ITALIAN MAJOLICA:
A STUDY OF EXCAVATED FRAGMENTS IN CRETE
(
GREECE
)
&
THE
P
RINGSHEIM COLLECTION OF VESSELS IN ROTTERDAM
(
THE
NETHERLANDS
)
Cover Illustrations: Left: majolica dish (piatto) from Deruta (1515–1520). Piece from the Pringsheim collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. Source: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/460167?&searchField=All&sortBy=R elevance&deptids=15&where=Deruta&ft=*&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=13
Right: majolica dish (coppa) from Deruta (16th century), recovered vessel from excavations in Castel Selino in Paleochora Crete, Greece (after Andrianakis 2006, 35)
Italian Majolica:
A Study of Excavated Fragments in Crete (Greece) & the Pringsheim
Collection of Vessels in Rotterdam (the Netherlands)
By
Marilena Pantelaki
Course: MA thesis
Course Code: 4ARX-0910 ARCH First Supervisor: Pr. J. Vroom
Second Supervisor: Pr. R. B. Halbertsma Specialization: Museum Studies
University of Leiden, Faculty of Archaeology Leiden, 1 November 2019, Final
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 The Object of Study ………...7
1.2 Research Questions ……….………...…...…9
1.3 Methodology ……….………..……10
1.4 The Structure of the Thesis……….………..……...11
Chapter Two: Italian Renaissance Majolica 2.1 The Foundations of Tin-Glazed Pottery i. Origin ……….………...13
ii. Production ………...14
iii. Tin glaze ………...………...16
iv. Lustre ………...………....18
v. Influences and Ornamentations…..…...………..……….…..20
vi. Decoration Pigments……..………...…………...….29
vii. Workshops and Artisans ………..……..….29
2.2 The Evolution of Tin-Glazed Pottery………...37
2.3 The Expansion of Italian Pottery………..………...…...38
2.4 Majolica Production and the Economic Depression of the Italian Renaissance....………..…..39
i. The Crisis ………...……...39
ii. Financial Growth and the Survival of the Majolica Industry…….……….…..40
Chapter Three: Ways of Provenance 3.1 Excavations and Trade in Antiquities………...……...…43
Chapter Four: Excavations in Chania and Heraklion in Grete 4.1 A Brief Introduction to the History of the Island ………..………….…....……47
4.2 Renaissance Majolica in Crete...……….…………..…...52
i. Chania ………...…..….…52
ii. Heraklion ………...……….………..59
4.3 Ceramic Production in Crete During the Venetian Domination …….………61
4.4 Commercial Transactions of Italian Ceramics in Crete ……….…...62
4.5 Concluding Remarks ……….……….………...…..64
Chapter Five: The Pringsheim Collection Formed by Trade in Antiquities 5.1 The Pringsheim family ………..……….……….67
Chapter Six: Handling the Past
6.1 The History of the Pringsheim Collection ……….……….78
6.2 Current Locations of the Collection ……….…….………..83
6.3 Claims by the Pringsheim Heirs and the Seven Majolica Pieces in the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen in Rotterdam ………...………..…..84
6.4 An Overview of Nazi Looting ……….……...……...90
i. The Legislation for the Restitution of Jewish-Owned Artworks .………..92
ii. How is the Netherlands Dealing with the Problem of Restitution Claims?...93
6.5 The Reason for Reluctance in the Pringsheim Case ………...…...94
i. Similar Cases …..………...95
ii. Discussion ……….……...……98
Chapter Seven: Juxtaposition 7.1 Italian Renaissance Majolica in Greece and the Netherlands…..……..….……...…100
Chapter Eight: Conclusions 8.1 Summary and Conclusions ………..……….….…105
8.2 Limitations of this Research ………...…………...107
Abstract ……….………....……….……….109 References ………...……….…….………..…110 List of Figures……….……….121 List of Tables……….……..…126 List of Appendices……….……….….127 Appendix A Some remarks on the catalogue pieces………..……….………...128
Appendix B Catalogue of majolica fragments from the GSE excavations at Agia Aikaterini Square in Chania, Crete………..….……….……….………...134 Appendix C Supplemental Tables………...………..……….………135 Appendix D Maps………...….…..….…..137 Appendix E Shapes of majolica dishes and plates referred to in this work……….…..…………..…139
Chapter One Introduction
1.1. The Object of Study
This study explores Italian Renaissance pottery, also known as majolica, from the late 13th to the 16th century. The research is not only based on excavated fragments from Kastelli Hill at the Venetian harbor of Chania and more generally in Crete, Greece, but also on vessels from the private collection of the German mathematician Professor Albert Pringsheim, who lived in Munich at the beginning of World War II and saw his priceless majolica seized by the National Socialists in 1939. In broader terms, the aim of the research is to examine Italian Renaissance pottery that, from the 13th century onwards, was exported at different times and in different circumstances to the biggest colony of Venice, Crete, and was gathered by a German collector in the early 1900s. While investigating these subjects, other topics emerged, such as Nazi art looting, the restitution claims of the Pringsheim heirs and in particular their demands for the restitution of majolica pieces that are now displayed at the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen in Rotterdam, the legislation for the restitution of Jew-owned artworks, as well as tin-glazed ceramic production in Crete and commercial transactions of Italian ceramics on the island during Venetian domination. These points will be discussed so as to acknowledge the general context and the aim of collecting, protecting, using, and producing Italian Renaissance pottery.
Italian majolica is quite prominent in private and public collections in northern European countries such as Germany, the Netherlands, England, and France. Visitors can see the Italian productions along with Mediterranean and Middle Eastern ceramics in exhibitions in popular museums and published catalogues. Moreover, in the 18th and 19th century, Italian Renaissance tableware
was targeted by wealthy collectors who pursued well-preserved, impressive pieces from Mediterranean civilizations. Accordingly, until the beginning of the 20th
century, Italian ceramics had been examined and published by art historians, collectors, and curators who studied the vessels from the perspective of private Western European collections. However, over the last decades, intense interest in Italian tin-glazed pottery from the 15th and 16th centuries has emerged among
modern researchers in the fields of pottery conservation (Meucci and Carratoni 2016; Padeletti and Fermo 2003) and post-Medieval archaeology (Vroom 1998, 2003, 2014, 2016; Hahn 1989, 1991; Korre- Zografou 1995; Poulou-Papadimitriou 2003, 2008, 2010).
One of the well-published collections is the Pringsheim collection of Italian Renaissance wares. The story of the Pringsheim family is known in art and literature circles. Yet, little information is written as concerns the history of the Pringsheim’s majolica, which is found in the design sections of some of the most popular museums in the world. Albert Pringsheim, being the only son of the Prussian millionaire Rudolf Pringsheim, was a successful academic at the University of Munich in Germany and a distinguished collector of Renaissance objects. Up until the early 1930s, he intensely collected around 440 pieces of luxury Italian Renaissance majolica. Part of his large legacy was constituted by his various collections. On the 21st of November 1939, the Gestapo invaded his apartment at Widenmayer-Strasse 35, seizing the antiquities. In the same year, the Socialists forced him to sell his heritage-protected Italian majolica. Since the end of World War II, the family’s heirs have been demanding the financial and physical restitution of the collections. The Pringsheim Italian Renaissance pottery is still an open restitution case.
Notwithstanding, in Greece, even though material culture has been and continues to be thoroughly examined, a crucial part of the history of Italian Renaissance pottery is omitted. The main issue regarding post-Medieval/Renaissance domestic wares in Greece lies in the fact that these periods are studied under the scope of low-priority archaeological remnants. By this, I mean that Greek archaeological studies are concentrated on the history and archaeology of the Byzantine Empire, focusing on existing remnants that are seen as representative of the glorious past of antiquity’s religious architecture, arts, and literature. Likewise, in Crete, research on material culture that was produced or imported during the Venetian colonization (1212–1669) has been disregarded. Unfortunately, it seems that the Venetian period of the island rapidly slipped by without leaving any marks. As a result, contemporary archaeological science is confronting 450 years of scanty research.
By paying little attention to those times, due to their archaeological and historical complexity in terms of common terminology and knowledge of
typochronology, research on material culture from this time has remained deficient (Vroom 2003, 26). In this respect, the term “Venetian” will recur throughout the thesis, referring in general to the chronological period of the Venetian dominion in Crete (1211–1669) and the imported pottery sherds originating in Italy more specifically. The term “post-Medieval” will refer to the chronological period from the 13th to the 17th century, when Latin colonialism (by the Franks, Latins, Venetians, and Genoese) affected Greece. Lastly, the term “Byzantine” will be used here as a definition for the material culture produced in the Byzantine Empire from the 4th to the 15th century.
In this regard, first an introduction to Italian Renaissance majolica will be given, followed by a discussion of the provenance of antiquities. The existing documentation and examinations of the understudied majolica in Crete will also be analyzed, as well as the history of Alfred Pringsheim’s Italian majolica collection. Finally, the last sections of this work examine how this private collection of Italian majolica has been handled through time by Alfred Pringsheim, the state, and public museums, and the commonalities and differences between the handling of the Cretan majolica and the pieces that have ended up in the Netherlands.
1.2 Research Questions
The focus of this research is on the exploration of Italian Renaissance pottery in a private collection as well as on sherds from Crete in Greece, and attempts to answer questions that initially refer to the broader context of what Italian majolica pottery is and how countries in southern and northern Europe have handled it. More specifically, the research questions I shall attempt to answer are the following:
What is Italian Renaissance majolica and what is its production origin? What do excavated Italian Renaissance majolica sherds indicate with
respect to the relationship between Crete and Venice between 1212 and 1669?
What do the seven Italian Renaissance majolica pieces in the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen indicate about the recent restitution claims for his collection?
How have the countries of southern and northern Europe (such as Greece and the Netherlands) dealt with imported Italian Renaissance pottery?
1.3 Methodology
In order to approach the aforementioned research questions, I gathered information about Italian majolica from the published catalogues of museums, private collections, and the archaeological literature. My initial aim was to gain a better understanding of Italian Renaissance pottery so as to connect research regarding the fragments in Crete, Greece and the Pringsheim collection. The sources used for this research therefore include archaeological, art historical, historical, museological, as well as legalistic and historic-economical literature. More specifically, the examined sources were composed of reports, papers from international symposiums, case studies, conference proceedings, exhibition and collection catalogues, articles in newspapers (Der Spiegel, New York Times,
Stuttganter Zeitung), museum and foundation websites and e-journals (Museum
Boijmans Van Beuningen, Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz, The Art Newspaper), and scholarly journals (European Journal of Archaeology, Archaeometry, the Art Journal, Bulletin of the Medical Library Association, the Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, The Economic History Review, Journal of Archaeological Science, Journal of Cultural Heritage, Journal of Archaeological Science, Hesperia, Dickinson Journal of International Law, Schriften zum Kunst- und Kulturrecht, Journal of the History of Collections, The Hudsons Review, Acta Hyperborea, Renaissance Quarterly, Archaeology, Bulletin de Correspondence Hellenique).
As far as the research on the Pringsheim collection is concerned, the discovery of the catalogues of one of the first exhibitions that included some vessels from the collection, the catalogues from the auction sale in Sotheby’s and the 1914 catalogues “Die Majolikasammlung Alfred Pringsheim in München” (Italian Maiolica of the Pringsheim Collection) by Otto von Falke, were crucial. These primary sources offered a wealth of information not only on how collectors,
curators, and art experts of the early 20th century dealt with antiquities, but also their prior knowledge about Renaissance pottery. They also provided insight into how archaeological research has altered the knowledge of the Italian majolica of the Renaissance, transforming it from a private luxury “minor art” to antiquities displayed in public museums.
Due to the small amount of relevant literature on majolica pottery in Crete available in the Netherlands, I examined the majolica sherds in the storehouse of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania in Crete, where they are currently kept. During my stay, I also collected sources regarding the history of the island and, in particular, of its two biggest towns, Chania (northwest Crete) and Heraklion (northeastern Crete). In Chania, I studied and documented the majolica fragments recovered from excavations at Agia Aikaterini Square on Kastelli Hill between 1970 and 1987. The sherds are stored along with pottery fragments from the Ottoman period that were found in the same trenches. With the purpose of finding the rest of the majolica vessels in the island, I visited the Historical Museum of Crete in the capital city, Heraklion. There, I discovered a small number of exhibited majolica vessels. Although the museum had not acquired much information about that small collection, a curator informed me that the exhibited vessels are findings from excavations in Heraklion, Crete.
Ultimately, through my research in the Ephorate of Antiquities in Chania and my visit to the Historical Museum of Crete in Heraklion, it became clear that Renaissance pottery in Crete is a complicated topic with scant literature. Nevertheless, with this research, I hope to have shed some light on an understudied area of antiquities research and both the similarities and differences between how majolica findings have been regarded and handled in Crete and the Netherlands.
1.4 The Structure of the Thesis
Chapter 1 presents a brief report of the chronological problems of post-Medieval and post-Byzantine archaeology of material culture in Greece. In addition, it introduces the subjects that will be examined in this thesis. Chapter 2 provides an in-depth analysis of the origin, production, and artistic influences of majolica earthenware. In broader terms, it gives a technical understanding for the sections that will follow. This chapter delves into the theoretical “deconstruction”, as well
as the evolution and expansion, of tin-glazed pottery during the Renaissance. Chapter 3 analyzes the ways that antiquities such as Italian earthenware end up in private and public collections. Chapter 4 focuses on Italian majolica sherds found in excavations in Crete. These are from vessels imported from Venice throughout the Venetian occupation of the island, and they are some of the scarce indicators of imported Renaissance pottery in Crete. Thus, the forth chapter analyzes this limited pottery and its relation to Venetian colonialism. Chapter 5 introduces the origins of the collection of Alfred Pringsheim, a private, pre-war collection of Italian ceramics. Chapter 6 addresses how the German mathematician Alfred Pringsheim, as well as states and museums have handled the collection. It also explores the history of collection, the historical background of the seizures of Jewish-owned possessions, as well as restitution legislation. Chapter 7 examines the ways that Greece and the Netherlands are dealing with Renaissance pottery from Italy. Ultimately, Chapter 8 contains the conclusions of this research, including a review of the proposed research questions and some concluding remarks concerning the seven tin-glazed pieces displayed in the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen and the sherds in Crete. Lastly, it also presents the limitations of this thesis.
Chapter Two
Italian Renaissance Majolica
This chapter investigates the origins, creation, and production of Italian majolica from 1300 to 1600, focusing on the formulation of the applied tin glaze and lustre. It also outlines the influences and decorative motifs that led to the refinement of the wares, and discusses the prominent potters and workshops of the Italian peninsula. Finally, it presents the evolution of tin-glazed pottery and its expansion through Europe, concluding with the subsistence of majolica production during the economic depression of the Renaissance.
2.1 The Foundations of Tin-Glazed Pottery i. Origin
The word majolica or maiolica describes a kind of pottery covered with a tin oxide glaze and produced in Italy during the Renaissance period (14th to 16th century). The use of tin gives the characteristic opaque coating that makes the glaze more stable and helps artisans create polychrome decorations.
Various definitions have been offered for the word majolica as it is known today (see Caiger-Smith 1985, 127; Caroscio 2010 224–225; Hess et al. 2004, 12– 13; Mack 2002, 95; Mallet and Dreier 1998, 12; Vroom 2003, 172; Wilson 1987, 1). Initially, it was proposed that tin-glazed pottery came to Italy from the Balearic island of Majorca and probably originated from the Hispano-Moors.1 This is why, in the 12th century, tin-glazed earthenware was referred to as
Hispano-Moresque pottery. Another possible explanation is that the name derives from the Hispanic expression obra de Mallegua, which refers to the lustreware of Valencia exported to Italy and northern Europe in the 15th century (Mallet and
Dreier 1998, 12). For William Milliken (1944, 293), the official term “majolica” was first used to describe tin-glazed pottery by the Italians in the beginning of the 16th century. Yet, Bernard Rackham (1933, 1) claims that the term was from the 15th century, when the earthenware was imported to Italy by Majorcan cargo
1
In 711–714, an Arab Muslim army from northwest Africa conquered the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula. They created the Moorish Kingdom of Granada, which lasted until 1492, and were named Moors after the Latin maurus, which means a resident of Mauritania. Moors were talented craftsmen who influenced Spanish architecture and pottery with their Islamic motifs (Oxford References 2019; Caiger-Smith1985, 84).
ships. Hence, the ships that were carrying them (Milliken 1944, 293) influenced the name of the wares.
ii. Production
A potter named Cipriano di Michele Piccolpasso, who lived in Castel Durante, central Italy, in the 15th century, provides a significant source of information regarding the entire process of producing majolica wares. In his treatise, “The
Three Books of the Potter’s Art” (Lightbown and Caiger-Smith 1980, II), written
in 1558, he describes the technical and artistic process of making tin-glazed pottery. In the books, he addresses anyone who wants to start a majolica enterprise. He gives recipes for tin-glazes, details on how to use or create proper equipment, as well as counseling for the establishment of a workshop (Lightbown and Caiger-Smith 1980, II xii; Wilson 1987, 12). Piccolpasso introduces us to the world of majolica pottery that flourished mostly from 1480 to 1530. However, his information is not entirely correct, due either to his misunderstanding or his attempts to safeguard pottery techniques and mixtures, a common tactic that many majolica makers tended to follow. Often, successful recipes for glazes, clay, and pigments were inherited from father to son, distinguishing the productions of the family workshop from among other enterprises (Padeletti and Fermo, 2003, 516). For the potters of the Italian Renaissance, the successful production of quality majolica vessels was dependent on the selection of raw materials and the skills of the craftsman. The quality of earth collected was determined by the location of the workshop in relation to the nearest water and pure chalky marl-clay sources2 (Lightbown and Caiger-Smith 1980, II, xvi, 13–14). Afterwards, to
shape the clay, potters used methods like a foot-powered wheel and mold, which is very similar to the techniques that modern ceramic experts use today (Lightbown and Caiger-Smith 1980, II, xvii, 44). A foot-powered wheel is a machine that uses the force of a craftsman’s foot to rotate a wheel on which a mass of clay is placed and thrown during the rotation. On the opposite pole is a mold that the craftsman uses, centering the clay and pressing it into the mold so as to create imprints of wares (fig. 1).
22 Chalky marl-clay, or genga, is suitable for majolica vessels due to its buff-hued color, the
extremely light density of carbon dioxide, and its richness in calcium compounds (Lightbown and Caiger-Smith1980, II, footnote no. 7, 14).
Figure 1: Majolica makers working with wheel and mold. Illustration
from the mid-16th century treatise of Cipriano di
Michele Piccolpasso, Victoria and Albert Museum, London (Lightbown and Caiger-Smith 1980, II, 41).
During the procedure, two significant factors could jeopardize majolica making: the setting of the wares in the kiln (fig. 2) (Wilson 1987, 13; Caiger-Smith 1973, 211–217) and the three low-fire steps stabilizing the tin-glaze and lustre.
Figure 2: Firing the kiln. Illustration from the mid-16th century
treatise of Cipriano di Michele Piccolpasso, Victoria and Albert Museum, London (Lightbown and Caiger- Smith 1980, II, 61).
The vessels were placed by shape and clay in the kiln. Flat wares, such as plates and dishes, were arranged in special cases called spurs (ceramic cases with pointed protrusions), whereas small bowls were placed in saggars (ceramic containers holding multiple pieces) (Lightbown and Caiger-Smith 1980, II, 106– 108)
After the arrangement of the wares in the kiln, the three firing steps followed. In the first firing (biscuit firing), the earthenware was fired in a controlled reducing atmosphere of 1000℃ (Padeletti and Fermo 2003, 516). The first firing maintained the porous nature of the brownish-buff-colored vessels so as to absorb the applied tin mixture. Some decorations might be added, and then the wares were re-fired at 900℃. Before the second firing, the potter sprayed the nearly finished wares with paint. When adding lustre, a third firing in a reducing atmosphere of 500℃–600℃ was needed (figs. 3 and 4).
Figure 3: Microstratigraphy of a fragment from a majolica vessel created for the Medici family, dated from 1434 to 1737. The picture presents layers of tin-glaze, paint, and a transparent glaze added to the ceramic body (after Chiarantini et al. 2015, 884).
Figure 4: Flowchart showing the production steps for majolica wares. Dish (piatto) from Deruta, 1510, a piece from the Pringsheim collection ( von Falke 1914, no. 122; Photo by M. Pantelaki).
iii. Tin Glaze
Majolica is characterized as a Renaissance pottery par excellence because of its opaque white background (bianco) produced by a mixture of tin. In regard to the origin of tin glazes, many suggestions have been made. To Alan Caiger-Smith (1985, 28), the discovery of white glazes in the Near East occurred after the battle at the Talas River in Kyrgyzstan, between the Arabic Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang. After the conflict, in 751, the Arabs captured Chinese potters in
Collecting clay Forming clay into shape Arranging the wares in the kiln Biscuit firing (1000℃) Applying tin-glaze Firing (900℃) Applying lustre (optional)
Final low firing (500℃-600℃)
(optional)
Baghdad. Howbeit, the prevailing belief is that the technique of tin-glazed pottery began in the Near East around the 8th and 9th century, more specifically in Abbasid Iraq (Tite 2009, 2065). In the 10th–11th century, the technique was transmitted to Fatimid Egypt, where local potters used it with lead-alkali glazes. Then, it was spread both to Syria and Iran and from North Africa to Spain (Tite 2009, 2065). As reported by Anna MacSweeney (2011), the date that tin-glazed wares reached Spain is unknown, but it might have occurred during the Moorish conquest in 711. Certainly, though, tin glazes came to Valencia via Moorish ceramists from Malaga, and according to Michael Tite (2009, 2065), they reached Italy in the first half of the 13th century (fig. 5).
Figure 5: Map of the Mediterranean showing the route of the expansion of the tin glaze technique from Iraq to Italy (after Google Earth 2019a, https://earth.google.com).
In general terms, the component of tin gives the characteristic opaque, non-runny coating, which makes the glaze more stable, preventing the blurring or shifting of colors; for the artisan, it worked as a neutral colored surface for creating polychrome ornamentations. The tin glaze was applied to the wares right after the first firing, and then the wares were re-fired at a lower temperature for the tin coating to stabilize. The basic blend that most ceramists used was composed of marzacotto (a mixture of glass frit, small amounts of lead, soda or potash, and silica), tin-oxide, and lead ash (Rackham 1952, 3; Caiger-Smith 1973, 206).
Due to these alchemies, the production of majolica earthenware was a difficult and expensive procedure mostly learnt by experimentation and
persistence. Hence, potters were secretive about spreading their knowledge. Each workshop had special recipes that gave them an advantage in the pottery market. The successful mixture of tin glaze was so important for a craftsman’s career that the technique was often passed down from father to son. In some other cases, the recipe remained unknown even after an artist’s death (Padelleti and Fermo 2003, 515).
iv. Lustre
The earliest production of lustre was possibly in the Middle East (see, in general, Caiger-Smith 1985; Pradell et al. 2008, 125–127; Caroscio 2010). According to Alan Caiger-Smith (1985, 21), the route taken by lustre might have begun in Samarra, Mesopotamia and in or around Baghdad, Basra, and Kufa in Iraq in 800 A.D. (fig. 6). In the latter half of the 11th century, lustre appeared on the ceramics of Fostat in Egypt during the dynasty of the Caliphate of Fatimid (909–1171). Yet, it is still unknown how and when the technique reached Spain. Egyptian craftsmen probably brought it to Syria and Iran under the Seljuks around 1250 (Caiger-Smith 1985, 56), and to Spain, but more archaeological and archival evidence is required to establish the veracity of this assumption (Caroscio 2010, 220–221).
Figure 6: Map of the Mediterranean showing the route of the expansion of lustreware from Iraq to Italy (after Google Earth 2019a, https://earth.google.com).
The production of lustre was a difficult procedure in terms of the temperature of the kiln and lustre thickness (Caiger-Smith 1985, 197; Pradell et al. 2008, 123; Wilson 1987, 14). The successful outcome of a recipe demonstrated not only whether or not an artist was qualified, but also the wealth and status of the future owner of the piece. Specifically, lustre is a thin, metallic, and iridescent film (its thickness is about 200nm) added to the surface of ceramicware; it includes high-density silver, copper, iron oxide, and cinnabar (Padeletti and Fermo 2013, 827). The pioneer addition of cosalite, a mineral mixture containing lead and bismuth,3 was a special element for creating the “rainbow” effect (fig. 7).
Figure 7: Detail of a majolica sherd from Chania dated from the late 15th to mid-16th
century, depicting the iridescent “rainbow” effect of lustre glaze (Photo by M. Pantelaki).
Lustre majolica had to be fired three times. The metallic glaze was optional and was applied on the tin glaze at the final firing. The wares had to be re-fired in a special smaller kiln with a temperature of around 500–600 °C. During the third firing, silver and copper were melted, creating a metallic, iridescent film on the vessel (Padeletti and Fermo 2013, 826). The reduced atmosphere was acheieved by burning brushwood and horse hoofs, creating a thick smoke (Padeletti and Fermo 2003, 516; Wilson 1987, 13–14; Caroscio 2010, 219).
At the end of the 15th century, Italian craftsmen from Gubbio began to
experiment with ruby-colored lustre on their ceramics (Padeletti and Fermo 2013, 825). At the beginning of the 16th century, ceramic industries specializing in
colored lustre arose in central Italy. The most prominent workshops experimenting with lustre majolica were Faenza in Emilia Romagna and Deruta in Umbria. Deruta’s craftsmen used iridescent lustre colors like the soft, brassy yellow pigment made by silver salts. Yellowish and golden lustre were obtained
3 Bismuth was used by Italian craftsmen to keep the cost of their earthenware down as well as to
from silver and copper, vivid ruby was usually made from copper, green (ramina) required copper or some lead in the mixture, and blue (zaffer) was made from cobalt oxide (Padeletti and Fermo 2013, 830).
v. Influences and Ornamentations
Painting majolica demanded an expert craftsman with artistic skill, a stable hand, and knowledge of creating and applying materials. The artist had to be fast and vigilant when adding the pigments since they could quickly be absorbed into the porous clay of the vessel. In case of wrong execution, the removal or alteration of the materials was difficult, and a delicate correction of the mistake took considerable time (Rackham 1952, 3).
The highlight of Renaissance pottery-painting occurred in the 16th century. Over more than a century, workshops and artists refined both the technique and the decoration of majolica with continuous alterations. The resulting tin-glazed wares were called “golden majolica” (Lightbown and Caiger- Smith 1980, II, xiii). Exquisite ornamentations changed the use of the ceramics, turning them into items for display and signs of wealth. However, Italian majolica wares featured a limited variety of decorative motifs. Painters tended to choose patterns from the late Gothic and Renaissance repertoire (Mallet and Dreier 1998, 17) as well as motifs from Eastern culture. It has been also argued (Hammel 1989) that the development of the Italian pottery of the 16th century can be attributed to the great impact of Hispano-Moresque earthenware (reaching the Italian peninsula at the end of the 14th century), Islamic metalwork, and glass (fig. 8).
Figure 8: Enameled and gilt glass beaker from Syria, mid-13th century,
London, Victoria and Albert Museum (after Hess et al. 2004, 6).
Italian potters often made use of patterns of Islamic origin for the ornamentation of tin-glazed wares. One widely practiced design originating in Persia in the 13th century was the bryony flower (Wallis 1900, xxii), which in 1500–1530 was altered to become the so-called Italian gothic floral style (fig. 9).
(a) (b)
Figure 9: Transformation of the Eastern bryony foliage into the Italian gothic floral style. (a) Hispano-Moresque vessel from Manises (Spain), mid-15th century, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles (after Hess 2002, 25). (b)
Armorial jug (boccale) from Florence, 1460–1480. Piece from the Pringsheim collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (after Rasmussen 1989, 6, no.3).
The new gothic floral pattern, which ended up being a long-lasting decoration trend for Italian wares, featured background decorations or border bands based on emblems and floral patterns that embellished the central scene of the wares (Caiger-Smith 1973, 87). At the end of the 15th century, Venice imported Iznik wares from Iznik in Turkey, and their colorful Eastern foliage influenced Italian painters as well (fig. 10) (Caiger-Smith 1973, 88; Thornton 1991, 110). Lastly, majolica foliage motifs were also affected by Venetian velvets with the pomegranate ornament called mezzaluna dentata (toothed half-moon) (Mallet and Dreier 1998, 16), Perugia linens, and Lucca fabrics in Tuscany, which were influenced by Eastern textile patterns (fig. 11).
Figure 10: Bottle from Iznik, Turkey, second half of the 16th century,
Benaki Museum, Athens (after Korre- Zografou 1995, 56).
(a) (b)
Figure 11: (a) Islamic textile from the Middle East, second half of the 13th century, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (after: Hess et al. 2004, 184); (b) Islamic textile made of silk from Iran, 11th–12th
century, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (after Caiger-Smith 1985, 79).
Furthermore, another significant source of inspiration was Chinese porcelain produced during the Ming dynasty. Genuine porcelain was first produced in the Tang dynasty (618–907) in China, then in the 8th and 9th century it was introduced to Iran and Syria where Muslim craftsmen attempted to make it more delicate (Wallis 1900, xix). During the Ming dynasty (1403–1424), Chinese porcelain reached northeastern Europe through the trade routes (Hess et al. 2004 8, 9) (fig. 12), and a century later in 1515–1530, it arrived on the Italian peninsula where it became a new trend. Chinese wares were rare and precious gifts that wealthy
Italians would display in their private study rooms or their cabinets of curiosities (Thornton 1991, 110; Scholten 1993, 18).
(b)
(a)
Figure 12: Small Chinese porcelain bowl embellished with pomegranates, peonies, and narcissus on the interior surface (a) and thick lines on the exterior surface (b), 1400–1450, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Source:https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/44745, accessed on 27/2/2019.
Quickly enough (in the 15th century), luxurious porcelain was copied by the
Italian majolica potters, with the imitations being named alla porcellana (fig. 13). The word porcellana, which literally means “little female pig”, referred to the Chinese inspirations of the genuine wares (Rackham 1952, 16; Thornton 1991, 110; Vroom 2014, 163). The Italian reproductions were manufactured with a whitish fabric and a greyish-blue glaze (berettino), with bluish-black or blue decoration patterns. They were of exceptional quality but showed significant differences from the genuine Chinese porcelain, mainly in terms of the majolica’s appearance, weight, and the substance of the clay (Thornton 1991, 110).
Figure 13: Italian alla porcellana plate (tondino), Siena, 1520. Attributed to Maestro Benedetto. Piece from the Pringsheim collection. Recent location: Unknown (von Falke 1914, no. 79; Photo by M. Pantelaki).
Renaissance earthenware was also famous for the grotesque designs that flourished from the end of the 15th century and throughout the 16th century (fig. 14). The term grotesque derives from the Latin word grotto, meaning underground cave or chamber. It refers to a decoration style with bizarre or scary and counterintuitive classical stories featuring fantastic creatures (Wilson 1987, 73).
Figure 14: Dish (piatto) with a grotesque pattern, probably by Orazio Fontana, Urbino circa 1560. Piece from the Pringsheim collection. Recent location: Unknown (von Falke 1914, no. 287a; Photo by M. Pantelaki).
More specifically, the grotesque style was influenced by frescos and stuccos in the buried chambers of the “Golden House” of Nero’s palace in ancient Rome, which were revealed in 1480. This archaeological discovery became a source of inspiration for majolica painters, who also began using motifs from sculptural and architectural elements, from sketchbooks, patterns from printed images, and engravings. The majolist Jacobo Fattorini was motivated by Botticelli, as well as Donatello’s artworks and Raphael’s decoration of the Vatican Loggia in 1516– 1517 (fig. 15) (Rackham 1952, 16).
Figure 15: The grotesque frescos of the Loggetta of Cardinal Bibbiena in the Vatican, created by Raphael in 1516–1517. Source: https://www.wga.hu/html_m/r/raphael/5roma/4/6logget1.html, accessed on 27/2/2019.
Additionally, the creations of artists like Morto da Feltre, who painted grotesque frescos in Rome, and Pope Alexander VI, who comissioned frescoes in the Vatican and Castel Sant’ Angelo as well as the wall paintings at the Palazzo della Signoria in Florence (Mallet and Dreier 1998, 21), had a key role in inspiring majolica painters in 1490. The chosen ornamentation topics were based on ancient heroes and narrative scenes from biblical or folkloric stories. The stories, or istorie, that majolica artists attempted to represent on the grotesque ceramics led to a new style of pottery painting called istoriato, which means story painting (Hess 2002 21, 22). Lastly, majolica artists were deeply motivated by contemporary engravings. On the wares, they attempted to adapt or copy figures from the works of popular engravers, reproducing the same design patterns (fig. 16) (Rackham 1913, 194; Breck 1918). The engravings of Giovanni Antonio di Brescia in 1550 contributed significantly to the spread of grotesque majolica. Famous frescos and drawings had an impact on engravings, which in turn were the main sources of narration for istoria-style majolica dishes (Wilson 1987, 112– 114).
(a)
(b)
Figure 16: (a) Left: print by Agostino Veneziano inspired by Raphael or Giovanni’s Urbino works (after Poole 1995, 294); right: plate (tondino) from Siena, 1520. Piece from the Pringsheim collection. Recent location: Unknown (von Falke 1914, no. 215; Photo by M. Pantelaki). (b) Left: print by Cornelis Floris (1514–1575) of Antwerp from the book Veelderley niewe
inuentien (Poole 1995, 394); right: dish (coppa) from Urbino circa 1570–
1600 depicting a river god who sits on two dolphins. Piece from the Pringsheim collection, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge (von Falke 1914, no. 293; Photo by M. Pantelaki).
With the invention of istoriato in 1500, Renaissance earthenware reached its apogee and the “golden majolica” period began. Istoriato transformed majolica from utilitarian to fine art vessels (fig. 17). Artisans mostly created dishes in the
piatto, coppa, and crespina styles and plates in the tagliere and tondino styles,
which worked like canvases with wide flat surfaces (see appendix A). On these, stories could easily be painted and admired. Istoriato motifs, mostly applied in Urbino and Faenza, thrived in central Italy in the 16th century. From 1520, workshops and artists used signatures, dates, or factory marks (Wilson 1987, 39) to lay claim to their exceptional creations. From 1500 to 1550, the themes of
istoriato were historical, symbolic, and poetic, concentrating on classical and
patterns were inspired by engravings, illustrated books such as Ovid’s Metamorphoses, scenes from Greek mythology like the labors of Hercules and Leda and the Swan, creations by well-known painters such as Michelangelo’s Sistine Ceiling, medals, plaquettes, engraved gems, or furniture making (Wilson 1987, 112–114). Art and architectural elements from local public buildings were included in the stylistic sources. As noted, istoriato paintings had been influenced by major works of art and literature. Even so, majolica artists’ knowledge of the themes was partial, unreliable, and indirect. Consequently, they reproduced fixed scenes already made by engravers or painters, being mostly interested in the picturesque effect of the enamelware, not a proper narration (Wilson 1987, 137).
Figure 17: Istoriato dish (piatto) depicting “the abduction of Helen”, attributed to Francesco Xanto Avelli, Urbino, 1535. Piece from the Pringsheim collection. Recent location: J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles (after Wilson and Mallet 1998, no. 51).
Other motifs that were frequently used in the 16th century were heraldry, contemporary scenes, and portraits. Heraldry, with coats of arms on majolica dishes, provides essential information on prosperous families and political or religious figures of the Renaissance (Wilson 1987, 131). Tin-glazed wares with heraldries could be crafted in a single workshop but be painted by many artists. There were also some majolica with scenes from classical literature or contemporary political news, such as the plate depicting Doge Agostino Barberigo (1420–1501) and his senators at the formation of the League and the sailing of the
Venetian Fleet (fig. 18) (Harris 1922; Wilson 1987, 142). Finally, another distinctive pattern is the belle donne portraits (Wilson 1987, 144; Mallet and Dreier 1998, 23). Belle donne vessels depicted women, with inscriptions referring to them as bella (beautiful), diva (divine), unica (unique), or graziosa (charming).
Figure 18: Dish (coppa) depicting Doge Agostino Barberigo (1420– 1501) with his senators at the formation of the League and the sailing of the Venetian Fleet, Faenza or Venice circa 1495–1520, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge (after Poole 1995, 245, no. 326).
vi. Decoration Pigments
The decorative pigments of majolica were important for the merchandizing of the wares and for the distinctiveness of the style. It is worth noting that the creations from those periods still retain their brilliance today, as well as the tonality of the colors (Hess 2002, 4). Majolica workshops had their own characteristic pallets of pigments. The variety of color was limited, but the contrasts among them was spectacular. Pigment recipes varied, and there was always a “magic formula” (achieved by carefully changing the quantity of the ingredients of the color or even the temperature of the kiln) that distinguished each workshop and increased their competitiveness in the pottery market (Solon 1907, 13).
Broadly speaking, the basic pigments used were opaque-white made out of tin, blue Asian cobalt ore called zaffre, which was introduced to Florence and Faenza in the mid-14th century (Caiger-Smith 1985, 128), and olive green or
ramina made from burnt copper. Orange was produced from ferric oxide and
antimony, while Naples yellow was made from lead, iron, and antimony compounds. Egyptians were the first craftsmen to work with yellow pigment, using it to color glass as well as ceramics. During the second half of the 15th century, Naples yellow was imported to Italy from Turkey through Venice (Chiarantini et al. 2015, 879–880, 893). The most challenging color for the firing was red or Indian red, which was obtained from the so-called Armenian bole (clay containing iron) and was used in small quantities. Turquoise blue was made from copper and soda. Finally, purple and brown were mostly made from manganese. Brown was used for line drawing in pictorial decorations (Meucci and Carratoni 2016).
vii. Workshops and Artisans
Numerous pottery workshops and painters emerged in Italy, indicating the high demand for Renaissance earthenware (Map 1 in appendix D). The spread of majolica production occurred at a time when art was reaching a point of culmination in the history of arts, starting from the beginning of 14th century until the 16th century. Small factories in towns in northern and central Italy that experienced significant economic development led to the flourishing of tin-glazed ceramics. These pottery towns―some of which still have active workshops―prevailed in the market, churning out extraordinary pieces. For
centuries, the pottery industry produced tableware, wall and floor tiles, drug jars, inkwells, candlesticks, and statuettes (Goldthwaite 1989, 16).
In Marche, the workshops in Castel Durante, Urbino, and Pesaro manufactured high-quality earthenware. In Caste Durante, Giovanni Maria Vasaro was famous for his vividly colored portrait dishes (fig. 19). In Urbino, Nicola da Urbino and Francesco Xanto Avelli influenced majolica painting and shaped the Urbino style, which was characterized by istoriato and grotesque open vessels (Wilson 1987, 44). The first signed works of Nicola da Urbino were found circa 1520 with the name NICOLO in monogram. He started his career at Castel Durante and then moved to Urbino in 1528, where he made exceptional istoriato dishes and plates with portrait heads. He was directly influenced by woodcuts from Romance and Latin classics and Marcantonio’s school engravings. His specialties focused on istoriato inspired by literal or mythological scenes in idyllic landscapes and elements of Renaissance architecture (fig. 20). In 1530, he changed his color pallet from blue pastel tones to warmer colors such as yellow and orange (Wilson 1987, 44). In contrast, Francesco Xanto Avelli tended to sign his works with “FLR”, “F.X” or “FR”. He was also influenced by Marcantonio’s school. His signed wares are dated from 1530 to 1542 and feature contemporary political scenes, moral allegories, poems, and scenes from classical literature (fig. 21) (Wilson 1987, 52).
Figure 19: Belle donne dish (coppa) with the inscription CAR…ENDINA. Attributed to Giovanni Maria Vasaro, Castel Durante circa 1510– 1520. Piece from the Pringsheim collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (after Rasmussen 1989, 104–106, no. 63).
Figure 20: Plate (tondino) depicting Jupiter and Semele, painted by Nicola da Urbino in 1524. The plate was specially requested by Isabella d’Este and bears her personal coat of arms. Piece from the Pringsheim collection, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne Source:https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/explore/collection/work/17806/, accessed on 27/2/2019.
Figure 21: Plate (tondino) depicting Aeneas’s arrival in Libya, painted by Francesco Xanto Avelli and bearing an unidentified coat of arms, Urbino, 1530. Piece from the Pringsheim collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (after Rasmussen 1989, 129–131, no. 76).
Pesaro’s factories achieved a peak in majolica production in 1540, which then declined at the beginning of the 17th century. Their enamel earthenware became highly competitive in the Italian pottery market. Drury Fortnum was a famous local artist who signed his works with his initials, his full name, or the phrase “FATTO IN PESARO” (made in Pesaro). Whilst, the ceramist and artist Maestro Girolano Lafranco delle Gabice added real gold in the decoration of his ceramics (Solon 1907, 114–115).
Another popular pottery region in central Italy was Umbria, where production centers in Orvieto, Deruta, and Gubbio had a great impact on Renaissance ceramics. Orvieto was known for its green and brown Gothic and Near-Eastern tin-glazed pottery (Caiger-Smith 1973, 92). Deruta flourished around 1490 to 1550. The most prolific painter in Deruta was Giacomo Mancini, who signed his works “El Frate” and lived in the mid-16th century. The decoration of Deruta wares was deeply inspired by Hispano-Moresque vessels, creating hybrid Italio-Moresque motifs (Solon 1907, 39) colored with blue, orange, yellow, or iridescent yellow hues. In addition, pottery workshops in Deruta were also known for the excellent application of golden lustre on earthenware and portrait dishes (fig. 22).
(a) (b)
Figure 22: Dishes (piatti) illustrating scenes from The Labors of Hercules, Deruta, 1510. Pieces from the Pringsheim collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (after Rasmussen 1989, (a) 64, no. 37, (b) 67, no. 38).
The pottery center of Gubbio has produced ceramics from the 14th century up until the present. The local industries developed molded and gadrooned forms (Caiger-Smith 1973, 93). The milestone of high Renaissance pottery was the application of red and golden lustre by the expert Giorgio Andreoli (fig. 23), who moved to Gubbio from Faenza in 1490. Majolica pieces painted by him can be dated (from 1518 onwards) because he used to sign them with the monogram “M.G.” and a date.
Figure 23: Dish (coppa) depicting Hercules fighting with the centaur, Nessus. Embellished by Maestro Giorgio Andreoli in Gubbio circa 1530–1535. Piece from the Pringsheim collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (after Rasmussen 1989, 195, no. 118).
Regarding Tuscany, the workshops in Montelupo, Florence, Siena, and Cafaggiolo produced impressive paintings on ceramics. From the 15th century,
ceramics from Florence and Montelupo were so exceptional that the local market saw a continuous production of tin-glazed wares. By the 15th century, Montelupo
was producing large quantities of majolica, and it formed a monopoly in Tuscany (Blake 1981, 101). The Florentine wares featured decorations in green and brown pigments, “relief blue” or oak-leaf jars, the development of a polychrome Gothic floral style, and line drawing pottery (fig. 24) (Mack 2002, 99; Caiger-Smith 1973, 85). As for Siena, it led the way in majolica tiles and bricks and has seen active ceramic production from the 13th century until today.
Figure 24: Apothecary jar (orciuolo) attributed to the Florentine workshop of Giunta di Tugio, Florence, 1431. Piece from the Pringsheim collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (after Rasmussen 1989, 4–5, no. 2).
Cafaggiolo also contributed to the Florentine production of Renaissance earthenware. The town of Cafaggiolo, located northwest of Florence, had a limited but active production of high-quality ceramics strongly influenced by Eastern art. As stated by Marc-Louis Solon (1907, 82), Cafaggiolo’s workshops “were liberally subsidized institutions rather than private enterprises”. The local wares were mostly luxurious display plates carrying the inscription “Fatto in
Cafagguolo” (made in Cafaggiolo) and featured specific local characteristics such
as a masterly dark blue pigment, vivid red, and an almost blackish manganese purple (Rackham 1933, 38). In addition, Cafaggiolo was widely known for a small majolica factory co-established in 1506 by the Montelupini brothers, Piero and Stephano, sons of the Croatian Dimitri Filippo, who was born in Zagreb in 1403 (Cora and Fanfani 1982). Their workshop was located in the villa of the Medici family, where they created some of the most exquisite tin-glazed wares (Solon 1907, 81). Some pieces were produced on request by Isabella d’Este and
were embellished with her personal coat of arms. The brothers signed their crafts with the initials “SP” (Stephano and Piero) and “SF” (Stephano di Filippo or Fattorini) or the Medici motto “SEMPER” (Rackham 1933, 37) (fig. 25). After the brothers’ deaths, the workshop was inherited by their sons, who continued producing majolica until the second half of the 16th century (Cora and Fanfani
1982).
In Faenza, in the Emilia Romagna region of northern Italy, the production of green and brown tin-glazed wares started before 1400. By 1470, Faenza had been transformed into an active pottery center with prolific enterprises (Rackham 1952, 16–20). The industry reached its apogee in 1500, manufacturing the finest, whitest, most durable, smooth and opaque tin-glazed ceramics. Faenza’s workshops injected new designs and a variety of colors into the majolica market. At the end of the 15th century, workshops like Casa Pirota were producing vessels with dark blue patterns, decorations influenced by classical antiquity, and grotesque decorations on the borders (Robbins 2004, 76) (fig. 26). The “Faenza blue” glaze, distinguishing pigments such as yellow, deep blue, and white, as well as the peacock feather eye pattern and flowery motifs were characteristic of the town’s ceramic style. In the late 15th and early 16th century, skilled painters like
Maestro Benedetto, Giovanni Maria, and Maesto Giorgio Andreoli decided to relocate from Faenza to towns like Siena, Castel Durante, and Gubbio, contributing to the spread of the Faenza style5 (Rackham 1952, 16–20).
Last but not least, in the Veneto region in northern Italy, Venetian majolica pottery workshops made remarkable pieces, but limited in number (Wilson 1987, 108; Caiger-Smith 1973, 99). In the early 16th century, Venetian industries were producing more enameled glassware rather than majolica. Nevertheless, from 1500 onwards, Venice made high-quality earthenware imitating Chinese porcelain or with Middle Eastern influences such as eastern flowers and foliage (fig. 27).
5 The Faenza style was alternatively named Faenza white, or bianchi di Faenza in Italian, and was
Figure 25: Italian alla porcellana ewer stand. The blue and white plate was made in the Medici villa in Cafaggiolo circa 1537. On the well, it has a coats of arms and on the rim, the Medici motto SEMPER. Piece from the Pringsheim collection. Recent location: J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles (after Wilson and Mallet 1998, no. 52).
Figure 26: Ewer (brocca) attributed to the Casa Pirota workshop in Faenza, 1527. Piece from the Pringsheim collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (after Rasmussen 1989, 40–41, no. 25).
Figure 27: Plate (tondino) from Venice circa the 16th century,
2.2 The Evolution of Tin-Glazed Pottery
Ceramics inspired by Near Eastern wares are known as “proto-majolica”. Their production begun in the mid-13th to mid-14th century in Campania and Apulia (Vroom 2014, 127). Exported “proto-majolica” pieces had been found at sites on the eastern Mediterranean such as Corinthos in Peloponnese, Paphos in Cyprus, Atlit in Israel, Al Minain in Yemen, Hama in Syria, and Fustat in Egypt, as well as at sites in the western Balkans, the south of France, and Istanbul in Turkey (Vroom 2014, 127; Whitehouse 1978, 46). The term “proto-majolica” was first used by Frederick Waage (1934), characterizeing these ceramics as a “prototype” of the Western-influenced “archaic majolica”, earthenware probably produced in northern Italy. This theory was altered by Giuseppe Liverani, however, who advocated that “proto-majolica” was not an earlier form of the “archaic majolica”. He argued that the differences in the decoration styles and the chronological compatibility between the two types prove that “proto-majolica” as a prime form of the “archaic majolica” is a mistaken link (Whitehouse 1978, 43–44). In “proto-majolica” ceramics, the applied opaque lead glaze was placed on the interior of the vessel. The simple ornamentations included geometric designs, Islamic motifs, ships, and animals (Vroom 2014, 127) colored with copper green, brown, yellow, and cobalt blue.
Ceramics produced in northern Italy in the same period (first half of the 13th century) were defined as “archaic majolica”. The division betweem northern “archaic majolica” and southern “proto-majolica” is still in question, since the division is quite radical (Whitehouse 1978, 49). “Archaic majolica” was influenced by the Hispano-Moresque wares, and especially by the Spanish “Paterna wares” (Tite 2009, 2065; Whitehouse 1978, 43), and were made in Tuscany, Emilia Romagna, and Lazio before the 14th century. The pigments
comprised of purple or brown manganese, copper green, and cobalt blue. The decoration was simple, with geometric ornaments, plants, and animals. From 1300 onwards, the decoration involved more line-drawing and the tin-glaze was transparent white (Thornton 1991, 106).
Throughout the 15th century, great enhancements occurred regarding the shapes of vessels, the glaze technique, the production of lustre, and the pictorial decoration of the wares. By the 16th century, tin-glazed pottery was officially
referred to by the Italians with the term “majolica” (Rackham 1952, 28–29; Thornton 1991, 110). The exquisite quality of the enamel, the introduction of foliage patterns in Venice, the alla porcellana style derived from the finest Chinese wares of the Ming Dynasty, the grotesque figures, and the istoriato style all modified the history of Renaissance wares. The tin-glazed ceramics were now refined objects created by major ceramists. They were offered as costly gifts or made for wealthy owners, depicting their personal tastes and their high social status. Later, they were collected by individuals creating large private collections of majolica tableware.
In the beginning of the 17th century, majolica production declined due to a low demand for the wares (Wilson 1987, 169). The workshops in central Italy stopped coming up with new ideas and techniques and simply reproduced older decoration styles. Majolica wares lost their old glory as valuable works of art and became utilitarian vessels for middle- and working-class households (Milliken 1944, 301).
2.3 The Expansion of Italian Pottery
The expansion of Italian pottery to northern and central Europe began at the end of the 15th century. Italian craftsmen specialized in majolica techniques immigrated abroad with the purpose of establishing new pottery businesses. In countries such as Spain, France, England, the Low Countries, southern Germany, and Switzerland, tin-glazed ceramics production thrived and Renaissance ceramics rose to prominence (Lightbown and Caiger- Smith 1980, II, xii). One of the first examples of relocation was the famous potter Guido Andries, who decided to move from Castel Durante to Antwerp (Rackham 1926, 35; Scholten 1993, 13–15). There, he opened a majolica workshop (in 1508) and started a family. His pottery business was active even after his death in 1541. In 1562, Guido’s second wife sold the workshop to her first son, Lucas Andries. In the latter half of the 16th century, many majolica masters decided to leave Antwerp
due to religious reasons and the competitive local market (Rackham 1926, 43; Scholten 1993, 14–15). They scattered throughout the Netherlands, firstly in Haarlem and then in Delft, creating the famous Delft earthenware (Scholten 1993, 19). Some moved to England, with one of Guido’s Andries sons relocating to Norwich. Later, his partner Jacob Jansen moved to London, establishing another
majolica workshop. In Spain, the painter Niculoso Francisco Pisano created majolica tiles. However, the most influential majolica industry was established in 1510–1550 in Lyon, France (Caiger-Smith 1973, 106). Ceramists from Liguria and Faenza moved to Lyon and Nevers, inventing the tin-glazed Faience tableware (Wilson 1987, 257).
2.4 Majolica Production and the Economic Depression of the Italian Renaissance
i. The Crisis
According to economic historians (Malanima 2018; Lopez and Miskimin 1962; Cipolla 1993; Goldthwaite 1989), the Renaissance was a period of controversy, with consequences for the Italian economy. From one standpoint, it is acknowledged that the Italian Renaissance was an era of wealth, deeply influenced by humanitarianism and classical antiquity, but from another, it introduced a considerable demographic crisis and financial depression. It appears that researchers are still unaware of specific economic trends before 1350, making it difficult to clarify the financial fluctuations of that period. A limited record is available from the mid-14th century. According to Paolo Malanima (2018, 4), the data before 1350 are deficient due to the vague estimation of important factors such as population numbers, the extent of urbanization, and the only partially recorded market prices and per capita incomes. In these terms, the overall picture of the Italian economy might be one of deep uncertainty.
We do know that an Italian depression began in the 14th century, when the first epidemic of plague struck in 1348, devastating towns all over the country. A change in climate, decrease in labor wages, famine, and poverty all helped to spread the plague, causing a severe financial and demographic crisis (60% of the Italian population succumbed to the epidemic) (Malanima 2018, 3). Moreover, Italian wars6 lasting from 1494 to 1538 also seriously affected the Italian economy. The long-lasting conflicts caused widespread poverty, famine, more epidemics, and the disruption of trade throughout much of Europe. However, after the Black Death outbreak in 1348, a rapid improvement was noticed. The
6 The Italian wars were long-lasting conflicts from 1494 to 1559 between Italy, France, and Spain
reduction in population caused a rise in land use, limited resource exploitation, and enhanced industrial productivity and personal income. Ironically, it contributed to a remarkable improvement in Italian living standards (Malanima 2018, 25).
ii. Financial Growth and the Survival of the Majolica Industry
Despite the considerable difficulties that Italy experienced for almost two centuries, prosperity rapidly increased and was higher than elsewhere in Europe (Malanima 2018, 11). From the second half of the 14th century, wealth led to
investment in the arts as well as a widespread appetite for expensive objects, including luxury tin-glazed tableware. At the end of the 15th century, peace and prosperity made Italy the promised land of arts and sciences. Notably, the flourishing establishments7 of the Medici family contributed to supporting the Italian economy throughout the century (Lopez and Miskimin 1962, 425).
Around 1550, the capital quickly recovered, making the Italian economy more competitive in the international market. The economy was dependent on the export of expensive products such as silk, paper, glass, prints, textiles, and pottery (Cipolla 1993, 242–243), and from the beginning of the 17th century, Italian trade and industry shrunk considerably because of crucial factors like the wars of 1618 in central Europe, the marked deterioration of the Turkish market, and the Turko-Persian wars of 1638. Lastly, the development of low-cost products by the Dutch, English, and French markets marginalized Italian trade, which was focused on expensive, luxury commodities (Cipolla 1993, 244). In such a context, the majolica industry was a small asset in the Italian economy. It helped enhance the local economy of small towns but not the finances of the whole country.
Majolica vessels were quite expensive for earthenware because of the high cost of labor and materials, the risk of damage throughout the multi-firing process, and transportation costs, but they were still approachable by the middle class. The most important factor affecting their price was the decoration by a skillful artist, which could increase the price up to 50% (Goldthwaite 1989, 7).
7 The Medici family was located in Florence in the 13th century. They were bankers who had a
strong relationship with the papacy (Northrup 2014, 364). In the 13th and 16th centuries, they
became long-distance trade merchants and had a great impact on the political scene of Florence. They sold a wide variety of products such as silk, alum, artworks, gold, dinnerware, and textiles from other parts of Europe (Northrup 2014, 614–5). They also produced the famous Medici soft paste porcelain, which was influenced by Chinese porcelain (Hess 2002, 11).
