Hominin occupation at Waziers, northern France. Reconstruction of the environment at Waziers and hominin activities during the Last Interglacial

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Hominin occupation at Waziers, northern France

Reconstruction of the environment at Waziers and hominin activities

during the Last Interglacial

Liangai Shen

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Hominin occupation at Waziers, northern France

Reconstruction of the environment at Waziers and hominin activities

during the Last Interglacial

Liangai Shen s2136155 Master’s thesis

Dr. M. H. Field Archaeobotany

University of Leiden, Faculty of Archaeology Leiden 13/06/2019 final version

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I would first like to thank my supervisor, Dr. M. H. Field, who helped me a lot with my thesis and my studies at Leiden University. I would also like to thank those in the botanical laboratory who were always very friendly in helping me solve problems. Lastly, I would like to thank my parents and sister for supporting my studies at Leiden University.

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1. Introduction

The site of Waziers is a Late Pleistocene site located in northern France. Excavations were conducted by a multidisciplinary team after the first diagnosis by La Communauté d’Agglomération du Douaisis-Direction de l’Archéologie Préventive (CADDAP) in 2012. Various kinds of archaeological records were excavated from the site, including plant and animal remains and lithic artefacts, and various researches have been carried on. Early research has shown that the sediments were formed during the Last Interglacial period. Archaeological records from Waziers indicate that there was a fluvial channel underground; fluvial processes can be deduced from the stratigraphy of the profile. The artefacts excavated from the site indicate hominin occupation in this area.

This thesis is based on the macroscopic botanical remains from the profile Coupe 1 Partie 1 (C1 P1). Plant remains in Waziers have been well-preserved, and provide much useful information. The method used here is ‘treasure hunt’. The purpose of the treasure hunt is to know what plants are present in the samples. The ecology of plants will be discussed, and the paleoenvironment of Waziers will be reconstructed based on the results of the treasure hunt.

The special location of Waziers, as well as the evidence of hominin occupation discovered from the site, make it important in understanding human occupation in Northwestern Europe during the Last Interglacial period. In recent years, human absence in Britain during the Last Interglacial has been a significant topic and at the same time, evidence shows that hominins occupied continental Northwestern Europe. The limits and range of early hominin occupation are very important because they can provide crucial information about hominins’ abilities and strategies when faced with various climatic conditions and ecosystems.

This thesis will discuss reasons for early hominins’ absence in Britain during the Last Interglacial, despite their presence in adjacent Northwestern Europe. The excavation of the site of Waziers may reinforce some assumptions. Furthermore, based on the botanical data, zooarchaeological data, and lithic artefacts from Waziers, early hominin activities in Waziers area will be discussed in this thesis.

There are three research questions of this thesis. The first one is to discuss the vegetation composition of Waziers during the Last Interglacial and then reconstruct the palaeoenvironment. The second one is to discuss the hominin occupation at Waziers and the link with hominin occupation in Britain, i.e., the

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biogeography of early hominins. The last one is to try to discuss the hominin activities at Waziers on the basis of multidisciplinary data.

2. Introduction to Waziers

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The site of Waziers is located in northern France, at a place called “Le Bas Terroir”, a few kilometres northeast of Douai. It is on the south-western edge of a low plain of La Scarpe (fig. 1). The altitude is approximately 23 metres above sea level (Hérisson et al. 2017, 11).

2.2 Research history of Waziers

2.2.1 Research before 2017

In 2011, La Communauté d’Agglomération du Douaisis-Direction de l’Archéologie Préventive (CADDAP) made the diagnosis before the development project in Waziers. Archaeological remains from the Iron Age and Roman times were found, which meant that a rescue excavation was needed. Y. Petite conducted the surveys. The seventh survey revealed a peat layer thicker than one metre and initially considered to be from the Late Glacial period. In February 2013, a second diagnosis was made near to the previous that provided more Figure 1. Location of site of Waziers (Hérisson et al. 2017, 11)

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information. Faunal remains, including an aurochs bone with anthropogenic marks, and lithic artefacts were collected in the peat level. Radiocarbon dating was measured wood collected from the peat, and its results showed that the age of the peat level traced back to 43,500 BP, which was earlier than initial assumptions (Hérisson et al. 2017, 15).

The discoveries made by CADDAP motivated the intervention of a multidisciplinary team. It was assumed that the stratigraphic sequence of Waziers could be traced back to the Eemian; in order to confirm these assumptions, a three-year (2014–2016) excavation project was scheduled. Key findings of this excavation will be introduced briefly below (Hérisson et al. 2017, 18).

The three-year excavation resulted in several significant achievements. Firstly, the hypothesis regarding the Eemian age of Waziers was confirmed based on the results of the multi-proxy analyses: the litho-stratigraphic analysis showed that the peat deposit was older than the Last Glacial; and the malacological analysis showed that the malacological assemblage in Waziers was typical of assemblage in the Eemian Interglacial. The mammalian fauna data showed that fauna assemblage in Waziers was typical of the Interglacial during the Pleistocene. Additionally, the uranium-thorium dating on oogonia of Characeae also confirmed the Eemian hypothesis (Hérisson et al. 2017, 49).

Secondly, the locations of the Eemian channel and related deposits were determined as a result of various geophysical prospecting campaigns, core drills, and archaeological surveys: the channel follows the axis of the road towards the ring road in Douai. The paleoenvironmental evolution of the site was documented using multi-proxy analyses at high resolution, with the malacology and palynology data showing a significant potential to reconstruct the paleoenvironment of the site. Furthermore, the excavation located four areas of high archaeological potential for the preservation of human occupation, and confirmed the presence of hominins in Waziers during the Eemian. Thus, it was proved that Neanderthals indeed walked in Waziers, and not only once. This finding is important because Waziers is the second site in northern France to prove the presence of Neanderthals and renews the northern limit of Neanderthal occupation during the Last Interglacial (Hérisson et al. 2017, 49–50).

2.2.2 Excavation in 2017

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2014–2015 excavation, close to the A21 motorway exit (fig. 2). One of the main objectives of this campaign was to transect the axis of the channel in order to understand the riverbed, and the width of the overflows and the connection with the bank. Another important objective was to deduce possible human occupation at the bank; excavating the possible archaeological level is crucial. The third objective was to continue reconstructing the paleoenvironment, even though it had previously been reconstructed, because the new data from the 2017 excavation could be used to supplement previous studies (Hérisson et al. 2017, 57–58).

Figure 1. Location of the 2017 excavation (Hérisson et al. 2017, 65)

2.2.2.1 Fauna

In the 2017 excavation, vertebrate bones and teeth were excavated. There were 62 pieces altogether, with most of the animal remains taken from US 6, followed by US 7. These two levels were dominated by duck, although red deer, turtle, and small birds were also present. Only one aurochs piece was found in US 12: a humeral diaphysis fragment with a helicoidal fracture, which could indicate butchery activity, as it is assumed that hominins fractured bones to extract marrow. Besides these animals, the remains of horse, proboscidean, and elephant were also found. The animal remains found in the 2017 excavation were similar to those found in previous excavations and indicate a temperate climate with tree vegetation. Some of the animal remains, such as the aurochs bone, suggest that

there was

human

occupation at the bank. This aurochs piece was not the only animal remain with anthropogenic marks on it. In the excavation of 2014, a frontal fragment from an

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aurochs was found in the bulk sample, and featured cutting streaks resulting from stripping activities intended to separate the skin from the bones. Thus, the aurochs bone from the 2017 excavation campaign, together with the aurochs bone from the 2014 excavation campaign, reinforced that there had been human occupation in Waziers (Hérisson et al. 2017, 98–101).

2.2.2.2 wood

Wood remains are well-preserved because of the waterlogged environment. Woody material collected from the 2014 and 2015 excavations comprised of fragments of branches, trunks and barks in different size (Hérisson et al. 2017, 105). The wood assemblage contributes to the reconstruction of palaeoenviroment. 1600 pieces were collected from the 2014 and 2015 excavations, among which 117 are isolated bark and 1456 are wood pieces. 237 wood pieces were selected according to the following macroscopic criteria: presence of surface removal, presence of the morphology of that may result from intentional modification of raw material and presence of other types of potential intentional macro-traces (Hérisson et al. 2017, 109-110). It is noteworthy that the morphology of the wood heap and the presence of two beaver skeletons indicate that beavers maybe built dams in the river so some traces on the wood remains may result from the activities of beavers (Hérisson et al. 2017, 105).

2.2.2.3 Lithic Industry

Lithic artefacts excavated from the 2017 excavation campaign were rare, perhaps due to taphonomic processes. Of those found, two pieces were in US 20, another two in US 200, one piece in US 7, and another in US 12. These lithic artefacts indicate the possibility of human occupation in the south-eastern trench and the extension of the trench. If more lithic artefacts are found in this area, the hypothesis regarding human occupation on the south-eastern riverbank may be proved. The artefacts found in US 200 indicate more recent human occupation in this area, perhaps during the Last Interglacial (Hérisson et al. 2017, 115).

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3. Early hominin occupation of Northwestern Europe

To begin, a clarification of the relationship between the following terms is necessary, as these terms will be mentioned frequently throughout this thesis: the Last Interglacial, the Eemian, and Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5e. The Last Interglacial is usually considered to be an interval period. During this period, climate was as warm and warmer than today and it was also more humid. This period is represented by MIS 5e, when the global ice volume is low and the sea level is high (Kukla et al. 2002). The MIS 5 is divided into five subdivisions. They are presented by 5a to 5e (Shackleton 1969, 137–138), which can be applied to benthic oxygen isotope records from almost all areas of the ocean (Shackleton

et al. 2003, 151). The MIS 5e began 130,000 years ago and ended 116,000 years

ago; the peak of MIS 5e was 125,000 years ago (Kukla 2000, 987). The term Eemian has been widely used in lithostratigraphic, chronostratigraphic, and biostratigraphic aspects to refer to the Last Interglacial period in Western Europe (Turner 2002, 41). This interglacial period is named differently according to place. For instance, in Britain it is referred to as “Ipswichian” and in France is known as “Luhe” or “Ribains” (Turner 2000, 217). The association between the MIS 5e and the Eemian stage has been widely agreed based on various evidence (Shackleton

et al. 2003, 151). However, recent research shows that these two stratigraphic

entities are not entirely equivalent (Kukla 2000; Shackleton et al. 2003). It was recognised that the base of the Eemian is much younger than the base of MIS 5 and falls in the isotopic plateau of MIS 5e. The palynological record showed that the termination of the Eemian Interglacial in Portugal occurs in MIS 5d (Shackleton et al. 2003, 151). In this thesis, the Eemian, Last Interglacial, and

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MIS 5e generally refer to the same period, although there is a difference between the definitions of these terms and their borders, which are slightly different.

The early hominin occupation in Europe is one of the most debated topics in archaeology. When did the earliest hominins arrive in Europe and how did they disperse across the continent? Such questions are always controversial, and it is difficult to reach agreement (Roebroeks and Van Kolfschoten 1994, 489). In Britain, up until the 1970s, hominin occupation was thought to be semi-continuous from the earliest human occupation (Ashton and Lewis 2002, 388). Due to refinements in dating and biostratigraphy and the adoption of oxygen isotope sequencing, it has been assumed that hominins were present in Britain from at least MIS 13 (Roberts et al. 1995). The possible absence of hominins during MIS 5e – based on a lack of artefacts and mammal fauna assemblages (Ashton and Lewis 2002, 388) – has been discussed in recent decades (Wymer 1988, 91–92). Besides this, the reconsideration of the faunal record of the latter part of MIS 5 and the subsequent MIS 4 also showed that there was no evidence of human presence during that period. Evidence for human presence during MIS 6 is still required, so there might be a human absence spanning MIS 6 to MIS 4 in Britain, which means there might be a gap in the human record in Britain (Jacobi

et al. 1998, 41). Thus, the late Middle Pleistocene in Britain was viewed as a

‘deserted Britain’ because of the declining population during that period.

Different reasons for human absence in Britain during the Last Interglacial have been discussed. Aston and Lewis (2002, 391–393) and Ashton (2002, 93) stated that there were two potential factors that could explain the obvious human absence in Britain from MIS 6 to MIS 4. The first factor was the combination of sea-level and climatic factors; that is, the climate in MIS 6 was too harsh for hominin survival. Besides this, the isolation of Britain from the continental mainland during MIS 5e is also important in understanding the apparent human absence during the Last Interglacial (White and Schreve 2001, 1). Two critical factors associated with the isolation of Britain from the continental mainland are: (a) the opening of the Dover Strait; and (b) the rate of sea-level rise (Ashton and Lewis 2002, 392). When the land bridge was removed, the rate of sea-level rise was extraordinarily important because, had the sea-level been higher than the seabed, hominins could not have migrated from continental Europe to the British Isles (Briant et al. 2018, 1). Research based on new data from the Channel region

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provides evidence to support the sea-level rise hypothesis (Briant et al. 2018). The multidisciplinary research – including thin section analysis, optically stimulated luminescence dating, pollen analysis, plant macrofossil analysis, molluscan analysis, coleopteran analysis, ostracod and foraminiferal analysis, diatom analysis, and AAR analyses – indicates that the early sea-level rise began during the pre-temperate vegetation zone IpI. These results are consistent with the ‘window of opportunity’ and the assumption that human occupation in Britain during the Last Interglacial was small (Briant et al. 2018). The harsh climate coincided with the isolation of Britain from the continental mainland, which might have caused the human absence from MIS 6 to MIS 4 (Ashton and Lewis 2002, 392).

The other factor is the combination of climatic changes and habitat preferences of humans in the Middle Palaeolithic. It is stated that the earliest humans occupying Northwestern Europe preferred the warmer climate; however, hominins began to adapt better to the more open and cooler environment. Developments in technology and hunting strategies made human occupation in more open and cooler environments successful (Ashton and Lewis 2002, 392–393). Hominins adapted to the environment of Eastern Europe better, and so were absent in Britain (Ashton 2002, 97). Sites in Britain from MIS 8 to MIS 7 show these changes in habitat preference (Ashton and Lewis 2002, 392). Sites in Northwestern Europe also show a paucity of human occupation during MIS 5e. For example, in a review of Roebroeks and Tuffreau (1999, 127), it is shown that there are only nine sites in the Eemian, which seems a low number regardless of the short duration of the Eemian stage.

Another explanation given for the discontinuity of human occupation is taphonomy. Few Interglacial hominin occupation deposits were preserved because of taphonomic processes, and few sedimentary basins were formed during the Interglacial because of glaciation. This could explain human absence in Britain during the Last Interglacial (Turner 2000, 220).

Various evidence has proved that hominins were absent from Britain during the MIS 5e, and several possible explanations have been offered for this. However, hominins were present in Northwestern Europe during the same period. One obvious feature of archaeological records in continental Northwestern Europe is the presence of fluvial deposits. They are often preserved in the form of terrace

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sequence (Tuffreau and Antoine 1995, 147). Paleolithic Northwestern Europe is at the edge of the hominin occupation range because of the geographic location of Northwestern Europe (Roebroeks et al. 2011, 113). The earliest human occupation deposits in Northwestern Europe are no older than MIS 15, and the lithic assemblages dated older than MIS 9 are Acheulean (Tuffreau and Antoine 1995, 159). During the past two decades, rich evidence has been found to support the presence and absence of Neanderthals in some large-scale rescue excavations of Late Pleistocene and Middle Paleolithic sites in northern France. More than 50 sites were excavated in the valleys between the River Seine and the River Meuse. Evidence in northern France shows that the human occupation in Northwestern Europe was deserted (Roebroeks et al. 2011, 114–115).

4. Plant macrofossils from Waziers Coupe 1 Partie 1.

4.1 Methodology

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Material for this thesis was taken from the 2017 Waziers excavation campaign. Remains were excavated from the profile Coupe 1 Partie 1 (fig. 3; fig. 4) in 2017 and stored in a refrigerator in Leiden University, The Netherlands. The samples were kept in low temperature to prevent fungal damage.

Figure 3. Waziers Coupe 1 Partie 1 (photo taken by Dr. Field, 2017)

Figure 4. stratigraphic sequence of Waziers Coupe 1 Partie 1 (after note of Dr. Field, 2017)

4.1.2 Procedure of experiments

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The first step of the experiment was sieving. Subsamples were collected from sample bags and then soaked in water in a bucket for a duration of one or two days. In order to more easily separate the plant remains from the soil, detergent was added to the water. After one or two days, the samples were ready to be sieved.

Four sieves were used. From largest to smallest, the sizes of the four sieves were: 1 mm, 500 μm, 250 μm, and 100 μm. The sieves were placed in this order to avoid any loss of plant remains. If, after the first sieving, the plant remains were not separated from the soil entirely, then the sample would be soaked with detergent for another couple of days, and then sieved for a second or third time.

4.1.2.2 Picking plant remains

Since this study is the ‘treasure hunt’ of the sample, there was no need to pick all the plant remains found from the sample. Treasure hunt only shows the taxa present but it is not concentration data. Usually, approximately 20 well-preserved fossils would be picked and put in a petri dish with a piece of filter paper. A preserving solution consisting of 1/3 water, 1/3 alcohol, and 1/3 glycerine

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was dropped onto the filter paper in order to preserve the picked plant remains. Alcohol was used to prevent the fungal damage, as well as glycerine to keep the plant remains moist. In order to better preserve the plant remains, the preserving solution was reapplied often to prevent the petri dish from becoming dry.

4.1.2.3 Identification

After finishing picking the planr remains, the identification of the plants began with the help of Dr M. H. Field. Modern reference and plant atlas were used when identifying.

4.1.2.4 Tubing

After identification and recording result, the picked plant remains were placed in glass tubes. A preserving solution was also put in the tubes to preserve the plant remains.

4.2 Results

The results of the treasure hunt can be found in Table 1 (below). Because this study was the treasure hunt of the plant macrofossils, not all plant macrofossils were picked. Of those that were abundant, 20 to 30 well-preserved plants were picked. Of those plants that were sparse, all were picked. The quantity of plant remains was not calculated. Detailed information can be found in the chart below: ‘+’ means present, while ‘-’ means absent. BA3 archaeobotany specialisation students from Leiden University counted the quantity of plant remains from Coupe 1 Partie 1. They picked all the plant remains from the samples and counted them. They got the concentration data and made the diagram by the software Tilia. Thus, their results can be for reference (Table 2).

All analysed plant remains were divided into four categories according to the ecology of the plants: aquatic, waterside and damp ground, woodland and shade tolerant, and unclassified. Unclassified plants included those that have very broad habitats and plants that can only be identified only to species and the different species in the genus have very different ecology and other plants that cannot be divided into those three categories for some reasons. Not every plant could be identified by its species; approximately 1/3 of the plants could only be identified by their genera. The ecology of those that could only be identified by genera could not be understood exactly because the ecology of different species in one genus can also be very different. Thus, the information that could be gathered from the plant macrofossils was limited. For some species, more than one kind of plant part

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Table 2. Quantity of plant macrofossils in Waziers C1 P1 (Luke Oomen (BA3 student) Leiden University) 4.3 Ecology of plants. 0 5 1 0 15 2 0 2 5 30 35 4 0 45 50 5 5 60 65 7 0 75 80 8 5 9 0 95 10 0 Dep th 20 5 5 5 5 20 40 60 80 5 1 0 50 10 0 15 0 5 5 5 10 0 20 0 30 0 40 0 5 50 0 10 00 20 40 20 20 40 50 0 10 00 20 20 5 50 10 0 15 0 50 0 10 00 5 20 5 W oo dl an d an d sh ad e to le ra nt G ra ss la nd , d is tu rb ed a nd o pe n gr ou nd W at er si de a nd d am p gr ou nd A qu at ic U nc la ss ifi ed D ia gr am o f a m o u nt p er p la n t s p ec ie s fr om W az ie rs s ite W az ie rs , F ra nc e P la nt M ac ro fo ss il P ro fil e 1, P ar tie 1 F os si ls p er 2 00 cm 3 Li th ol og y

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4.3.1 Aquatic. Characeae sp.

Many of the oospores of Characeae sp. were found in Waziers Coupe 1 Partie 1. Oospores of Characeae were abundant in samples 13–22, 22–42, 42–62, and 62–73, and present in level 87–100. The oospores found did not belong to only one species, since the sizes of the oospores were significantly different. White CaCO3 coating was sometimes found covering the oospores.

Large numbers of oospores of Characeae can often be found in lake depositions, especially when these deposits are in pioneer conditions (Mauquoy and Van Geel 2007, 2324). Since large numbers of Characeae oospores can often be found in archaeological contexts, Characeae can be helpful in reconstructing a paleoenvironment. The presence of Characeae oospores can reflect vegetation patterns, water quality, climate impact on aquatic vegetation, water clarity, eutrophication gradients, water temperature, and other important information (Haas 1994, 232). If the Characeae species could be accurately identified, more precise information would be known; however, the oospores of the Characeae were not identified by species in this study, and so their ecology cannot be guaranteed. Haas (1994, 233) listed the habitat of the charophyte species in Central Europe. What can be learnt from Haas’ s summery is that the habitats of different charophyte vary, and that the pH values of the water bodies of different species also differ (Haas 1994, 234). In addition, phosphorus is a crucial factor in the growth of Characeae in that it cannot grow in any water type with a high value of total phosphorus (Haas 1994, 232).

Groenlandia densa

Endocarps of G. densa were only present in sample 13–22. Groenlandia is a monotypic genus related to Potamogeton (Guo and Cook 1990, 283). The endocarp of Groenlandia is similar to that of Potamogeton when viewed under a microscope. The habitat of G. densa is broad: it has freshwater habitats, including swift streams, ponds, and ditches. Generally, it grows in calcareous water (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1989, 448).

Hippuris vulgaris

H. vulgaris was present in levels 13–22, 22–42, and 42–62. The quantity was

abundant. The habitat of H. vulgaris is broad: it is usually aquatic and grows in freshwater habitats, but sometimes it lives in mud, ponds, and slow-flowing

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rivers, especially base-rich habitats (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1989, 266).

Lemna sp.

Lemna is a genus of free-floating aquatic plants in the Lemnaceae family. It

usually inhabits stagnant or slow-flowing and nutrient-rich waters, and grows in tropical and temperate zones. The temperature range of the habitats is from 6°C to 33°C and the optimal pH value range is weak acid, neutral, and slightly alkaline waters, from approximately 5.5 to 7.5 (Mkandawire and Dudel 2007, 57).

Myriophyllum cf. alterniflorum / Myriophyllum sp.

M. cf. alterniflorum and Myriophyllum sp. were only present in sample

13–22. Their quantities were small. M. alterniflorum inhabits freshwater and generally survives in base-poor peaty soils (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1989, 266). As for chemical ecology, M. alterniflorum survives in moderately acid, neutral, and slightly alkaline waters (Hutchison 1970, 1).

Potamogeton cf. freii/ Potamogeton pectinatus/ Potamogeton sp.

There were three species of Potamogentons genus in all the samples. The plant part of Potamogeton usually found in archaeological contexts is the endocarp. The positions of the beak and top of the lid and the cell pattern are key to identifying the species of Potamogeton. The distance between the lid and beak of P. pectinatus is large and the lid never reaches the top of the endocarp. Among them, endocarps of Potamogeton cf. freii and Potamogeton sp. were only sparsely present in samples 13–22 and 22–42. Endocarps of P. pectinatus were present in samples 13–22, 22–42, and 42–62. The quantity of P. pectinatus was relatively large.

The habitat of P. pectinatus is broad. It can survive in both brackish water and fresh water. It can also inhabit both running and standing water and water bodies with different trophic status. It can be found in rivers, ponds, canals, and ditches. In general, P. pectinatus can survive under many different environmental conditions (Van Wijk 1988, 212; Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1989, 448; Kantrud 1990, 18).

Salvinia natans

S. natans is an annual aquatic free-floating fern usually found growing in

sub-tropical and warm sub-oceanic temperate climates (Zutshi and Vass 1971, 306; Święta-Musznicka et al. 2011, 370). In this study, S. natans was represented by microspores which were only present in sample 62–73. The quantity was not

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large. There are two types of spores of S. natans: microspores and macrospores, since S. natans is pteridophyte with a heterosporous life history, but macrospores were not found in this study. They were most likely absent due to taphonomic reasons. Sporocarps are produced when water temperature is high. When the weather becomes cold, sporocarps detach and float on the surface of water. In Winter, the side channels of lakes usually become dry, and so sporocarps will be stranded in mud until the following Spring. Microsporangia are released in late Winter, while macrosporangia are released only when microsporangia are entirely released (Zutshi and Vass 1971, 306). However, macrospores were not seen in this sample.

The distribution of S. natans ranges from North China to India and Southern and Central Europe to North Africa. It mainly grows in the drainage basins of large rivers, oxbow lakes, ditches, channels, and shallow and slowly-flowing rivers. Generally, the habitat of S. natans is broad, but it prefers shallow, calm, and eutrophic waters with thick, organic substrate layers in the bottom of the sediment (Święta-Musznicka et al. 2011, 370).

Zannichellia palustris

Z. palustris is a shallow-rooted species. It grows its rhizomes near sediment

surfaces without contacting the deeper stable substrate (Spencer and Ksander 2002, 139). Z. palustris was represented by fruit in the samples. Fruit morphology is the main characteristic when identifying the species of Zannichellia taxa (Van Vierssen 1982, 152). Z. palustris fruit was present in samples 13–22, 22–42, and 42–62 with a very large quantity in samples 13–22 and 22–42. It is usually found in moving or still freshwater habitats or brackish water pools, and often in eutrophic waters. The character of flowers and fruits are very variable (Jupp and Spence 1977, 180; Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1989, 450).

4.3.2 Waterside and damp ground

Berula erecta

B. erecta was represented by fruit in this sample. It was present in samples

62–73 and 87–100. The quantity was small. It usually grows in shallow and fresh water. Occasionally, it grows along lake margins and usually inhabits calcareous soils (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1989, 272).

Cladium mariscus

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was not small. C. mariscus is a kind of coarse perennial sedge that usually grows in temperate to subtropical climates and is helophytic, basicolous, and intolerant of shade. It will die off when bushes invade because it cannot tolerate shade, but this happens gradually. It inhabits calcium-rich and nutrient-poor shallow-water zones in lakes and ponds, and prefers peak or mineral soils that are rich in organic matters. Water table is an essential factor to C. mariscus: the water table of the habitat of C. mariscus should be higher than its root, but water table that is above soil level is not favourable. C. mariscus requires a pH value of 6.0 or higher (Conway 1942, 211–213).

Lycopus europaeus

L. europaeus was only found in sample 42–62. Only two fruits were found.

The quantity was very small. The habitat of L. europaeus is broad, including wet habitats, wet woodlands, marshes, streams, pools, canal margins, dykes, and ditches (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1989, 342).

Mentha cf. aquatica

M. cf. aquatica fruit was found in samples 62–73, 73–87, and 87–100. The

quantity in sample 62–73 was large but decreased in samples 73–87 and 87–100.

M. aquatica grows in swampy habitats. Ranunculus sceleratus

R. sceleratus was represented by achene in this study, and was present in all

five samples. The quantity was always small. The habitat of R. sceleratus is very broad. It can grow in wet meadows, marshes, the margins of slow-moving streams, shallow ponds, rivers, and lakes in muddy places. It is often found near coasts, in fertile mineral-rich or alluvial soils (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1989, 116).

Scirpus lacustris

S. lacustris fruit was present in samples 62–42, 62–73, and 87–100. The

quantity of the fruit was small. S. lacustris grows in streams, shallow, stagnant waters, and back swamps. It also inhabits the transitional zone between water and land (Clevering et al. 1996, 294–295).

Sparganium erectum

S. erectum fruit was only present in sample 62–73. S. erectum usually grows

in or by areas of permanent water. It does not grow on or by the bank of large lakes because it is intolerant of the wave action of large lakes. Also, it does not

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grow in deep shade. It is also found in shallow, slowly-flowing waters, but cannot be found in deep, fast-flowing waters. In general, the habitat of S. erectum includes the banks of rivers and canals, ditches, marshlands, and edges of lakes and ponds (Cook 1962, 248–250; Mauquoy and Van Geel 2007, 2321).

Thalictrum flavum

T. flavum was represented by fruit in this study, and was present in samples

13–22 and 22–42. The quantity of the fruit was small. The habitat of T. flavum is wet, grassy habitats. It grows in meadows, fens, marshes, rivers, and stream margins. It usually inhabits base-rich or calcareous soils (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1989, 112).

Typha sp.

Numerous Typha sp. seeds were found in samples 42–62, 62–73, and 73–87. These seeds were only identifiable by genus. The Typha taxa produce numerous wind-dispersed seeds. Thus, the quantity presented in the sample does not indicate local presence of this genus (Mauquoy and Van Geel 2007, 2321). Typha are semi-aquatic plants – one of the first plants to grow in wetland in the early phase of the vegetation cycle of marsh (Van der Valk and Davis 1978, 334).

4.3.3 Woodland and shade tolerant

There was only one woodland and shade tolerant taxon found in the samples: Betula sp. It was only identifiable by genus. Both catkin scale and seed of Betula sp. were found in this study. The wings on the fruit were not always well-preserved. Sometimes, fragments of the wings could be seen on the fruit from this sample. The catkin scale was present in samples 13–22 and 22–42. The seed was present in samples 13–22, 22–42, 42–62, and 87–100. However, the quantity of both plant parts was small. Betula species are always deciduous trees. Males and females are separated on the same plant and Betula are wind-pollinated (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 1989, 54). Their size varies from small shrubs to medium-sized trees, and they prefer open habitat. They are always linked to plant communities characteristic of early successional stages (Palo 1984, 500–501). The habitat of different Betula species differs from each other.

Besides the catkin scales and seeds of Betula sp., the other plant in this category was the tree bud, present in sample 22–42. Only a few tree buds were found, which could not be identified by any taxa.

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Carex sp.

Different parts of Carex sp. were found in the samples, including the nutlet, biconverse nutlet, and nutlet with utricle. In table 2, the different parts were recorded separately. Different Carex parts were present in different samples. In general, Carex sp. were present in samples 13–22, 22–42, 42–62, and 87–100. The quantity was not very large. Some Carex remains were not well-preserved. None of the Carex species were identifiable, because the identifiable characteristics were not well-preserved. There are approximately 2,000 species in the genus

Carex L., which are distributed worldwide. It is the largest genus of Cyperaceae

(Reznicek 1990, 1409; Jiménez-Mejías and Martinetto 2013, 1580). The ecology of different Carex species is different. Since the Carex parts cannot be identified as species, their ecology cannot be known.

Cenococcum geophilum

Sclerotia of Cenococcum geophilum were found in the samples. The size of sclerotium was various. The surfaces of some were rough, while the surfaces of others were glossy. Sclerotium of Cenococcum geophilum was present in all samples, except sample 87–100. Cenococcum geophilum is perhaps the most well-known ectomycorrhizal fungus in the world, and is widely distributed worldwide. When facing environmental pressure, Cenococcum geophilum will produce enough sclerotia that it can be considered a kind of dormant propagules, and can then be readily extracted from the earth. The sclerotia show competitive advantages in heat, cold, and drought-stressed contexts for an ectomycorrhizal fungus (Massicotte et al. 1992, 125). Thus, sclerotium is one crucial part in the whole life-cycle of the ectomycorrhizal fungus.

cf. Dyopteris sp.

cf. Dyopteris sp. was represented by sporangium in the samples. Sporangia of cf. Dyopteris were present in samples 62–73, 73–87, and 87–100. The quantity of the sporangia was large. The genus Dyopteris is considered to the most complicated pteridophyte. There are 1,458 accepted and unassessed names of species occurring worldwide on almost every continent, including tropical, temperate, and boreal regions. Their high level of hybridisation and apomixis result in the complexity of genus Dyopteris. Thus, the taxonomy and identification of this genus is difficult and sometimes problematic (Melovski 2016, 85). Also, the habitats and morphologies of species in this genus are very diverse; the habits

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of some species are very restricted, while others can grow across nearly the whole range of this genus. Most species in genus Dyopteris are terrestrial, and several species are epiphytes (Sessa et al. 2012, 730–731).

4.4 Reconstruction of the paleoenvironment

Environmental characteristics of aquatic habitats significantly influence aquatic plants. Species occurrence, life-history traits, and community dynamics are all impacted by changes in abiotic factors, including light, temperature, water nutrient content, substrate characteristics, water movement, disturbance, etc (Bornette and Puijalon 2011, 1). In turn, through the study of plants, an environmental situation can be known.

Six samples were taken from US 2 and US 7 separately. Sample 13–22 was taken from unit US 2, while sample 87–100 was taken from unit US 7. From the table, a clear trend can be seen. Many aquatic plants were present in samples 13–22 and 33–42, which indicates the aquatic environment of unit US 2 and unit US 3. Among them, oospores of Characeae sp. and fruits of Zannichellia palustris comprise the majority of all plant remains in these two samples. Zannichellia

palustris and Characeae sp. can both inhabit freshwater. The habitats of some

aquatic plants found in this study are quite broad, and these plants are able to grow in different environments. For instance, Potamogeton pectinatus can live in both brackish and fresh waters. However, after considering the ecology of all the aquatic plants, the environments in units US 2 and US 3 would likely have been freshwater bodies. Additionally, the presence of Betula sp. indicates that they were open environments and that there might have been small shrubs beside the water bodies.

The data of sample 42–62 indicate changes in environment within unit US 4. In the treasure hunt study, there is no obvious change in the absence or presence of aquatic plants, as there were still large numbers of oospores of Characeae sp., which indicates the existence of a water body. However, table 2 shows that the amount of Zannichellia palustris decreased enormously. Thalictrum flavum is also not found in this sample. Additionally, more waterside plants were present in this sample, such as Lycopus europaeus, Scirpus lacustris, and Typha sp. The habitat of Lycopus europaeus is quite broad, and so its presence suggests a wet environment. The presence of Scirpus lacustris indicates that the water body in the site during this period would have been shallow. The presence of numerous

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Typha sp. indicates that it was a wetland environment.

In sample 62–73, Hippuris vulgaris and Zannichellia palustris were not present. Although Characeae sp. was still present in this sample, the volume study shows that the number of oospores of Characeae sp. largely decreased and the quantity was small. The species and quantity of aquatic plants show a declining trend. However, new species of aquatic plants were present in this sample. The presence of Lemna sp. indicates slow-flowing water. Additionally, microspores of

Salvinia natans were present in this sample, which also indicates shallow and

slow-flowing water bodies. Lemna sp. and Salvinia natans both prefer nutrient-enriched contexts. On the other hand, newer species of waterside and damp ground plants increased in this sample, including Berula erecta, Mentha cf.

aquatica, and Sparganium erectum. At the same time, the Ranunculus sceleratus, Scirpus lacustris, and Typha sp. present in the last sample were still present in this

sample. The continuous presence of these plants indicates that the environment during this period remained wet, but with a trend towards woodland. Additionally, many cf. Dyropteris sp. sporangia were found in this sample, which also indicates a terrestrial environment. However, Betula sp. was not found.

In sample 73–87, obvious changes could be seen. Firstly, all of the aquatic plants that were found in previous samples became absent in this one. Only a few

Hippuris vulgaris and Salvinia natans were found in the volume study. Berula erecta, Scirpus lacustris, and Sparganium erectum were no longer present in this

sample; however, Ranunculus sceleratus, Mentha cf. aquatica, and Typha sp. were still present. Cladium mariscus began to be present in this sample, the quantity of which was not small. The presence of these waterside and damp ground plants indicates that the environment of the site during this period was still wet, and that a shallow and slowly-flowing water body possibly still existed; that is, it was not a totally terrestrial environment. The quantity of sporangia of cf. Dryopteris sp. was still large which indicates a possible terrestrial environment.

In the last sample (87–100), nearly no aquatic plant remains were found other than a few oospores of Characeae. As for the waterside plants, Berula

erecta, Cladium mariscus, Mentha cf. aquatica, Ranunculus sceleratus, and Scirpus lacustris were present in this sample. However, the quantities of these

plants were small except for Cladium mariscus. The presence of the waterside and damp ground plants means that the environment in the site during this period was

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still wet and there may have been a shallow and slow-flowing body of water. At the same time, the quantity of sporangia of cf. Dryopteris was still large. The decrease in the variety and quantity of aquatic plants and waterside plants, together with the large number of sporangia of cf. Dryopteris sp., indicates a continuing decrease of the water body and the increase of land.

In conclusion, the presence and absence of plant remains in the site show an obvious trend in the change and relationship between water and land. Initially, aquatic plants were abundant and varied, while the variety and quantity of waterside plants were much less than those of aquatic plants. Then, waterside plants began to increase while, at the same time, aquatic plants began to decease. In the last two samples, aquatic plants were almost absent, and waterside plants also decreased. Thus, we can see a transition from river to cut-off channel, and finally to woodland. During the process, more and more sediment deposited in the river, which made the river more shallow and narrow. The animal assemblages in US 6 and US 7 also indicate a temperate climate with tree vegetation. During the entire period, the environment of the site was always wet and more open than dense.

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5. Discussion

The botanical data indicate the change of environment at Waziers. An apparent trend can be seen that the river became more and more narrow and shallow because the sediments deposited in the river. Also, beaver remains and wood heap that might be dam were found at Waziers, which maybe indicate the dam-built activities of beavers. This can also support the existence of water body in this area. Besides, activities of beavers can also influence the water body.

It has been proved that humans were absent from Britain while, at the same time, present in Northwestern Europe during the MIS 5e. According to excavation reports from Waziers, different kinds of evidence exist to support theories regarding human occupation in Waziers during the Last Interglacial. Firstly, zooarchaeological records may prove human activity. An aurochs piece with anthropogenic marks (found in US 12) indicates butchery activity by humans. Additionally, cutting streaks on an aurochs bone, found in the bulk sample from the 2014 excavation campaign, are also considered to be anthropogenic. The zooarchaeological record is well-preserved because of the aquatic context. These two aurochs bones provide evidence to support theories of human occupation on the riverbank (Hérisson et al. 2017, 98–101). In addition to the animal remains, lithic artefacts and wood pieces with anthropogenic marks also support probable human occupation in Waziers. It is noteworthy that, although archaeological records have been found in this site, no human remains were found, and so it is difficult to determine what kind of hominins occupied this area. It has been suggested that the hominins present in this area were Neanderthals; however, more robust evidence is needed to prove this theory.

It has been suggested that hominins may have occupied the riverbank in Waziers (Hérisson et al. 2017), located in northern France. Northwestern Europe is almost at the edge of Pleistocene hominin occupation range. In order to

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understand the land-use patterns, environment, and ecology of Pleistocene hominins, it would be necessary to discuss why they chose to occupy Waziers, and what they did on the riverbank. Neanderthals, for example, have been found in very different environmental contexts, and their land-use patterns vary according to different periods in which they faced different climates (Richter 2006, 17-18). During the Last Interglacial, the archaeological sites are rare in Europe. In Central Europe, approximately 30 Eemian archaeological sites have been found (Richter 2006, 18). Archaeological sites in Northwestern Europe are also rare because hominins were absent from Britain during the Last Interglacial. Eastern European archaeological sites dating from this period are also rare and questionable (Richter 2006, 18). In Northwestern Europe, much of the evidence of human occupation and lithic assemblages relate to the river deposits during the Early and Middle Pleistocene (Despriée et al. 2011, 1474). Archaeological sites dating back to the Eemian Interglacial are mostly preserved in travertine and caves; however, they are rarer in lake basins, river deposits, beach deposits, and volcanic deposits (Richter 2006, 18).

Waziers is at the margin of the Pleistocene hominin occupation margin. Until the 2000s, the first archaeological site in northern France during the Last Interglacial had not been found. The Cauors is a newly found tufa sequence in the River Somme basin in northern France. Animal remains with anthropogenic marks (i.e. systematic breaking of long bone and cut marks) were found in different layers in the Cauors, proving this site the first record of human occupation during the Last Interglacial (Antoine et al. 2006, 281).

Waziers is the second archaeological site located in northern France, to the north of Cauors, to show evidence of human occupation during the Last Interglacial. Defining the geographic and environmental limits of early hominins is of great importance, as it indicates an ability on their part to survive in different ecosystems and to find new ways to exploit resources (Sier et al. 2015, 149). Thus, Waziers contributes new information for understanding the geographic limits of hominin occupation range during the Last Interglacial. Evidence from Waziers shows that early hominins were not present in northern France during the Last Interglacial exceptionally; the case of Caours is no exception. Evidence from both Waziers and Caours show that early hominins were able to survive in the environments of Northwestern Europe during the Last Interglacial. The discovery

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of the site at Waziers has expanded the presumed northern limit of hominin occupation during the Last Interglacial, and may support the theory that hominins were absent in Britain but present in Northwestern Europe at that time because of raised sea-levels.

In addition, botanical data gathered from the site showing changes in environment in Waziers provides information about hominin activity during the Last Interglacial. In unit US 7, the environment was similar to woodland or forest with river. The aurochs pieces showing probable butchery and stripping marks may suggest the nature of human activities at the riverbank. Besides the aurochs pieces, remains of other big herbivores were also found in Waziers. Furthermore, lithic artefacts were found during both the 2014 and 2017 excavation campaigns. Wood pieces collected in 2014 and 2015 excavations have anthropogenic marks. All the evidence indicates that early hominins may have occupied the riverbank in order to process the big game from hunting.

Evidence from the early and mid-Eemian shows that early hominins hunted, trapped, and scavenged for animals at lakesides and springs (Richter 2006, 19). Zooarchaeological studies show that Neanderthals, for example, were efficient hunters who focused on big mammals and paid little attention to small game. Their trophic position was very high, and hunting was their main means of subsistence (Roebroeks et al. 2011, 116). Isotopic studies reinforce that herbivores were a primary source of protein for Neanderthals, even during the Last Interglacial (Bocherens et al. 1999, 599). Because they were highly carnivorous and focused on the consumption of medium and large-bodied terrestrial herbivores, the processing of animals was an important activity for Neanderthals.

In the late Early Pleistocene, animal bones with hominin butchery marks, such as cut marks and intentional hammerstone-related marks, were found in the site of Untermassfeld in Germany. This is a fluvial site and the oldest with hominin butchery evidence in Europe mid-latitudes (Landeck and Garriga 2016, 53–54). At the Eemian site of Lehringen in Germany, a wooden thrusting spear was found between the ribs of an elephant skeleton. The elephant remains was proved to be a straight-tusked elephant with butchery marks and was located at the lakeside. In addition to the spear, Levallois lithic artefacts were recovered from alongside the elephant (Thieme 1997, 810). Besides Lehringen, remains of big herbivores featuring butchery marks have also been found in Gröbern and

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Neumark-Nord, with the butchery zones all located near small lakes (Richter 2006, 19–20). Moreover, animal remains with anthropogenic marks (e.g. cut marks) have been found near springs in Eemian sites, such as Veltheim-Steinmühle in northern Germany, Taubach and Burgtonna in central Germany, Stuttgart in southwestern Germany, and Ganovce and Horka-Ondrej in Slovakia. These remains were well-preserved by travertine deposits. In Taubach, forest rhino and bear remains were found that featured abundant cut marks (Richter 2006, 19–20). This evidence shows that butchery activities along the waterside were common among early hominins and the history of these kinds of activities is long. In Europe, these activities began in at least the late Early Pleistocene. Therefore, it is possible that early hominins in Waziers occupied this area and processed hunted animals along the riverside.

It is noteworthy that the lithic artefacts and animal remains discovered in Waziers during the 2017 excavation campaign were not abundant. More evidence is required in order to prove the theories of human occupation and hominin activities in Waziers.

6. Conclusion

As the second site found in northern France dating from the Last Interglacial, the site of Waziers is important for our understanding of the history of human occupation in Northwestern Europe. The results of botanical macrofossil data taken from this area depict environmental changes, made obvious by the presence and absence of aquatic, waterside, and woodland plants. Trends depicting a decrease in aquatic plants and increase in waterside plants, and then waterside plants also decrease, indicate that the river in this area decreased while the land increased. The environment changed from river to woodland, but the presence of aquatic and waterside plants in the last unit suggests that the environment in this area was always wet and contained water bodies.

Lithic artefacts, wood pieces and animal remains show the human occupation in Waziers. This Pleistocene site contains evidence of human occupation in Northwestern Europe during the Last Interglacial, provides crucial

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information in discussions regarding the limits of human occupation in Europe in that it expands the presumed northern limit of early hominin occupation range during the Last Interglacial, and shows that early hominins were able to survive in various ecosystems.

Evidence gathered in Waziers, such as lithic artefacts and plant and animal remains, indicate that early hominin activities in this area likely included processing prey by the riverbank, which served as a butchery zone. However, considering the insufficiency of lithic artefacts and animal bones bearing anthropogenic marks, more evidence and further multidisciplinary studies are required in order to prove these assumptions.

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Abstract

The site of Waziers is a Pleistocene fluvial site located in northern France. Various evidence was gathered as a result of two excavation campaigns –zooarchaeological evidence and lithic artefacts – showing that hominins probably occupied Waziers during the Last Interglacial period. It is the second site in northern France to show evidence of human occupation during the Last Interglacial period. As such, its existence has expanded the presumed northern limit of human occupation in Europe during the Last Interglacial, making it important in discussions relating to the history of human occupation in Northwestern Europe.

This thesis also discussed possible reasons for early hominin absence in Britain, despite their presence in continental Northwestern Europe at the time. The existence of the site of Waziers may prove some previous assumptions. Well-preserved plant remains taken from the site provide useful information about its palaeoenvironment, which was reconstructed in this thesis through the study of plant macrofossils; obvious environmental changes were able to be deduced as a result of a treasure hunt of these plant macrofossils. The environment changed from the river to the woodland with water body. Zooarchaeological evidence and lithic artefacts indicate that there was probably hominin activity in this area and suggest that early hominins processed their prey beside the riverbank.

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List of figures

Figure 1: Location of site of Waziers (Hérisson et al. 2017, 11) 7 Figure 2: Location of the 2017 excavation (Hérisson et al. 2017, 65) 9 Figure 3. Waziers Coupe 1 Partie 1 (photo taken by Dr. Field, 2017) 16 Figure 4. stratigraphic sequence of Waziers Coupe 1 Partie 1 (after note of Dr.

Field, 2017) 17

List of tables

Table 1: Treasure hunt result of Waziers C1 P1 20

Table 2: Quantity of plant macrofossils in Waziers C1 P1 (made by BA3 student, Luke Oomen, Leiden University) 21

Hominin occupation at Waziers, northern France. Reconstruction of the environment at Waziers and hominin activities during the Last Interglacial

Hominin occupation at Waziers, northern France

Reconstruction of the environment at Waziers and hominin activities

during the Last Interglacial

Liangai Shen

Hominin occupation at Waziers, northern France

Reconstruction of the environment at Waziers and hominin activities

during the Last Interglacial

Table of Contents