers. This, however, was unavoidable considering the complexity of the sample.
Final conclusion
This research shows that a closed group climate does not increase inappropriate responses in adolescents with MID. Furthermore, this study is one of the first to highlight the impact of disadvantage on the effect of an open group climate to inappropriate responses in adolescents with MID in a secure accommodation. These results can help group workers improving treatment of this difficult group adolescents. Future research should examine the relation between self-esteem, open group climate and inappropriate responses to disadvantage. Furthermore, future research should examine the relation between open group climate and inappropriate responses to disadvantage during a longer period of time. This enables examining the causal relation between open group climate and inappropriate responses to problem situations. Possibly, the relation between (open and closed) group climate and inappropriate responses to disadvantage is mediated by feelings of competence.
Literature
Bender, W. N., Rosenkrans, C. B., & Crane, M. K. (1999). Stress, depression, and suicide among students with learning disabilities: assessing the risk. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 143-156. doi: 10.2307/1511272.
Bexkens, A., Ruzzano, L., Collot d' Escury-Koenigs, A. M. L., van der Molen, M. W., & Huizenga, H. M. (2014). Inhibition deficits in individuals with intellectual disability: a meta-regression
analysis.Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 58(1), 3-16. doi: 10.1080/09297049.2013.799643
Boone, M., & Moerings, M. (Ed.). (2007). Dutch Prisons. Den Haag, Nederland: Boom Juridische Uitgevers.
Collot d’ Escury, A., Barnhard, S., & Hartsink, D. (2004). Sociale vaardigheden in perspectief: Kunnen LVG-jongeren perspectiefnemen? Onderzoek & Praktijk, 2(1), 22-31. Geraadpleegd op
http://www.lvgnet.nl/vobc/pdf/OnderzoekenPraktijk_augustus2004.pdf
Collot d' Escury, A., Ebbekink, K., & Schijven, E. (2009). Kwaliteit van de behandeling met
psychofarmaca van mensen met een verstandelijke beperking. In Didden, R. & Moonen, X. (ed.), Met het oog op behandeling 2: effectieve behandeling van gedragsstoornissen van mensen met een licht verstandelijke beperking (pp. 101-112). Utrecht/Den Dolder, Nederland: Landelijk Kenniscentrum LVG / Expertise Centrum De Borg.
Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin 115(1), 74-101. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74
De Dreu, C. K. W., Giebels, E., & van de Vliert, E. (1998). Social motives and trust in integrative
negotiation: The disruptive effects of punitive capability. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(3), 408-422. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.408
Dekker, M., Douma, J., de Ruiter, K., & Koot, H. (2006). Aard, ernst, comorbiditeit en beloop van gedragsproblemen en psychiatrische stoornissen bij kinderen en jeugdigen met een verstandelijke beperking. In R. Didden (ed.), In perspectief, gedragsproblemen, psychiatrische stoornissen en licht verstandelijke beperking (2nd ed.,pp. 20-40). Houten, Nederland: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum.
Dekker, M. C., & Koot, H. M. (2003). DSM-IV disorders in children with borderline to moderate intellectual disability. I: Prevalence and impact. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(8), 915-922. doi:10.1097/01.CHI.0000046892.27264.1A
Dekker, M. C., Koot, H. M., van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2002). Emotional and behavioral problems in children and adolescents with and without intellectual disability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(8), 1087-1098. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00235
De Wit. M., Moonen, X., & Douma, J. (2011). Richtlijn effectieve interventies LVB. Utrecht: Landelijk Kenniscentrum LVG.
Didden, R. (2006). Gedragsproblemen In R. Didden (Ed.), In perspectief, gedragsproblemen,
psychiatrische stoornissen en licht verstandelijke beperking (2nd ed., pp. 3-20). Houten, Nederland: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum
Dodge, K. A., McClaskey, C.L., & Feldman, E. (1985). Situational approach to the assessment of social competence in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(3), 344–353. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.53.3.344
Elias, C., Vermeer, A., & ‘t Hart, H. (2005). Measurement of perceived competence in Dutch children with mild intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49(4), 288-295. doi:
10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00653.x
Finlay, W. M. L., Lyons, E., (2001). Methodological issues in interviewing and using self-report
questionnaires with people with mental retardation. Psychological Assessment, 13(3), 319-335. doi: 10.1037//1040-3590.13.3.319
Freeman, S. F. N., & Alkin, M. C. (2000). Academic and social attainments of children with mental retardation in general education and special education settings. Remedial and Special Education 21(1), 3-18. doi:10.1177/07419325000210010
Fontaine, R. G., & Dodge, K. A. (2009). Social information processing and aggressive behavior: A
transactional perspective. In A. J. Sameroff (ed.), The transactional model of development (pp. 117-135). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Granic, I., & Patterson, G. R. (2006). Toward a comprehensive model of antisocial development: a dynamic systems approach. Psychological review, 113(1), 101-131. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.113.1.101
Groeneweg, M. J., van der Helm, G. H. P., Stams, G. J. J. M., & Asscher J. J. (2013).When I don't get what I want, I take it because it's mine. I-D compensation and incarcerated adolescents in a delayed-return society: an application of Martin's theory. Psychiatry, psychology and law, 20(5), 735-748. doi: 10.1080/13219719.2012.730902
Heij, M., Schaapman, M., Florisson, D., & Wijnroks, L. (2013). De relatie tussen executief functioneren en de sociaal-emotionele ontwikkeling bij kinderen met een licht verstandelijke beperking: Een
onderzoek naar de relatie tussen inhibitie en werkgeheugen en het interpreteren van sociale situaties en het beoordelen van emotionele gezichtsexpressies. Onderzoek & Praktijk, 11(2), 16-27.
Geraadpleegd op http://www.kenniscentrumlvb.nl/images/oenp/oenpna2013.pdf
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, R.(2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Reasearch Methods, 6(1), 53-59. Geraadpleegd op
file:///C:/Users/jacqueline/Downloads/ejbrm-volume6-issue1-article183%20(2).pdf
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118
Iacobucci, D. (2009). Structural equations modeling: Fit Indices, sample size, and advanced topics. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 20, 90-98. doi: 10.1016/j.jcps.2009.09.003
Janssen, C. G. C., & Schuengel, C. ( 2006). Gehechtheid, stress, gedragsproblemen en psychopathologie bij mensen met een lichte verstandelijke beperking: Aanzet voor interventie. In R. Didden (red.), .In perspectief, gedragsproblemen, psychiatrische stoornissen en licht verstandelijke beperking (2nd ed., pp. 67-84). Houten, Nederland: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum.
Janssen, C. G. C., Schuengel, C., & Stolk, J. (2002). Understanding challenging behavior in people with severe and profound intellectual disability: A stress-attachment model. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 46(6), 445-453. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2002.00430.x
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3th ed.). NewYork, NY: The Guilford Press.
Knotter, M. H., Wissink, I. B., Moonen, X. M. H., Stams G. J. J. M., & Jansen, G. J. (2013). Staff's attitudes and reactions towards aggressive behaviour of clients with intellectual disabilities: A multi-level study. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(5), 1397-1407. doi:
10.1016/j.ridd.2013.01.032
Koomen, W., & van der Pligt, J. (2011). Polarisatie, radicalisering en terrorisme. Den Haag, Nederland: Boom Uitgeverij.
Lightfoot, C., Cole, M., & Cole, S. R. (2009). The development of children (6th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
Masi, G., Marcheschi, M., & Pfanner, P. (1998). Adolescents with borderline intellectual functioning: Psychopathological risk. Adolescence, 33(130), 415-424. Geraadpleegd op
http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=cd31e0cb-cb41-4264-88cc-1b48be2f5d63%40sessionmgr112&vid=2&hid=125&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d #db=rzh&AN=2009461692
Matthys, W., Maassen, G. H., Cuperus, J. M., & van Engeland, H. (2001). The assessment of the
situational specificity of children’s problem behaviour in peer-peer context. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(3), 413-420. doi: 10.1111/1469-7610.00734
Merrill, E.C. (2006). Interference and inhibition in tasks of selective attention by persons with and without mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 111(3), 216-226. doi: 10.1352/0895-8017(2006)111[216:IAIITO]2.0.CO;2
Nader-Grosbois, N. (2014). self-perception, self-regulation and metacognition in adolescents with intellectual disability. Research in developmental disabilities, 35(6), 1134-1348. doi:
10.1016/j.ridd.2014.03.033
Ponsioen, A., & de Groot, A. (2007). Leerlingen met een licht verstandelijke beperking. In K. Verschueren & H. Koomen (Ed.), Handboek diagnostiek in de leerlingbegeleiding (pp. 265-282). Antwerpen, België: Garant.
Popovici, D. V., & Buicặ-Belcia, C. (2012). Self-concept pattern in adolescent students with intellectual disability. Procedia, social and behavioral sciences, 78, 516-520. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.342 Ros, N., van der Helm, G. H. P., Wissink, I., Schaftenaar, P., & Stams., G. J. J. M. (2013). Institutional
climate and aggression in a secure psychiatric setting. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 24(6), 713-727. doi: 10.1080/14789949.2013.848460
Sameroff, A. J. (2009). The transactional model . In A.J. Sameroff (ed.), The Transactional model of development (pp. 3-21). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Schakenbosch. (n.d.) Missie en Visie. Geraadpleegd op http://www.schakenbosch.nl/Schakenbosch/Missie-en-visie/1583,,,,,,,,/
Schalock, R. L., Borthwick-Duffy, S. A., Bradley, V. J., Buntinx, W. H. E., Coulter, D. L., Craig, E. M. (2010). Intellectual disability: Definition, classification, and systems of supports( 11th ed). Washington, DC: American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.
Sivo, S. A., Fan, X., Witta, E. L., & Willse, J. T. (2006). The search for “optimal” cutoff properties: Fit index criteria in structural equation modeling. The Journal of Experimental Education, 74(3), 267– 288. doi: 10.3200/JEXE.74.3.267-288
Souverein, F. A., van der Helm, G. H. P., Stams, G. J. J. M. (2013). Nothing works’ in secure residential youth care? Children and Youth Services Review, 35(12),1941-1945. doi:
10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.09.010
Steiger, J. H. (2007) Understanding the limitations of global fit assessment in structural equation modelling. Personality and individual differences, 42, 893-898. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.017
Strijbosch, E. L. L., van der Helm, G. J. J. M., van Brandenburg, M. E. T., Mecking, M., Wissink, I. B., & Stams, G. J. J. M. (2013). Research on Social Work Practice, 5, 1-8. doi:
10.1177/1049731513510045
Teeuwen, M. (2012). Verraderlijk gewoon, licht verstandelijk gehandicapte jongeren, hun wereld en hun plaatst in het strafrecht. Amsterdam, Nederland: Uitgeverij SWP.
Teeuwen, M., & Verhoeff, A. P. (2009). Zware bagage: psychosociale problemen en verstandelijke beperkingen bij Amsterdamse jeugd: een inventariserend onderzoek. Geraadpleegd op
Van Bokhoven, I., van Nieuwenhuijzen, M., Embregts, P., Vriens, A., & Matthys, W. (2011). Sociale informatieverwerking bij LVB jongeren binnen justitie: Welke sociale situaties leiden tot problemen? Onderzoek & Praktijk, 9(2), 14-23. Geraadpleegd op
http://www.lvgnet.nl/lkc/pdf/OenP_najaar2011.pdf
Van der Helm, G. H. P. (2011). First do no harm: Living group climate in secure juvenile correctional institutions (doctoral dissertation, Vrije Universiteit, Nederland). Geraadpleegd op
http://dare.ubvu.vu.nl/bitstream/handle/1871/19953/dissertation.pdf?sequence=1
Van der Helm, G. H. P., Boekee, I., Stams, G. J., & van der Laan P. (2011a). Fear is the key: Keeping the balance between flexibility and control in a Dutch youth prison. Journal of children’s services, 6(4), 248-263. Geraadpleegd op http://dare.uva.nl/document/507863
Van der Helm, G. H. P., Hanrath, J., & Jonker, E. (2011b). Wat werkt in de gesloten jeugdzorg. Amsterdam, Nederland: Uitgeverij SWP.
Van der Helm, G. H. P., Klapwijk, M., Stams, G. J. J. M., & van der Laan, P. H. (2009). ‘What Works’ for juvenile prisoners: The role of group climate in a youth prison. Journal of Children’s Services, 4, 36-48. Geraadpleegd op
http://www.werkeninjustitieelkader.nl/cmsdata/artikelen/jcs-4.2%20van%20der%20helm.pdf
Van der Helm, G. H. P., Moonen, X., Stams, G. J. J. M., Giesen, N., van de Heide, E. S., & Matthys, W. (2012b). Measuring inappropriate responses of adolescents to problematic social situations in secure institutional and correctional youth care: A validation study of the TOPS-A. the Journal of
Interpersonal Violence. 28(8), 1579-1595. doi: 10.1177/0886260512468322
Van der Helm, G. H. P., & Stams, G. J. J. M. (2012d). Conflict and coping by clients and group workers in secure residential facilities. In K. T. I. Oei, & M. S. Groenhuijsen (Eds.), Progression in forensic psychiatry: About boundaries (pp. 553-564). Geraadpleegd op
http://www.hsleiden.nl/aems/lectoraatResidentieleJeugdzorg/Conflictcoping.pdf
Van der Helm, G. H. P., Stams, G. J. J. M., van Genabeek, M., & van der Laan, P. H. (2012a). Group climate, personality and self reported aggression in incarcerated male youth. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 23(1), 23-39. doi:10.1080/14789949.2011.633615
Van der Helm, G. H. P., Stams, G. J. J. M., & van der Laan, P. H. (2011c). Measuring Group Climate in Forensic setting. The prison Journal, 91, 18-177. Geraadpleegd op
http://dare.uva.nl/document/465338
Van der Helm, G. H. P., Stams, G. J. J. M., van der Stel, J. C., van Langen, M. A. M., & van der Laan, P. H. (2012c). Group climate and empathy in a sample of incarcerated boys. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 56(8), 1149-1160. doi:
10.1177/0306624X11421649
Van der Molen, M. J., van Luit, J. E. H., Jongmans, M. J., & van der Molen, M. W. (2009). Memory profiles in children with mild intellectual disabilities: Strengths and weaknesses. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 30(6), 1237-1247. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2009.04.005
Van Nieuwenhuijzen, M. (2005). Sociale informatieverwerking bij kinderen met licht verstandelijke beperkingen. Onderzoek & Praktijk, 3(1), 35-38. Geraadpleegd op
http://www.lvgnet.nl/vobc/pdf/onderzoekenpraktijkvoorjaar2005.pdf
Van Nieuwenhuijzen, M., Bijman, E.R., Lamberix, I. C., Wijnroks, L., de Castro, B.O., Vermeer, A., & Matthys, W. (2005). Do children do what they say? Responses to hypothetical and real-life social problems in children with mild intellectual disabilities and behaviour problems. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49(6), 419-433. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00674.x
Van Nieuwenhuijzen, M., de Castro, B. O., van der Valk, I., Wijnroks, L., Vermeer, A., & Matthys, W. (2006). Do social information-processing models explain aggressive behavior by children with mild intellectual disabilities in residential care? Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(11), 801-812. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00773.x
Van Nieuwenhuijzen, M., Elias, C. (2006). Probleemoplossingsvaardigheden en competentiebeleving van kinderen met een lichte verstandelijke beperking. In R. Didden (Ed.), In perspectief,
gedragsproblemen, psychiatrische stoornissen en licht verstandelijke beperking (2nd ed., pp.85-100). Houten, Nederland: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum.
Vermeer, A., :Lijnse, M., & Lindhout, M. (2004). Measuring perceived competence and social acceptance in individuals with intellectual disabilities. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 19(3), 283-300. doi: 10.1080/0885625042000262460
Verstegen, D. (2005). Zorg voor mensen met een lichte verstandelijke handicap met meervoudige problematiek. Onderzoek & Praktijk, 3(1), 5-8. Geraadpleegd op
http://www.lvgnet.nl/vobc/pdf/onderzoekenpraktijkvoorjaar2005.pdf
Willner, P., Bailey, R., Parry, R., & Dymond, S. (2010). Evaluation of the ability of people with intellectual disabilities to ‘weigh up’ information in two test of financial reasoning. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 54(4), 380-391. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01260.x
Appendix
Table 1: mean, standard deviations and correlations N M SD open group climate closed group climate
disadvantage Competition accepting and giving helpa accepting authority TOPS-A Open group climate 3.24 .99 - closed group climate 120 3.10 .87 -.301** - disadvantage 119 1.62 .41 -.161 .013 - Competition 119 1.21 .30 -.045 .044 .242** - accepting and giving helpa 119 1.85 .55 -.034 .041 .243** .063 - accepting authority 119 1.33 .33 -.334** .048 .500** .431** .247** - TOPS_A 119 1.48 .28 -.215* .041 .877** .530** .444** .775** -
Tabel 2: summery goodness-of fit indices for the model χ2
Df P RMSEA CFI NFI TLI
3.12 8 .93 .00 1.00 .97 1.17
Figure 1: SEM-model of group climate and inappropriate responses
