The shortcomings of Nigeria’s engine A case study on wood fuel in Kano State

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The shortcomings of Nigeria’s engine

A case study on wood fuel in Kano State

Abstract – With the highest population within Nigeria and population numbers still on the rise, the demand for fuel in Kano State will increase. With the choice for fuel wood this leads to environmental degradation caused by the cutting and burning of wood. The motives for this choice lie in the socio-economic field and include culture, tradition and prices of energy sources. This paper presents a suitable bottom-up strategy to implement off-grid solutions to a more sustainable use of energy, taking into account that a top-down approach is not feasible due to the dysfunctionality of the state. Initial investments, implementation time and social acceptability are the main obstacles for the sustainable solutions.

Course: Interdisciplinary Project

Authors:

Derek ter Haar 10576622 (Economist) Juriaan Verdonck 10438998 (Earth scientist) Lisa Boerdam 10532277 (Earth scientist) Thomas Arevalo 10336052 (Ecologist) Guiding teacher: Njal van Woerden M.A.

Expert: Dr. Alison Gilbert

Word count: 9010 Date: 23-05-2016

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1. Introduction

Geographically, Nigeria is situated on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa. Benin, Niger, Cameroon and Chad are its neighbouring states. With 186 million inhabitants Nigeria is the most populated country in Africa (United Nations, 2015; Gerland, 2014). This number implies that one out of 7 Africans is Nigerian. Over the past century the population has grown uncontrollably and population numbers continue to be on the rise (Maconachie, 2009). The Nigerian population is growing with an annual growing rate of 2,7% and is predicted to reach a population of 914 million inhabitants in 2100 (Gerland, 2014). With the growth in population the demand for resources will also increase. In case of fuel this demand is already causing problems due to the choice of wood fuel as the primary source of domestic fuels. Between 1990 and 2005 alone 35.7% of Nigeria's forest was lost, this accounts for roughly 6,145,000 hectares (Babanyara & Saleh, 2010). With this rate of deforestation Nigeria is one of the highest in the world and this increasingly causes problems for ecosystems and the environment (Scheffer, 2001). Deforestation contributes among others to the loss of soil properties, both chemical and physical, desertification and climate change (Audu, 2013). Research is needed in this field of study because of its relevance for such a great amount of people as well as Kano State being a suitable example for the rest of Africa where the same problems are of importance. In order to address this problematic issue properly, this paper specifies on one certain State in Nigeria that represents Nigeria best in all its facets. In northern Nigeria lies Kano State, which is the most populous state of the country with 11,087,800 inhabitants. State Kano is the most densely populated area of South Saharan Africa (National Population Commission of Nigeria, 2011; Cline-Cole & Maconachie, 2016). The state has had a long history of attracting migrants due to its relatively flat landscape and fertile soils. (Barau, 2006). Kano State currently contains the largest and most concentrated wood fuel consuming population and accounts for one of the biggest wood fuel markets of Nigeria (Cline-Cole & Maconachie, 2016). It is therefore interesting to look at the driving factors behind the choice for wood fuel and the impact on the environment. This paper will investigate the motives of the inhabitants of Kano State behind the choice for wood fuel. Furthermore this paper will search for a suitable strategy and possible solutions for a more sustainable use of energy.

In order to answer the above questions interdisciplinary research is needed. First of all, a description of the place of investigation, Kano State, will be given in order to set out the basis of the research. By doing so a clear overview of the area of investigation is provided and the problems that are caused by the wood fuel sector in Kano State are indicated. Secondly, the methodology section will elaborate the methods that are used in this paper. It shows how research has been conducted and contributes to the clarification of the need of interdisciplinary research. The theoretical framework amplifies the core theories that are used throughout this paper. The three theories that are used form the basis on which other concepts are used to further elaborate the problematic situation in Kano State. The results part is divided in three sections. Part one elaborates the obstacles that Kano State faces in the current situation regarding the sustainable use of domestic energy. This is where interdisciplinary results come together and intertwine on different levels. In the second part of the results, a strategy is advised in order to give a suitable ‘way out’ of the problematic situation. In the third part of the results possible solutions for the problem are offered. This chapter is followed by the discussion where the results on the subject will be discussed and examined with knowledge beyond the research. In the final part, the conclusion, the core question will be answered and a quick overview of findings will be given in order to underpin this answer.

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2. Case study: location description State Kano

This section provides a brief overview of the location with facts and information on which this paper is built. The area of investigation of this paper is Kano state, which lies in the northern part of Nigeria. This state is encircled on the political map of Nigeria, which is visible in figure 1, and is characterized by its rapid population growth. In 1931 the state counted a population of just under 2,5 million, this number rose to over 11 million inhabitants in 2013 (World Bank, 2013). This indicates an enormous growth rate of 3.34 % per year and is thereby the most populated state in the country. This growth finds its origin in the demographical structure of the population. When looking at the structure of the population, State Kano has a very young population with 47% of the population aged between 0 and 14 years old, 48% of the population aged 15-59 and only 5% of the population aged 60 years and up (United Nations, 2015). The youthfulness of the population causes its susceptibility to enormous growth, meaning that the population will continue to grow with high rates.

Figure 1. Political map of Nigeria.In this map an overview of Nigeria and its states is given. Kano State is encircled with a black and green line. Retrieved from Wikipedia, 2005.

Vegetation in State Kano

Nigeria can be separated into different vegetation zones. Each zone is distinguished by its own combined interaction of climate, humidity, rainfall, and soil types (Aregheore, 2006). The combined effects of these interactions cause each vegetation zone to have its own types of indigenous plants and species. The different vegetation zones of Nigeria are given in a clear overview in figure 2.

Kano state is located in the short grass savannah. Grasses found in this zone are not as tall, coarse or thick on the ground as in the Guinea savannah zone (Aregheore, 2006). There is a continuous grass cover of short and feathery grasses on a large scale. Farms alternate this grass vegetation, as a big part of the zone is excellent for keeping ruminant livestock (cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys, horses and camels). Thick bush trees are abundant. These bush trees in the zone are composed out of species like the shea butter tree (Butyrospermum parkii) and

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Acacia albida. The genus Acacia and Combretum, especially Combretum micranthum are well represented in the Sudan savanna zone. Other species found in the zone are among others the locust bean tree (Parkia filicoidea), tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica) and the mango tree (Mangifera indica).

Figure 2. Vegetation zones of Nigeria. This figure shows an overview of the different vegetation zones in Nigeria. Source: The University of Texas at Austin, 2016.

3. Methodology

3.1 Research method

The core method used in this research is based on literature studies from four different disciplines, namely Social Science, Economics, Earth Science and Ecology. From each discipline information is collected by means of a literature study in order to clarify, specify, evaluate and describe the chosen area of investigation. Information obtained from literature studies should support theories used in the report in order to form a firm base for the topic of investigation. The literature study is not merely used to gather information regarding the topic of investigation but all theories and concepts obtained from the different disciplines should serve to find correlations and relations within the used theories. All information should connect the concepts and theories to form an integrated research report. In order to answer the research question it is necessary to use a variety of insights of approaches to appropriately address the problem investigated. Besides the scientific background provided, this report will address solutions to the chosen subject. The focus is set on how to lower the negative environmental impact in the area of state Kano, Nigeria, by giving suitable solutions for the energy crisis. The ultimate goal is to stimulate and generate new ideas and recommendations that could feed new insights on how to tackle this problem by using an interdisciplinary approach.

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3.2 Integration of disciplinary results

The problem in answering the research question is that the causes for the choice of wood fuel in state Kano is not just merely explainable by one domain. One point of view will lack enough clarification to fully understand the reasoning behind such a choice. The research question of this investigation touches earth and ecological sciences as well as economic and social sciences. In order to address this complex problem an interdisciplinary approach is needed with answers coming from more disciplines. There is a need for a more inclusive understanding of the problem because the effects and implications are interlinked which requires reasoning of an integrated and interdisciplinary approach (Szostak, 2012). The motives behind the choice for wood fuel lie mainly in the social and economic domains, whereas the consequences are more of influence on the fields of earth science and ecology. The goal of this research report is to gain understanding on the current fuel choices and implications in Kano State, Nigeria, as well as the obstacles behind an energy transition that ask for social and environmental measures that will minimize the impact of energy consumtion on the state. For example, cultural traditions influence the economic energy consumption patterns, which on its turn influences the landscapes in state Kano. The use of wood fuel leads to deforestation that will consequently have an impact on the ecology. Habitat and diversification loss will cause environmental changes that will be difficult to reverse. By this example it is clear that the answers to the research questions need a more interdisciplinary background. That is why the main focus is on creating common grounds and searching for overarching solutions. The method of integration disciplinary results will result in a ubiquitous answer.

4. Theoretical framework

This chapter will give a theoretical background on the theories that will be used as guidance throughout the paper. The theories used are the theory on resilience, the theory of the resource curse and the change management theory. These theories have their origin in respectively the Ecology, Economy, Social disciplines but can be extended to other disciplines. By doings so they can be used to help explain the underlying problems and causes around the wood fuel sector in Kano State. More theories will be offered throughout the paper but as these theories have a more explanatory nature for specific consequences or problems of the wood fuel sector they are not mentioned in the theoretical framework.

4.1 Resilience theory

The clearing of trees in Kano threatens the environment in multiple ways. This paper will elaborate on this in the disciplinary parts of ecology and earth sciences. The changes caused by the removal of vegetation affect the way the ecosystem in place works; this could lead to a sudden drastic switch to a contrasting state when the resilience of an ecosystem is exceeded (Scheffer, 2001). This shift will occur when the tipping point of a state is reached. Scheffer argues that vegetated and desert situations could represent alternative stable states, as the vegetation present in a system allows precipitation to be absorbed and retained in the topsoil so that it stays available for plant uptake. When vegetation is lost runoff increases and water that enters the soil quickly disappears and becomes unavailable for plant uptake. Without vegetation runoff and wind will exert a greater influence on the topsoil causing increased erosion of the fertile remains in the topsoil, this makes the desert state even more hostile for recolonization by plants.

The changes that would drive this shift play on ecological and earth science levels. As most of the theories and results from the ecological and earth science parts explain why the tipping point of the current stable state in Kano is being approached the theory of tipping points can be used to connect these different disciplinary parts.

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4.2 Resource curse theory

The policies towards the use of national resources can be found in the resource curse theory. This theory implies that countries with an abundance of non-renewable resources experience stagnant economic growth or even economic contraction (Ross, 1999). The resource curse is applicable as a country begins to focus all of its efforts on a single industry, such as oil or mining, and therefore neglects other important sectors of an economy. This causes a nation to become overly dependent on the price of the commodities, and therefore overall GDP becomes highly volatile. Together with government corruption it often results in an unfair income distribution framework for a society. This export driven economic policy let domestic development in terms of infrastructure and education to neglect (Hackett, 2010). This theory provides a link between the social and economic parts behind the wood fuel sector and will be used throughout the paper for the explanation of several problematic aspects of this sector.

4.3 Change management theory

The change management theory states that an approach to transition of individuals and organizations is intended to use methods to re-directing the use of resources, business processes and budget allocations in order to model change and reshape the original organization structure of the consisting situation (Hayes, 2014). This theory touches different disciplines such as, behavioral and social sciences as well as economic and politic sciences. In essential it is an interdisciplinary theory that provides a framework of components that influences a larger system, with the goal of system prosperity and long-term sustainable preservation of the system (van de Ven, 1995). The process of change models and managements strategies is intended to have impact through individual agents in an organizational change. The model conceptualizes the management of change as a purposeful, constructed but often-contested process that involves attending to seven core activities

(Hayes, 2014):

1. Recognizing the need for change and starting the change process

2. Diagnosing what needs to be changed and formulating a vision of a preferred future state 3. Planning how to intervene in order to achieve the desired change

4. Implementing plans and reviewing progress 5. Sustaining the change

6. Leading and managing the people issues 7. Learning

5. Results

5.1 Obstacles

This chapter will discuss several obstacles that stand in the way of a future in which the inhabitants of Kano enjoy a lifestyle based on sustainable fuel usage. The obstacles discussed are the economic properties of the society, the availability & affordability of energy resources, the state of affairs on logging in Kano, the impact of the extensive use of fuelwood on the environment and the current affairs on the corruption and the state of Kano. The obstacles are the first and second step in the change management theory.

5.1.1 Economic properties of the society

The formal economy monitors, regulates and organizes all the economic activities within a country. The input and output factors of an economy determine the economic prosperity (Ross, 1999). The focus is on the significant factors that influence the economy in State Kano

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most. There are four input variables that cause economic growth: labor, natural resources, capital and productivity (Szostak, 2012). The Gross domestic Product (GDP) shows the output that is generated from a country. For the state Kano, labor is the most influencing factor for the local economy. The labor force of Kano is currently low because the number of people that are at working age (i.e. ages between 15-65) is far from the optimum level. The optimum level is achieved when the demographic momentum has accorded and unemployment rates are practically zero (Chesnais, 1992). When examining the unemployment rates of the state Kano over the period of 1999 until 2010 the conclusion can be drawn that there is a constant unemployment rate above 15% (figure 3)(National bureau of statistics, 2016). Because of the badly allocated labor force in state Kano, human capital and productivity have stagnated. This obstacle in the economy of State Kano implies that economic growth is rigid and this is illustrated by the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) development of the past decades. The GDP resembles the output of an economy; when examining the GDP of Nigeria there is one remarkable observation to be made. In the period between 1980 and 2006 the GDP of Nigeria has not grown (Peña-López, 2008). This is due to a large informal and unregulated economy. The informal economy is the part of the economy, which is, defined as economic activities that is neither taxed, nor regulated by any form of the government (World Bank, 2015; Ross, 1999). The activities in the informal economy are not included in the GDP of that country. Although the informal sector is not regulated, it makes up for a significant proportion of the economic output (GDP) in emerging markets. The informal sector provides critical opportunities for the poor, by low entry barriers for employment in diverse sectors. Nigeria has one of the largest informal economies in the world. With a significant size of 56,4% the GDP the ‘parallel’ economy does have a meaningful value in the economic prosperity of a country (Schneider, 2004). Within State Kano the unemployment rates are high, so the informal sector is suggested to be sizeable (Petrosjan & Zaccour, 2003). One of the characteristics that is beneficial for the local economy, is that the formal figures doesn’t cover the total earnings in the state. But due to the loss in tax revenues the authorities who should regulate and stimulate the local economy is therefore rigid (Schneider, 2004). This obstacle has an impact on the energy sector. Because the energy sector is badly regulated, informal producers try to fill in the gaps. Together with a growing population the demand for energy rises; resulting in more unregulated deforestation by the informal sector, worsening the energy market and keeping wood fuel prices low on local markets (Petrosjan & Zaccour, 2003). The resource curse is of importance in this informal economy; the population is inclined to offer cheap domestic fuels on the market.

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Figure 3. Unemployment map of Nigeria. The figure shows the rate of unemployment in percentages of the population of specific states. Kano State is marked by the purple flag. Unemployment rate in the State Kano. Source: National bureau of statistics (2016).

The enormous growth in population raises several issues related to finite resources, economic development within the state and preservation of environmental quality (Ibrahim, 2014). According to Yahaya (2002) there is a direct relation between the population numbers and the demand for wood fuel. This theory is supported by Audu (2012), who stated that the demand for wood fuel will continue to grow with the increasing population for as long as the accessibility and affordability of other fuel resources continue to be low Adesina et al. (1999) estimated a tripling of the demand for wood fuel in Nigeria in 2030 compared to 1990, putting great pressure on the forest of Kano State and causing a scarcity in the supply of wood fuel. If this occurs then a tipping point could be followed by the change in stable state (Scheffer, 2001). The alternative stable state will probably be a desert state. In the next chapter the current state of affairs on wood fuel in Kano will be discussed

5.1.2 Availability & affordability of energy resources

Nigeria, including Kano State, is fortunate with abundant conventional energy-resources such as oil, natural gas and coal, as well as opportunities for renewable energy-resources (Ibitoye & Adenikinju, 2007). However, the Nigerian government has not yet succeeded in turning these opportunities into a reliable and affordable supply of energy, as is explained by the resource curse theory (Cline-Cole & Maconachie, 2016). The main reasons for this supply problem is the government’s over-dependence and fixation on the oil export (Sesan, 2008). This focus has caused the failure of the Nigerian government to prioritize energy supply to the Nigerian population, causing the unavailability and price hikes of domestic energy. Most of the revenues from oil and gas are distributed over a negligible percentage of the population (Cohen, 2007). Almost all of Nigeria’s oil and gas is being exported to western countries and the export of fossil fuels account for 25% of Nigeria’s GDP (World Bank, 2015). Due to this resource curse the lack of investment in a sufficient infrastructure and energy network is not present. This obstacle is by far the most decisive and influencing factor and therefore the society in Kano has not benefited from the potential economic input opportunities.

As shown in table 1, wood fuel is the cheapest domestic fuel and therefore the most commonly used energy source. With 90% of the population living on an income of less than 2 dollar a day, the economic reasoning behind the choice for wood fuel is therefore explicable in Kano. The theory of an energy ladder is applicable in the case of Kano State because most of the inhabitants are defined as poor. The theory energy ladder correlates the energy-use patterns between households and their economic status. The economic behavior towards

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energy consumption is explainable by the costs of the different available energy sources. Figure 4 illustrates the relationships between growing prosperity and environmental cleanness and comfort of usage. A fuel’s rung is dictated primarily by its cost, a reflection of its cleanliness and efficiency (Goldemberg, 2000).

Table 1: Nigerian fuel prices. Price of fuel per liter/kg in US dollars in Kano. Source: Global petrol prices (2016) & *Gujba et al. (2015).

Price diesel per litre 0,81 $

Price petrol per litre 0,46 $

Price wood fuel per kg * 0,025 $

Price LPG per kg * 0,40 $

The wood fuel consumption is on average 365 kg/year per head (Kramer, 2006). It should be noted that the costs related to wood fuel differs from rural and urban areas. In urban areas prices are usually higher that in rural regions. The variation in prices of petrol, diesel and other fuels vary between countries due to geography but mostly due to policies regarding energy consumption. Subsidies for petrol or diesel could be implemented explicitly with the goal of reducing deforestation but a proper infrastructure is needed (Chomitz et al., 1999).

Due to the obstacle of bad policies regarding the energy sector, the informal sector has a large role in providing the population with wood fuel. Because this is not regulated it results in more deforestation and that worsen the local energy sector. This problematic issue puts more pressure on the natural resources in state Kano. What brings us to the subject logging in Kano.

Figure 4: The energy ladder. Source: Olubunmi et al. (2012) 5.1.3 Logging in Kano

Wood has been used for generating energy roughly for as long as mankind exists. The developed world has become accustomed to the use of more sophisticated fuel-resources, but in developing countries such as Nigeria the use of wood for fuel is still intertwined in the culture and the traditions of the area. Maconachie et al. (2009) studied the choice for wood fuel of the population of Kano State and found that apart from the availability and price of other fuel sources, the motives are mainly cultural. The inhabitants of Kano stated that many

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people are accustomed to cooking large quantities of food to share it with their extended family or other families and neighbors in need (Maconachie et al., 2009). Cooking large quantities of food is inconvenient on smaller kerosene stoves and can only be done by using large cooking pots on a fire. This is also a reason for large cookeries such as bakeries to rely on the use of wood fuel for their practices. They also find kerosene stoves too expensive and complicated in their use, dislike the smell and fear starting a fire.

For a long time the sustainability of the agro-forestry in Kano State appeared to be high. However, the growing demand for fuel by population growth and urbanization has caused an enlargement of the wood fuel hinterland; the distances of wood fuel transport increase and fewer places remain undamaged (Cline-Cole et al., 1988). Traditionally, women were the leading sex in collecting fuel wood from the nearby area, collecting small doses at a time (Naibbi, 2015). The wood was mostly collected within a radius of 30 km around the urban settlements, called the inner Close-Settled Zone (Nichol, 1990). This area is mostly formed by cultivated parklands; land with clumps of trees and shrubs. With the other energy prices spiking, wood fuel gained popularity in the urban areas (Babanyara & Saleh, 2010). This changed the gathering of wood fuel completely; the improved infrastructure in urban areas had made it possible for enormous wood fuel markets to come into existence (Cline-Cole, 1988). Merchants based in urban areas control the hinterlands and depend mainly on motor transport for the supply link of wood fuel to urban areas. The hinterlands are classified as the outer Close-Settled Zone, and are less densely populated and cultivated, diminished by a larger portions of shrubland and protected forest reserves. The trend of merchants traveling further is partly due to the consumer’s wood preferences. Some 70 tree species were identified that could potentially serve as a source of firewood. However, only 25 of those 70 species are preferred as wood fuel. As popular tree species are scarce in the inner Close-Settled Zone firewood cutters are forced to move to distant areas where the species are available (Cline-Cole, 1990). Before 1990 these distances had already increased up to 300 km. The improved roads and vehicles make these longer distances profitable (Cline-Cole, 1988), creating reliability, availability and affordability of wood fuel in the urban areas that cause an increase in supply and demand. Due to this increase the natural-shared resource system is being put under pressure for the demand of energy. The following section will discuss the consequences of this growing demand and the logging of firewood in general on the environment.

5.1.4 Impact on the environment

The way of logging described in the previous section causes several implications. First of all there is an increasingly wider spread of deforestation due to wood merchants that collect their wood further from the urban areas, affecting more and more distant areas that were previously unaffected.Secondly, there has been a trend in the conversion of the original scrubland into farmed parkland, as farmed parkland is the most productive. This is beneficial for the wood production but harmful for the ecosystems in place (Cline-Cole, 1988; Mortimore, 1999). Additionally, the tree species composition of farmed parklands is fairly different than the vegetation naturally belonging to the short grass savannah. The species composition of farmed parkland is rather diverse with about 39 species and has a rather high tree density to meet fuel wood demand, while the residual scrubland has a low timber volume with only 5 different species (Cline-Cole, 1988). These implications are further enhanced by the fast population growth and increasing demand for wood fuel. As the ecological state of the inner Close-Settles Zone is relatively stable due to the stable landscape, the outer Close-Settles Zone is under increasing threat. This has to do with the need for a constant wood fuel yield. Unrestricted large-scale cutting of firewood in the outer regions will lead to massive environmental degradation.

Between 1990 and 2005 alone 35.7% of Nigeria's forest was lost, this accounts for roughly 6,145,000 hectares, as mentioned in the introduction (Babanyara & Saleh, 2010). The

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deforestation rates in Kano state are moderate, as is shown in table 2. This means that only 26 to 50% of the plant community in the state consists out of climax species. Climax species are species that make up the last stage in the succession of a forest (Marietta College, 2009). Climax species dominate the last stage of succession; this climax community permits the maximum possible biodiversity and remains essentially unchanged in terms of species composition unless disturbed. The other 74 to 50% consists out of disturbed vegetation in an earlier state of succession. In Kano’s case this is likely forest that is affected by humans in the form of the felling of wood.

The removal of vegetation in a semi-arid region such as Kano could cause changes to the current stable state. The current stable state in which Kano State resides as whole is the vegetation state of the short grass savannah, as mentioned in the description of the location (Aregheore, 2006). Changes in this state could ultimately lead to a tipping point followed by the switch to a desert situation as alternative state (Scheffer, 2001).

Table 2. Desertification frontline states of Nigeria.

Water is fairly limited in semi-arid regions, the availability already fluctuates naturally throughout the year. By removing vegetation and degrading soils the water retention capacity of a soil is negatively influenced and places an extra burden on the already limited amount of water. The subsequent water shortage provides a higher level of stress for both the environment and agriculture and by doing so mediates a desert situation. Physical properties of soil that influence water infiltration, permeability of the soil, and overall water retention capacity are discussed in this section. First of all, soil texture plays a large role. The different sized particles of the soil and its composition of those particles determine the type of soil. As shown in figure 5 there are 3 main soil particles: clay, silt and sand. The next factor is soil structure. Soil structure describes the way how individual soil granules clump together into aggregates. The amount of aggregates and the space of the pores of a particular soil has influence on the ability of water to flow through the soil. The soil structure is influenced by soil texture, were higher clay content allows for more aggregates, and a higher sand content for more space between the pores (Ball, 2001; Lal, 1996).

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Figure 5. Soil texture triangle. Source: Soil Sensor 2016.

Soil porosity is another characteristic that is linked with soil structure, and therefore soil texture. Soil porosity describes how well water and other nutrients can pass through the soil. The ability of water to infiltrate the soil is influenced by the porosity and soil texture of that soil. Water permeates through coarse and granular soils more easily, which is characteristic for soils with a high organic matter content (Ball, 2001).

Water holding capacity is influenced by soil texture and the amount of organic matter in the soil. Soils with smaller particles such as clay can hold more water than bigger particles such as sand. This is caused by the greater surface area, which allows it to hold more water. The texture of the soils in Kano State region however, will probably not change significantly when the land cover is altered or even removed. As shown in figure 6 the main type of soil in Kano State is Arenosol. This means that the main texture in these soils is already sand and will not change with desertification. What is important for the water holding capacity in Kano State will be the amount of organic matter that is present in the soil. Soils with a higher organic matter content can hold more water because of the hydrophilic properties that organic material possesses (Ball, 2001). This means that with the land cover changing due to wood fuel use, the amount of organic matter in the soils will decrease as well, resulting in a lower water holding capacity (Ball, 2001). By doing so the switch to a desert situation is mediated.

Figure 6. Dominant soil types in Kano State. This figure shows the dominant soils types that are present in Kano state. Source: European Digital Archive of Soil Maps (1997)

A theory that explains the logging events taking place in Kano is ‘The tragedy of the commons’, presented by Hardin (1968) . This theory states that individuals independently maximize their

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own utility, which causes an overexploitation of the commons. In the case of Kano the forest is the commons. This common has been overexploited over the last few decades. With nobody to take responsibility and no government policy regarding this problematic issue the resilience of the commons deteriorates. Making the ecosystem as a whole less resilient and more susceptible to reach a tipping point.

A possible solution for this problem could be the introduction of strict regulations regarding the felling of forest and the enforcement of these regulations by the government. However these kinds of solutions are complicated due to the nature of the government structure in Nigeria. The complications that lie at the origin of this kind of top down solutions will be discussed in the next chapter.

5.1.5 Corruption and the state

Nigeria has long been a symbol of Africa due to the dysfunctionality of the state (Pierce, 2006). Corruption has caused the state to be infected on all its policy levels, harming the state in ways that it is not able to function as it should. Corruption has penetrated in all levels of society, causing most Nigerians to be corrupt in some way (Aluko, 2002).

During the beginning of the colonial period in the northern part of Nigeria, ancient political traditions were taken on being part of Nigeria’s identity and authority was allocated to the native authorities, forming ‘the state’ (Pierce, 2006). This state has proved to be an ideological figure, an illusion. The ideology of Nigeria’s state claimed it to be a unified network, covering up the complexity and dysfunctionality of its institutions. ‘The state’ allowed governments to rationalize their actions, even if these state actions were completely illegitimate.

The oil boom that took place from 1973 to 1981 blew up the state’s role in Nigeria (Lucas, 1994). The oil boom financed government actions to enrich the population by enlarging survival opportunities for the poor and creating mobility for the rich to move further up. When the oil ‘shock’ hit in the early 1980s the swollen state deflated and the Nigerian government found it difficult to offer its basic functions such as the maintenance and construction of infrastructure and regional development (Lucas, 1994). ‘The state’ remained the most dominant institution, however, along with the state many associations and civil institutions now coexist and are out of direct control by the government. According to Fagbadebo (2007) citizens lack faith in the political leaders and therefor the political system. Government participation is perceived as irrelevant to the lives of Nigeria's population because of the absence of an effective and credible electoral system.

5.2 Bottom-up approach strategy

In the change management theory step three and four are implemented in this section. The implication that Nigeria, and state Kano, cope with corruption make a top-down policy strategy for an energy transition not achievable in short terms. Namely, Top-down policy strategies addresses energy sectors, the economic sub-sectors and macroeconomic impacts on a national level. Policy changes could be implemented on large scales and would force rapid change through society because of the quick national organized policy set. The infrastructure and institutionalized provinces are necessary to force such an energy transition (Löschel, 2002). However, this is not the case in Nigeria and for that reason a feasible transition in the energy sector should start with a bottom up strategy. Top down policies of the government are eventually necessary to become a fully developed state, but until the circumstances improve bottom-up change is the strategy to bring the transition into motion.

A bottom up strategy takes much more time to implement in society compared to a top down strategy as is illustrated in figure 8. Figure 9 shows that change is generated by the bottom of the pyramid. Bottom up models typically seek to minimize costs in production methods of an energy source. Innovative techniques are required in order to reach the bottom

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of the pyramid and for that reason the energy transition is generated by the private sector and implementation is done through the mechanism of the market (figure 9). The struggle that comes with the private sector is that the profits that are obtainable in this sector are reasonably small. That causes fewer parties to participate in such projects because techniques should be focused to minimize their costs. This implies that investments in innovative techniques are postponed until they become cheap enough for the bottom of the pyramid, which is correlated with more time. Bottom up models are for that reason optimization models with the focus on the right technologies applicable for the specific problem. The techniques are described as end-use techniques with information on physical inputs, outputs and costs regarding the constraints of the ending energy source (Berglund & Söderholm, 2006).

An important concept within the bottom up strategy is ‘learning by doing’ concept which is step five and 6 in the process of change management. With the lack of education regarding sustainability in their energy consumption, the local community plays an important role. The implementation of certain techniques is mainly achievable by local community enforcements that are stimulated by the private sector in order to sustain the change. According to Löschel (2002), education through ‘learning by doing’ should help for techniques to push their ways into communities. Also the lack of financial resources makes advertising more difficult, causing the gap between the producer and the consumer to be naturally bigger. The ‘learning by doing’ concept is in line with the Washington consensus, were the market forces transition in society (Williamson, 1993). With this bottom up change in the energy system, the door is opened for more innovative techniques for any kind of problem (Berglund & Söderholm, 2006). The concept ‘energy ladder’ is also correlated with the ‘learning by doing’ concept because when more advanced e.g. wood stoves (which are 70% more efficient) are used then it reflects more prosperity within the local community. Because status is linked with materialistic consumption items, people are more likely to copy likewise techniques according to Berglund. The inhabitants of state Kano have to be confronted (learning by doing) with the new techniques in order to make a transition in their choice of technique for energy use.

Figure 8: Time and results correlation with top-down approaches and bottom-up approaches. Soruce: Ishii, et al.

(2015).

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5.3 Solutions

In order to address the growing problems caused by the use of wood as a source of energy, this paper proposes several solutions. This solution section is part of step seven of the change management theory where new solutions is part of the learning process in a changing system. The strategies presented are offered from the bottom up point of view. As Nigeria lacks a properly working energy grid by the effects of insufficient investments due to the resource curse, the solutions on this level of operation are hard to implement. That is why the solutions offered by this paper will be focused on energy sources that can operate off the national grid. Six different options that will help decrease the use of wood fuel will be discussed in this chapter. The price and effectiveness vary strongly between the different options. Four of the offered options have the ability to produce energy without the burning of wood. These options generate electricity. Independently of the six different solutions there are several improvements gained by not using the amount of wood fuel nowadays. When less or none wood has to be collected or bought, it creates more time that can be spend on other things with economic value such as education or labor. With the installation of these solution more jobs will be created in providing the different energy sources and maintenance of those sources. With the presence of electricity provided by most of the solutions, a whole new market will arise of devices that run on electricity. These are all advantages that stimulate economic growth but the only disadvantage is the initial investment costs of the possible solutions. The solutions discussed are: Solar power, wind power, hydropower, biomass briquetting, and improved cook stoves.

5.3.1 Solar power

Solar power is a form of renewable energy that is already effective in developed countries. However, the initial investment that is needed for the small scale use of solar panels is much higher than the investment needed for wood fuel as energy source. Another expense are the high repair costs if damage occurs and the training needed for the handling of solar panels. However, according to Oji, et al. (2012) the insolation in Kano State is more than enough for solar panels to be viable. Since the solar panels have to be able to work off-grid a battery is required. These disadvantages might cause the population to rather continue using wood as main domestic fuel. An advantage of solar power as energy source is that after installation there are no direct negative impacts on the local environment and that it offers a sustainable source of energy.

5.3.2 Wind power

Wind power is a sustainable source of energy that can be applied both on a small household scale. However, the success from these wind turbines is still unclear since in already developed nations the limiting factor for wind turbine parks is the fact that energy must be either produced locally or transported. Wind power that is produced by wind turbines is stored in batteries and therefore immobile (Ajayi et al, 2013). This requires the local population to use devices that run on electricity rather than heat, which increases the initial investment cost if that isn’t available yet. Wind turbines provide entirely renewable and clean energy, but due to the moving parts the wind turbine also needs maintenance (Energy Development Co-Operative Limited, 2016). This is another step that requires the training of the population. This makes the wind turbine a clean, but relatively expensive solution.

5.3.3 Hydro power

Hydro power is another solution that might be suitable. Since this solution has to be off-grid it will be a small scale option that generates electricity for households or small workshops. It is an environmental friendly solution and even more friendly than hydropower plants that use a dam since many small scale hydropower plants do not need a dam. It uses a ‘run of the river’

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system which only needs to direct a part of the stream along an elevated area and direct it to a turbine. A negative aspect of this solution is that it needs an even higher initial investment than solar power. Costs of hydropower are estimated to be 1200 to 4000 dollar per installed kW (Practical Action, 2016). Another problem that arises is that a flow of water is needed. This makes it unsuitable for many households in the rural areas of Kano State.

5.3.4 Biomass briquetting

Biomass briquetting is a convenient solution as it is a different fuel type while it can still be used in a similar way as wood fuel, namely by incineration in the cookstoves that are already available (Danjuma, 2013). These briquettes are formed by the compression of dried biomass waste, and by doing so forming a dense block of fuel. The most common source biomass waste used to make briquettes is waste from the agricultural sector. Biomass briquettes have a low investment cost and can be produced locally, making it an excellent bottom-up solution. Another advantage is that biomass briquettes are produced in a cradle-to-cradle method, waste is used to make a product, making this solution very sustainable. A disadvantage of biomass briquetting is that there is a need for a distribution system in order to collect sufficient biomass waste to make enough briquettes. Another drawback could be that agriculture is promoted as the waste obtains value and to meet demand. Resulting in agricultural extension, which has a negative effect on the desertification rate.

5.3.5 Improved clay cookstoves

Improving the cook stoves efficiency is the most straightforward solution. The local population is already using cookstoves and therefore the social acceptability is most likely high. According to the interviews conducted by the research team of this paper, there are multiple options when it comes to increasing efficiency of cook stoves. An improvement in the current way of cooking, which usually happens on open fire, would to use clay cook stove. These stoves trap more heat in the stove and by doing so efficiency is increased by 30% (Kuku, 2013). The advantage of the clay cook stove is that it can be produced locally, that is has low investment costs and that it has the smallest impact on the lifestyle of the local people of all solutions. Since there is only a small change in the way of cooking. A disadvantage of this solution is that it still uses wood making wood fuel likely to remain the most widely used source of energy.

5.3.6 High-tech cookstoves

The last solution offered is the use of a more high-tech cook stove. This increases the efficiency even more, leading to a decrease of up to 70% in the amount of wood used (Slaski & Thurber, 2009). It would however require a higher investment cost than that of the improved clay cookstoves. These high-tech cooking stoves would require a minimum investment of around 100 dollars (Slaski & Thurber, 2009), makes this option less attractive than the previous one. Investments in this kind of stove would however seriously reduce the deforestation rates in State Kano. The disadvantages of these high tech cookstoves are the same as the ones mentioned for the clay stoves although in a lesser degree.

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Table 3. Pros and cons of the solutions.

Possible Solution Pros Cons

Solar Power - High solar energy potentials - Clean energy

- High initial investment

- Photovoltaic installations are not yet produced in Nigeria thus need to be imported

Wind Energy -Clean energy

- Requires little maintenance

- High initial investment

- Requires trained maintenance - Requires batteries and other electrical devices

Small Hydro Power Plants

- Can be implemented, used and managed locally

- Long lifespan

- Cost beneficial when running

- High initial investment - Requires flowing water and elevation

High-tech Cookstoves - up to 70% more efficient

- less than halve the wood is needed to cook the same amount of food

- local wood markets become smaller, so less deforestation

- Foreign investments are needed - relatively expensive

- Still use wood as fuel

Improved Clay Cookstoves

- Relatively low initial investment - Production can be taught to local craftsmen

- Potentially large impact

- Still use wood as fuel

- Advantages of traditional (three stone wood stove) not met by the improved stoves

Biomass Briquetting - More sustainable way to generate energy than by burning wood - Lower CO2 emissions

- Can be taught to and managed by communities

- Requires land and large amount of biological input

Sources: Ajayi et al. (2013), Akinbami et al. (2003), Gill (1987), Kuku (2013), Momodu et al (2013), Sambo (2009) & Sesan (2003)

Table 4. Comparison of the off-grid solutions. Initial investment Social acceptability Environmenta l impact*

Target group Implementation time**

Solar power High Low 0 Rural and

urban communities

Long

Wind energy High Low 0 Rural

communities

Long

Smal hydro power plants

High Medium 0 Urban

communities

Long

Improved clay stoves

Low Medium Medium Rural and

urban communities Short High-tech cooking stoves

High Low Low Urban

communities

Medium

Bio

briquetting

Medium Medium Medium Rural and

urban communities

Medium

* After installation

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6. Discussion

In this report the focus is on the bigger picture of the woodfuel problem in Kano State, Nigeria. This is a very large project that requires the input of a multitude of disciplines. The choice of approach was between a more detailed information report of fewer factors influencing the research subject, or a wider perspective with more factors influencing the problem but less detailed information. The choice was made for the latter option and therefore the decision was made to include many factors that could help explain the scale of the problem. The reason for this choice was that it represents the problematics of the society in the region as a whole more precise. Because of the large scale perspective it will give insight, through the results and solutions provided, in the problematics in the region what could eventually be applied to all areas in the sub Saharan region of Africa that face the same obstacles.

This project started with relatively equal inputs from the socio-economic aspects and environmental aspects. However, this explained the problem insufficiently because during the conducted research it became clear that the political aspect was of great importance. Especially the role (or absence) of the government became a pillar in the structure of the report. An extra discipline was created in order to clarify the problematics in society.

When analyzing the results it becomes clear that the situation is highly complex. Many factors play a role in the establishment of this paper. The obstacles presented form the core of the problem of the situation in Kano state. Nevertheless it does not mean other factors do not play a part in Kano but the chosen factors are the most influencing factors from the perspective of the used disciplines. In this interdisciplinary research it became clear that conducting information in this the field of research is sometimes difficult. Since the location of investigation is located in a developing country, access to information in limited. Internet and scientific papers where the only sources of information. For example to measure the effectiveness of the possible solutions presented by us, a ground field study should be done in order to conclude if a solution is actual possible. The same accounts for social acceptability; cultural perspective is yet alone a full paper worth writing. The same accounts for corruption in Nigeria, especially government corruption. Having realized that, detailed information and unbiased data is difficult to obtain on these subjects in this region of the world. This means that verification of the usefulness of the possible solutions is something that has to be done in the region itself.

Nevertheless the interviews that were taken with expert form different background did help to create a clear view of the actual problems. Insights were given in the recent developments, especially regarding the state of the wood fuel market and the possible solutions. It was also an opportunity to test the theoretic information in the literature and see if it was actually true in practice. This was fortunately the case for almost all interpretations done in the fields of economic and environmental issues.

When evaluating the research, the results presented in this paper are of great use. Interdisciplinary research in this area is scarce, yet necessary to address a problem of such big scale. What eventually is relevant for this problematic issue is that this report does help to understand the scale of the ongoing problem in Kano. Through the integration of all the disciplines, the report give a clear projection of the coherence of all the factors that play a role in this situation. Nonetheless to fully get grip on this subject there are many aspects and factors that make this an complex situation, so it will remain complicated to give a straightforward answer as a solution to this problem.

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7. Conclusion

In this paper the role and influence of wood fuel in the socio-economic and environmental areas was researched. The various aspects that play a role in the choice of wood as fuel were taken into account, resulting in input from political, social, economic, and environmental disciplines.

To explain the importance of preventing the use of wood for fuel, the environmental consequences were researched. The main theory that was used for this aspect was the tipping point theory. The severity of the logging in Kano State could have such a negative impact on the ecosystem that water retention would become more difficult. This would result in a shift from the current stable state to a stable state were desertification takes place. This process has a negative impact on the communities and is difficult to reverse. It is also not limited to Nigeria but affects more countries at the same latitude, making this a relevant problem.

The social-economic aspect explains the reasoning behind the choice of wood fuel, which was needed to form a strategy and provide viable alternatives for wood as fuel. The resource curse is the main theory that explains the choice of wood fuel. With the abundance of natural resources in Nigeria, the oil and gas revenues go to a small percentage of the population. Most of the oil and gas is traded, rather than used or obtained revenues invested in society, which leaves the population with few options. Nigeria is located low on the energy ladder and therefore the vast majority of the population chooses wood as energy source due to the low prices. Looking from a cultural aspect, wood is traditionally used as energy source for cooking. This, combined with the lack of education, and the effects of logging, makes it a difficult to replace energy source.

The Change Management theory helped to identify a good strategy to encourage change. A bottom-up strategy was considered better than the top down approach. The reason for this is the corruption of the state, the lack of infrastructure and investments and the lack of a national energy grid.

Various possible solutions are brought up in this paper. Some of these solutions are more suited for small villages rather than households, while some of the solutions are aimed at the poorest of the population. This means that not one solution is effective enough to tackle to whole problem and a combination of, if not all, solutions must be applied. The easier implemented solutions are those that have similar techniques and fuel use as the current way of cooking. Therefore, improved cook stoves are easier to implement, yet still have a negative impact on the environment due to still using wood as fuel.

The cleanest solutions however, are more difficult to implement due to the high investment costs. This means that solutions such as hydro-, solar-, and wind-power are more suited for schools or workshops rather than households.

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The shortcomings of Nigeria’s engine A case study on wood fuel in Kano State