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S acred tex t a n d im ages in a n Islam ic p ra y e r book. by
A lex an d ra B ain
B. A., Sim on F raser U n iv ersity , 1988 M. A., U niversity o f V ictoria, 1992
A D issertatio n S u b m itted in P a rtia l F u lfillm en t o f th e R equirem ents fo r th e D egree o f
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the D ep artm en t o f H isto ry in A rt W e accept this d isse rta tio n as co n fo rm in g
to the req u ire d sta n d a rd
______________________________________________ Dr. S. A n th o n y VKaïSi, S u p erv iso r (D e p artm en t of H isto ry in A rt)
___________
Dr. N an cy M ick lew rig h t, D ep artm en tal M em b er (D e p artm en t o f H isto ry in A r t ) ____
___________
Dr. Jo h n _ ^ ^ b o m e, D ep artm en tal M em ber (D e p a rtm e n t of H isto ry in A rt)
Dr. H a ro ld C o w a rd , O u tsid e M em ber (D e p artm en t of H istory)
________________________________________________ fere L. B acharach, E xternal E xam iner (D irector, H e n ry Jackson School o f In tern a tio n al S tu d ie s, U n iv e rsity o f W ash in g to n )
© A lexandra B ain, 1999 U n iv ersity o f V icto ria
All rights re se rv e d . T his d issertatio n m ay n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in w hole o r in p art, by p h o to c o p y in g o r o th er m eans, w ith o u t th e p e rm issio n o f th e a u th o r.
11
S u p erv iso r: Dr. S. A n th o n y W elch
ABSTRACT
T he inclusion o f rep resen tatio n al im agery in a sacred context is e x trem ely rare in th e h is to ry of Islam ic art. This d isse rtatio n exam ines the e v o lu tio n o f the O tto m a n En'am-i ^erif, a g ro u p o f m an u scrip ts d a tin g from th e six teen th to the n in e te e n th centuries, in w hich sa cre d text w as
illu m in a ted by sacred a rt. In th e early p erio d , the c o n te n t of these p ray er b o o k s consisted of e n tire ch ap ters of the Q u r'a n a n d v ario u s prayers. In the s e v e n te e n th century, callig rap h ic im ages k n o w n as hilye w ere ad d ed ,
c o n sistin g of textual d escrip tio n s of the P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d 's physical an d m o ra l characteristics. In th e late eig h teen th an d n in e te e n th centuries, rep re se n ta tio n a l im ag es of th e P ro p h et's m antle, h a n d , fo o tp rin t, san d al, sw o rd , a n d other relics w ere in clu d ed for the sake o f th eir baraka, the D ivine g race th a t em anates fro m G od a n d passes to o rd in a ry p eo p le th ro u g h the p ro p h e ts a n d saints, o r th e objects th at th ey touch.
T h at O tto m an Islam w as h eavily influenced b y Sufism is a p p a re n t in th e En'am -i serif. Its callig rap h ers a n d p atro n s w ere m em b ers or affiliates of th e v a rio u s Sufi o rd ers, a n d th ey w ere also freq u en tly h ig h ly placed m em bers o f th e ru lin g class. A t th e sam e tim e th a t the O tto m an s w ere d efen d in g th em selv es ag ain st th e rise of E u ro p ea n n atio n alism , Islam cam e u n d e r a tta c k fro m w ith in as th e W ah h ab i m o v em en t c h alle n g ed the O tto m an su lta n 's role as p ro tecto r of the h o ly cities of M ecca a n d M edina. It is n o t s u rp ris in g th at Sufi callig rap h ers chose this precise m o m e n t to tran sfo rm a sim p le b o o k co n tain in g Q u r'a n ic text a n d p rayers in to a n elaborate
m a n u sc rip t com bining sacred tex t w ith im ages of sa cre d places a n d objects. In a d d itio n to reinforcing th e sp iritu al aspects of Islam th a t h a d com e u n d e r a tta c k fro m the fu n d a m e n ta lis t m o v em en t, the a rtists of th e En'am-i ^erif also m a d e a stro n g p o litical statem en t b y choosing to p re se n t these im ages in su c h a w a y as to h ig h lig h t th e O ttom ans' role as th e rig h tfu l in h erito rs of the calip h ate a n d pro tecto rs of Islam .
D r. S. Antîtcrtty W elch, Supervisor (D epartm ent o f H isto ry in Art)
D r. ] A rt)
D r. N an cy M icklew right, D epartm ental M em ber (D e p artm en t of H istory in
_____________
D r. Jo h n 'O sb o m e , D epartm ental M em ber (D ep artm en t o f H isto ry in Art)
D r. H aro ld C o w ard , O utside M em ber (D epartm ent of H istory)
---Ce^ . Jere L. B acharach, External Exam iner (D irector, H e n ry Jackson School of
TABLE O F C O N TE N T S IV T itle Page A b stra c t T a b le o f C o n ten ts A L ist o f M a n u sc rip ts A L ist o f F ig u res an d P lates G lo ssa ry A c k n o w led g e m en ts D e d ic a tio n p . 1 p . Ü p. iv p . vii p . viii p.xviii p. xxii p. xxiv IN T R O D U C T IO N I. M eth o d o lo g y n . Field w o rk m . C h a p te r outline
IV. A n o te o n d atin g an d tran sliteratio n system s
C H A PT E R O N E - The late eig h teen th -cen tu ry O tto m a n m ilieu. I. In tro d u ctio n
H. In tern a l rev o lt in the em pire: the W ahhabis m . O tto m a n Islam an d Sufism: th e N aq sh b an d is IV. Sufism a n d the O ttom an calligraphers a n d p atro n s C H A PT E R T W O - Prayers a n d p ray e r books.
I. T he concept of baraka a n d tabbaruk H. P ray ers a n d p ray er books in Islam
H. 1. T he Dala'il al-khayrat H. 2. T he E n'am
n . 2a. T he p re-O ttom an En'am
n.
2b. T he sixteenth-century En am p . 1 p . 3 p . 8 p. 13 p. 16 p . 17 p . 18 p. 33 p . 36 p . 42 p . 46 p . 48 p . 49 p . 50 p . 52HI. 1. The 'asma al-husna. p. 59
IE. 2. Zikr p. 61
IV. The late eig h teen th a n d n in eteen th -cen tu ry En'am-i ^erif p. 63
IV. 1. Du'a p. 63
IV. 2. Salawat p. 68
C H A PT ER TH REE - C alligraphic im ages in the E n a m -i $erif\ hilye, muhr a n d the practice of ta 'viz.
I. T he hilye p. 70
n . T he m uhr p. 78
m . The practice o f ta'viz p. 79
IV. The muhr khatim al-nubuzozoat, or the Seal of P ro p h eth o o d p. 94 V. The muhr al-ashab al-kahf,
or th e Seal of the C o m p an io n s of the C ave (the Seal o f th e Seven
Sleepers) p. 96
VI. The muhr shifa'a al-Qur'an, or the Seals of Q ur'anic H ealin g p. 99
VI. 1. The ta'viz u se d a g ain st the evil eye p. 100
VI. 2. The ta'viz u se d a g ain st ülness p. 103
V n. The muhr ofayat al-kursi, o r the Seal of the T hrone V erse p. 107
V m . T he muhr kabir, or the G re at Seal p. 108
DC. T he mulzr o f Im am Ja'far al-Sadiq p. 110
X. T he muhr Siileym an, o r th e Seal of Solom on p. 114
X. 1. The Seal of S o lo m o n /S eal of the N am es of G od p. 116 XI. The muhr o f "Inna Allah 'ala kulli shay'in qadir,"
or "Verily, Allah hath power over all things. " p. 117 Xn. The 'A yn 'ala Allah, or "A n eye u p o n God." p. 118 C H A PT ER F O U R - M in iatu re paintings in the En'am-i ferif.
I. R eligious im ag ery in Islam p. 124
H. E ig hteenth-century O tto m a n pain tin g p. 134
m . The im ages of the En'am -j ^ r if.
m . 1. T he K a'ba a n d th e Prophet's M osque in M edina p. 138
m . la . 12th. C. Pilgrim age certificate p. 138
m . lb . 16th C. Pilgrim age guides p. 139
m . Ic. The Dala'il al-khayrat p. 141
m . I d . The En'am -i ^erif p. 142
m . 2. T he Qadam ^ rifÇ T h e P rophet's Footprint) p. 146 m . 3. Ziilfikar (The P ro p h e t's/'A ll's Sw ord) p. 148
V I
m 4. The Pence ^ r i f (The P ro p h et's H and) p. 150
m . 5. TheM zT (The P ro p h et's Sandal) p. 152
HI. 6. The Mukhallafat ( The P ro p h et's Relics) p. 154 m . 7. The Lizva al-hamd (The P ro p h et's Flag of Praise) p. 158 m . 8. The Sancak-i ^ r i f (The P ro p h et's Sacred Banner) p. 162
C H A PT E R FIVE - Conclusion p. 164
B IB LIO G R A PH Y p. 170
A P PE N D IX I p. 190
A P P E N D IX U p. 347
A LIST O F M A N U SC R IPTS
C atalogue #1: T S M R70, T opkapi Sarayi Library, Istanbul. p. 190 C atalogue #2: N u ri A rlasez 245, S üleym aniye lib ra ry , Istanbul. p. 193 C atalo g u e #3: A yasofya 19/1 M , Süleym aniye L ibrary, Istanbul. p. 195 C atalo g u e #4: A li Em iri A rab i 10, F atih M illet Library, Istanbul. p. 196 C atalogue #5: T S M EH 307, T opkapi S arayi Library, Istanbul. p. 198 C atalo g u e #6: H a sa n H ü s n ü Pasa 103, Süleym aniye L ibrary, Istan b u l. p. 199 C atalogue #7: T S M EH 355, T o p k ap i Sarayi Library, Istanbul. p. 201 C atalogue #8: T S M EH 324, T opkapi Sarayi Library, Istanbul. p. 203 C atalogue #9: T S M EH 322, T opkapi Sarayi Library, Istanbul. p. 205 C atalogue #10: Yazm a B agislar 265, S üleym aniye Library, Istan b u l. p. 208 C atalo g u e #11: T S M EH 365, T o pkapi Sarayi L ibrary, Istanbul. p. 211 C atalo g u e #12: T S M EH 394, T o pkapi Sarayi L ibrary, Istanbul. p. 218 C atalo g u e #13: T S M EH 395, T opkapi Sarayi L ibrary, Istanbul. p. 220 C atalo g u e #14: O R 4251, British M u seu m L ibrary, London. p. 222 C atalo g u e #15: H a le t Ef. 5, S üleym aniye L ibrary, Istanbul. p. 224 C atalogue #16: U V ic 95-014, U. of V ictoria Library, Victoria, B.C. p. 228 C atalo g u e #17: T S M EH 371, T opkapi Sarayi Library, Istanbul. p. 254 C atalo g u e #18: P ertevniyal 43, S üleym aniye Library, Istanbul. p. 257 C atalo g u e #19: lU L 5197, Istanbul U n iv ersity Library, Istanbul. p. 267 C atalogue #20: lU L 6386, Istanbul U n iv ersity Library, Istanbul. p. 284 C atalo g u e #21: lU L 5756, Istanbul U n iv ersity Library, Istanbul. p. 289 C atalogue #22: Ism irli I. H a k k i 1509, Süleym aniye Library, Ista n b u l. p. 298 C atalo g u e #23: T S M YY 874, T opkapi Sarayi Library, Istanbul. p. 300 C atalogue #24: LUL 5573, Istanbul U n iv ersity L ibrary, Istanbul. p. 301 C atalogue #25: D ü g ü m lü B aba 491, Süleym aniye Library, Istan b u l. p. 310 C atalogue #26: S pencer T u rk 9, N e w Y ork PubHc Library, N e w York. p. 318 C atalogue #27: M & A A rab 22, N e w Y ork Public Library, N e w York. p. 330 C atalogue #28: LUL 5619, Istanbul U n iv ersity L ibrary, Istanbul. p. 338
vm
A L IST O F FIGURES A N D PLATES
figmre 1.1. TSM R70, cover p. 364
fig u re 1. 2. TSM R70, £f. lv -2 . p. 364
fig u re 1.3. TSM R70, f. 1. p. 365
fig u re 1.4. TSM R70, ff. 70v-71. p. 365
fig u re 2 .1 . N u ri Arlasez 245, cover p . 366
fig u re 2. 2. N u ri Arlasez 245, ff. lv-2. p. 366
fig u re 2. 3. N u ri Arlasez 245, f. 29v. p. 367
fig u re 3 .1 . Ayasofya 1 9 /1 M , cover p. 368
fig u re 3 .2 . Ayasofya 1 9 / 1 M , ff. lv-2. p . 368
fig u re 3. 3. Ayasofya 1 9 /1 M , f. 21 v. p. 369
fig u re 4 .1 . All Emiri A rabilO, cover p. 370
fig u re 4. 2. Ali Emiri A rabi 10, ff. 129v-130. p. 370
fig u re 5 .1 . TSM EH 307, ff. lv -2 . p. 371
fig u re 6 .1 . H. H üsnü Pasa 103, cover p. 372
fig u re 6. 2. H. H üsnü Pasa 103, ff. lv-2. p. 372 fig u re 6. 3. H. H üsnü Pasa 103, f. 120. p . 373 fig u re 7 .1 . TSM EH 355, cover p. 374 fig u re 7. 2. TSM EH 355, ff. lv -2 . p. 374 fig u re 8 .1 . TSM EH 324, cover p. 375 figure 8. 2. TSM EH 324, ff. lv -2 . p. 375 fig u re 8. 3. TSM EH 324, ff. 38v-39. p. 376 fig u re 9 .1 . TSM EH 322, ff. lv -2 . p. 377 fig u re 9. 2. TSM EH 322, ff. 60v-61. p. 377 fig u re 9. 3. TSM EH 322, ff. 61v-62. p. 378 fig u re 9. 4. TSM EH 322, ff. 62v-63. p. 378 fig u re 9. 5. TSM EH 322, ff. 63v-64. p. 379 fig u re 9. 6. TSM EH 322, ff. 64v-65. p. 379 fig u re 9. 7. TSM EH 322, ff. 65v-66. p. 380
fig u re 10.1. Yazma Bagislar 265, ff. lv-2. p. 381
fig u re 10. 2. Yazma Bagislar 265, ff. 48v-49. p. 381
fig u re 10. 3. Yazma Bagislar 265, ff. 49v-50. p. 382
fig u re 10.4. Yazma Bagislar 265, ff. 49v-50. p. 382
fig u re 10. 5, Yazma Bagislar 265, ff. 54v-55. p. 383
fig u re 10. 6, Yazma Bagislar 265, ff. 62v-63. p . 383
fig u re 11.1. TSM EH 365, ff. 69v-70. p. 384
fig u re 11. 2. TSM EH 365, ff. 70v-71. p. 384
figure 11.4. TSM EH 365, ff. 72v-73. p . 385 figure 11. 5. TSM E H 365, ff. 73v-74. p . 386 figure 11. 6. TSM E H 365, ff. 74v-75. p . 386 figure 11. 7. TSM E H 365, ff. 75v-76. p . 387 figure 11. 8. TSM E H 365, ff. 76v-77. p . 387 figure 11.9. TSM E H 365, ff. 77v-78. p . 388 figure 11.10. TSM EH 365, ff. 78v-79. p . 388 figure 11.11. TSM EH 365, ff. 79v-80. p . 389 figure 11.12. TSM EH 365, ff. 80v-81. p . 389 figure 11.13. TSM E H 365, ff. 106v-107. p . 390 figure 12.1. TSM E H 394, ff. 56v-57. p . 391 figure 13.1. TSM E H 395, ff. Iv. p . 392 figure 13. 2. TSM E H 395, ff. 77v. p . 392 figure 13. 3. TSM E H 395, ff. 78. p . 392 figure 13.4. TSM E H 395, ff. 96v. p . 393 figure 14.1. OR 4251, ff. 8v-9. p . 394 figure 14. 2. OR 4251, ff. 72v-73. p . 394 figure 14. 3. OR 4251, ff. 73v-74. p. 395
figure 15.1. H alet E fendi 5, cover (exterior). p. 396
figure 15. 2. H alet E fendi 5, cover (interior). p. 396
figure 15. 3. H alet E fendi 5, ff. lv-2. p . 397
figure 15.4. H alet E fendi 5, ff. 43v-45. p. 397
figure 15. 5. H alet E fendi 5, ff. 44v. p. 398
figure 15. 6. H alet Efendi 5, ff. 45. p. 398
figure 15. 7. H alet E fendi 5, ff. 45v-46. p. 398
figure 15. 8. H alet E fendi 5, ff. 109v-110. p. 399
figure 15. 9. H alet E fendi 5, ff. 120v-121. p. 399
figure 15.10. H alet E fendi 5, ff. 135v-136. p. 400
figure 16.1. UVic 95-014, cover. p. 401
figure 16. 2. UVic 95-014, p. 4. p . 402 figure 16. 3. UVic 95-014, p. 5. p. 402 figure 16.4. UVic 95-014, p. 186. p. 402 figure 16. 5. UVic 95-014, p. 187. p. 402 figure 16. 6. UVic 95-014, p. 188. p. 403 figure 16. 7. UVic 95-014, p. 189. p . 403 figure 16. 8. UVic 95-014, p. 190. p . 403 figure 16.9. UVic 95-014, p. 191. p. 403 figure 16.10. UVic 95-014, p. 254. p. 404 figure 16.11. UVic 95-014, p. 263. p. 404 figure 16.12. UVic 95-014, p. 256. p. 404 figure 16.13. UVic 95-014, p. 257. p. 404 figure 16.14. UVic 95-014, p. 258. p. 405
figure 16.15. UVic 95-014, p. 259. X p . 405 figure 16.16. UVic 95-014, p. 260. p . 405 figure 16.17. UVic 95-014, p. 261. p . 405 figure 16.18. UVic 95-014, p. 262. p . 406 figure 16.19. UVic 95-014, p. 263. p . 406 figure 16. 20. UVic 95-014, p. 264. p . 406 figure 16. 21. UVic 95-014, p. 265. p . 406 figure 16. 22. UVic 95-014, p. 266. p . 407 figure 16. 23. UVic 95-014, p. 267. p . 407 figure 16. 24. UVic 95-014, p. 268. p . 407 figure 16. 25. UVic 95-014, p. 269. p . 407 figure 16. 26. UVic 95-014, p. 270. p . 408 fig u re 16. 27. UVic 95-014, p. 271. p . 408 figure 16. 28. UVic 95-014, p. 272. p . 408 figure 16. 29. UVic 95-014, p. 273. p . 408 figure 16. 30. UVic 95-014, p. 274. p . 409 figure 16. 31. UVic 95-014, p. 275. p . 409 figure 16. 32. UVic 95-014, p. 276. p . 409 figure 16. 33. UVic 95-014, p. 277. p . 409 fig u re 16. 34. UVic 95-014, p. 278. p . 410 figure 16. 35. UVic 95-014, p. 279. p . 410 figure 16. 36. UVic 95-014, p. 280. p . 410 figure 16. 37. UVic 95-014, p. 281. p . 410 figure 16. 38. UVic 95-014, p. 282. p . 411 figure 16. 39. UVic 95-014, p. 283. p . 411 figure 16. 40. UVic 95-014, p. 284. p . 411 figure 16. 41. UVic 95-014, p. 285. p . 411 figure 16. 42. UVic 95-014, p. 286. p . 412 figure 16. 43. UVic 95-014, p. 287. p . 412 figure 16. 44. UVic 95-014, p. 288. p . 412 figure 16. 45. UVic 95-014, p. 289. p . 412 figure 16.46. UVic 95-014, p. 290. p . 413 figure 16.47. UVic 95-014, p. 291. p . 413 figure 16.48. UVic 95-014, p. 292. p . 413 figure 16. 49. UVic 95-014, p. 293. p . 413 figure 16. 50. UVic 95-014, p. 294. p . 414 figure 16. 51. UVic 95-014, p. 295. p . 414 fig u re 16. 52. UVic 95-014, p. 296. p . 414 figure 16. 53. UVic 95-014, p. 297. p . 414 fig u re 16. 54. UVic 95-014, p. 298. p . 415 figure 16. 55. UVic 95-014, p. 299. p . 415 figure 16. 56. UVic 95-014, p. 300. p . 415
fig u re 16. 57. UVic 95-014, p. 301. p . 415 fig u re 16.58. UVic 95-014, p. 302. p . 416 fig u re 16. 59. UVic 95-014, p. 303. p . 416 fig u re 16. 60. UVic 95-014, p. 304. p . 416 fig u re 16. 61. UVic 95-014, p. 305. p . 416 fig u re 16.62. UVic 95-014, p. 306. p . 417 fig u re 16. 63. UVic 95-014, p. 307. p . 417 fig u re 16. 64. UVic 95-014, p. 308. p . 417 fig u re 16. 65. UVic 95-014, p. 309. p . 417 fig u re 16.66. UVic 95-014, p. 310. p . 418 fig u re 16. 67. UVic 95-014, p. 311. p . 418 fig u re 16. 68. UVic 95-014, p. 263. p . 418 fig u re 16. 69. UVic 95-014, p. 314. p . 419 fig u re 16. 70. UVic 95-014, p. 315. p. 419 fig u re 16. 71. UVic 95-014, p. 316. p. 419 fig u re 16. 72. UVic 95-014, p. 317. p . 419 fig u re 16. 73. UVic 95-014, p. 318. p. 420 fig u re 16. 74. UVic 95-014, p. 319. p . 420 fig u re 16. 75. UVic 95-014, p. 320. p . 420 fig u re 16. 76. UVic 95-014, p. 321. p. 420 fig u re 16. 77. UVic 95-014, p. 322. p. 421 fig u re 16. 78. UVic 95-014, p. 323. p. 421 fig u re 16. 79. UVic 95-014, p. 324. p . 421 fig u re 16. 80. UVic 95-014, p. 325. p. 421 fig u re 16. 81. UVic 95-014, p. 326. p. 422 fig u re 16. 82. UVic 95-014, p. 327. p . 422 figure 16. 83. UVic 95-014, p. 328. p . 422 fig u re 16. 84. UVic 95-014, p. 329. p . 422 fig u re 16. 85. UVic 95-014, p. 330. p. 423 fig u re 16. 86. UVic 95-014, p. 331. p. 423 fig u re 16. 87. UVic 95-014, p. 332. p . 423 fig u re 16. 88. UVic 95-014, p. 333. p. 423 fig u re 16. 89. UVic 95-014, p. 334. p. 424 fig u re 16. 90. UVic 95-014, p. 335. p. 424 fig u re 16. 91. UVic 95-014, p. 336. p. 424 fig u re 16. 92. UVic 95-014, p. 337. p. 424 fig u re 16. 93. UVic 95-014, p. 338. p . 425 fig u re 16. 94. UVic 95-014, p. 339. p. 425 fig u re 16.95. UVic 95-014, p. 340. p . 425 fig u re 16. 96. UVic 95-014, p. 341. p . 425 fig u re 16. 97. UVic 95-014, p. 342. p . 426 fig u re 16. 98. UVic 95-014, p. 343. p . 426
xn figure 16.99. UVic 95-014, p. 344. p. 426 figure 16.100. UVic 95-014, p. 345. p. 426 fig u re 16.101. UVic 95-014, p. 346. p . 427 figure 16.102. UVic 95-014, p. 347. p. 427 figure 16.103. UVic 95-014, p. 348. p. 427 figure 16.104. UVic 95-014, p. 349. p. 427 figure 16. lOS.UVic 95-014, p. 350. p. 428 figure 16.106. UVic 95-014, p . 351. p. 428 figure 16.107. UVic 95-014, p . 352. p. 428 figure 16.108. UVic 95-014, p. 353. p. 428 figure 16.109. UVic 95-014, p. 354. p. 429 figure 16.110. UVic 95-014, p. 355. p. 429 figure 16.111. UVic 95-014, p. 356. p. 429 figure 16.112. UVic 95-014, p . 357. p. 429 figure 16.113. UVic 95-014, p . 358. p. 430 figure 16.114. UVic 95-014, p. 359 p. 430 figure 16.115. UVic 95-014, p. 359 p. 430 figure 16.116. UVic 95-014, p. 360 p . 430 figure 16.117. UVic 95-014, p. 362 p. 431 figure 16.118. UVic 95-014, p. 363 p. 431 figure 16.119. UVic 95-014, p. 364 p. 431 figure 16.120. UVic 95-014, p. 365 p. 431 figure 16.121. UVic 95-014, p. 366 p. 432 figure 16.122. UVic 95-014, p. 367 p. 432 figure 16.123. UVic 95-014, p. 368 p. 432 figure 16.124. UVic 95-014, p . 369 p. 432 figure 16.125. UVic 95-014, p . 370 p. 433 figure 16.126. UVic 95-014, p. 371 p. 433 figure 16.127. UVic 95-014, p. 372 p. 433 figure 16.128. UVic 95-014, p. 373 p. 433 figure 16.129. UVic 95-014, p. 374 p. 434 figure 16.130. UVic 95-014, p. 375 p. 434 figure 16.131. UVic 95-014, p. 376 p. 434 figure 16.132. UVic 95-014, p. 377 p. 434 figure 16.133. UVic 95-014, p. 378 p. 435 figure 16.134. UVic 95-014, p. 379 p. 435 figure 16.135. UVic 95-014, p . 380 p. 435 figure 16.136. UVic 95-014, p. 381 p. 435 figure 16.137. UVic 95-014, p. 382 p. 436 figure 16.138. UVic 95-014, p. 383 p. 436 figure 16.139. UVic 95-014, p. 384 p. 436 figure 16.140. UVic 95-014, p. 385 p. 436
fig u re 16.141. UVic 95-014, p. 386 p . 437 figure 16.142. UVic 95-014, p. 387 p . 437 fig u re 16.143. UVic 95-014, p. 388 p . 437 fig u re 16.144. UVic 95-014, p. 389. p. 437 figure 16.145. UVic 95-014, p. 390. p . 438 fig u re 16.146. UVic 95-014, p. 391. p . 438 fig u re 16.147. UVic 95-014, p. 392. p. 438 fig u re 16.148. UVic 95-014, p. 393. p . 438 figure 16.149. UVic 95-014, p. 394. p. 439 figure 16.150. UVic 95-014, p. 395. p. 439 figure 16.151. UVic 95-014, p. 396. p. 439 figure 16.152. UVic 95-014, p. 397. p . 439 figure 16.153. UVic 95-014, p. 398. p. 440 figure 16.154. UVic 95-014, p. 399. p . 440 figure 16.155. UVic 95-014, p. 400. p. 440 figure 16.156. UVic 95-014, p. 401. p. 440 figure 16.157. UVic 95-014, p. 402. p. 441 figure 16.158. UVic 95-014, p. 403. p . 441 fig u re 16.159. UVic 95-014, p. 404. p . 441 figure 16.160. UVic 95-014, p. 405. p . 441 figure 16.161. UVic 95-014, p. 406. p. 442 figure 16.161. UVic 95-014, p. 407. p. 442 fig u re 17.1. TSM EH 371, ff. lv-2. p . 443 figure 17. 2. TSM EH 371, f. 105v. p. 443 figure 17. 3. TSM EH 371, f. 106. p . 443 figure 17.4. TSM EH 371, f. 106v. p. 444
figure 18.1. Pertevniyal 43, cover p . 445
figure 18. 2. Pertevniyal 43, ff. lv-2. p . 446 figure 18. 3. Pertevniyal 43, ff. 29v-30. p. 446 figure 18. 4. Pertevniyal 43, ff.52v-53. p . 447 figure 18. 5. Pertevniyal 43, ff.53v-54. p. 447 figure 18. 6. Pertevniyal 43, ff. 54v-55. p. 448 figure 18. 7. Pertevniyal 43, ff. 55v-56. p. 448 figure 18. 8. Pertevniyal 43, ff. 56v-57. p . 449 figure 18. 9. Pertevniyal 43, ff. 57v-58. p. 449 fig u re 18.10. Pertevniyal 43, ff. 58v-59. p . 450 figure 18.11. Pertevniyal 43, ff. 59v-60. p . 450 fig u re 18.12. Pertevniyal 43, ff. 60v-61. p . 451 figure 18.13. Pertevniyal 43, ff. 63v-64. p . 451
figure 2 2 .1 . Izm irli I Hakki 1509 cover. p . 452
figure 22. 2. Izm irli I Hakki 1509 p . 453
XIV
figxire 22.4. Izm irli I. H ak k i 1509 p . 454
fig u re 2 3 .1 . TSM YY 874, cover p . 455
fig u re 23. 2. TSM YY 874 p . 455
figure 2 3 .3 . TSM YY 874 p . 456
figure 25.1. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, cover p . 457
figure 25. 2. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, ff. lv -2 p . 457 figure 25. 3. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 63v p . 458 fig u re 25.4. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 64 p . 458 figure 25. 5. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 64v p . 458 figure 25. 6. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 65 p . 458 figure 25. 7. D ü g ü m lü B aba 491, f. 65v p . 459 figure 25. 8. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 66 p . 459 figure 25. 9. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 66v p . 459 figure 25.10. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 67 p . 459 figure 25.11. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491. f.67v p . 460 figure 25.12. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 68 p . 460 figure 25.13. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 68v p . 460 figure 25.14. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 69 p . 460 figure 25.15. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, ff. 69v-70 p. 461 figure 25.16. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 71v p. 461 figure 25.17. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 72 p. 461 figure 25.18. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, ff. 72v-73 p. 462 figure 25.19. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 74v p. 462 figure 25. 20. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 75 p. 462 figure 25. 21 D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 75v p. 463 figure 25. 22. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 76 p . 463 fig u re 25. 23. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 76v p . 463 figure 25. 24. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 149v p . 464 fig u re 25. 25. D ü g ü m lü Baba 491, f. 150 p . 464
figure 26.1. Spencer T u rk 9, cover p. 465
figure 26. 2. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. lv-2 p. 465 figure 26. 3. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 38v-39 p. 466 figure 26. 4. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 39v-40 p. 466 figure 26. 5. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 40v-41 p. 467 figure 26. 6. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 41v-42 p. 467 figure 26. 7. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 42v-43 p. 468 figure 26. 8. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 43v-44 p . 468 figure 26. 9. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 44v-45 p. 469 figure 26.10. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 56v-57 p. 469 fig u re 26.11. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 57v-58 p. 470 figure 26.12. Spencer T u rk 9 ,58v-59 p . 470 figure 26.13. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 59v-60 p. 471
fig u re 26.14. Spencer T urk 9, ff. 60v-61 p . 471
fig u re 26.15. Spencer T urk 9, ff. 61v-62 p . 472
figure 26.16. S pencer T urk 9, ff. 61v-62 p . 472
figure 26.17. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 63v-64 p . 473
figure 26.18. Spencer T urk 9, ff. 64v-65 p . 473
figure 26.19. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 65v-66 p . 474
figure 26. 20. Spencer T urk 9, ff. 66v-67 p . 474
figure 26. 21. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 67v-68 p . 475
figure 26. 22. Spencer T u rk 9, ff. 68v-69 p . 475
figure 26. 23. Spencer T u rk 9, fi. 69v-70 p . 476
figure 26. 24. Spencer T u rk 9, fi. 70v-71 p . 476
figure 26.25. Spencer T urk 9, fi. 71v-72 p . 477
figure 26. 26. Spencer T urk 9, fi. 74v-75 p . 477
figure 26. 27. Spencer T u rk 9, f. 143 p . 478
figure 27.1. M & A A rab 22, cover p . 479
f i g ^ e 27. 2. M & A A rab 22, fi. 2v-3 p . 480
figure 27. 3. M & A A rab 22, fi. 158v-160 p . 480
figure 27.4. M & A A rab 22, ff. 159v-16G p . 481
figure 27. 5. M &A A rab 22, ff. 160v-161 p . 481
figure 27. 6. M &A A rab 22, ff. 161v-162 p . 482
figure 27. 7. M &A A rab 22, fi. 162v-163 p . 482
fig u re 27. 8. M & A A rab 22, ff. 163v-164 p . 483
figure 27. 9. M &A A rab 22, ff. 164v-165 p . 483
figure 27.10. M & A A rab 22, fi. 165v-166 p . 484
figure 27.11. M & A A rab 22, ff. 166v-167 p . 484
figure 27.12. M & A A rab 22, fi. 167v-168 p . 485
fig u re 27.13. M & A A rab 22, fi. 168v-169 p . 485
fig u re 27.14. M & A Arab 22, ff. 169v-170 p . 486
figure 27.15. M & A A rab 22, ff. 170v-171 p . 486
figure 27.16. M & A A rab 22, ff. lTlv-172 p . 487
figure 27.17. M & A A rab 22, ff. 172v-173 p . 487
figure 27.18. M & A A rab 22, ff. 173v-174 p . 488
figure 27.19. M & A A rab 22, fi. 194v-195 p . 488
figure 27. 20. M & A A rab 22, fi. 199v-200 p . 489
figure 27. 21. M & A Arab 22, ff. 200v-201 p . 489
figure 27. 22. M & A Arab 22, ff. 201v-202 p . 490
figure 27. 23. M & A A rab 22, fi. 202v-203 p . 490
figure 27.2 4. M & A A rab 22, ff. 203v-204 p . 491
figure 27.25. M & A A rab 22, ff. 204v-205 p . 491
figure 27. 26. M & A A rab 22, fi. 205v-206 p . 492
X V I
P la te 1: M izanü 'I hatt, f. lv-2, M ustafa H ilm i Efendi, A li E m iri E fendi,
F atih M ület Library, Istanbul. p . 493
P la te 2: Shaykh N azim al-H aqqani, an d Shaykh H ish am Kabbani. p . 494 P la te 3: "Peace be u p o n you, O Beloved o f God," Hirka-i sa'adet
T o p k ap i Sarayi, Istanbul. p . 495
P la te 4: The Prophet's Tomb in M edina
Dala'il al-khayrat, b y M uham m ad ib n 'A bd al-Aziz ib n 'Ali al-Balansi al-A n d alusi,
1025/1616, M & A A rab 5, The N e w York PubHc Library. p . 496 P la te 5: Exhibition pam phlet: "The Evil-Eye a n d H ealing."
M ay 22 to Jim e 22,1996, Yildiz Palace M useum , Istanbul. p . 497 P la te 6: Silver muska case from th e exhibition
"The EvH-Eye a n d Healing," M ay 22 to Jim e 22,1996,
Y ildiz Palace M useum in Istanbul. p . 498
P la te s 7 a n d 7a: TaHsmanic u n d e rsh irt from the tom b of Bayezid I, ITEM 539, M useum of Turkish a n d Islamic A rt, Istanbul.
PubH shed in In Pursuit of Excellence: Works o f A rt from the M useum o f Turkish a nd
Islamic Arts.
eds. A hm et E rtug et. al. Istanbul, 1993, Plates 24A-B. p . 499 P late 8: Inscribed shifa' tasi, or h ealing bow l from the exhibition
"The Evil-Eye a n d Healing," M ay 22 to June 22,1996,
Yildiz Palace M useum , Istanbul. p . 500
P la te 9: The angel Gabriel in his original form .
Mi'raj-nama of 1436 w ritten in H e rat by MaHk Bakshi.
B ibhothèque N ationale, S upplém ent Turc 190, f. 36.
PubH shed in Marie-Rose Sèguy's The Miraculous Journey o f Mahomet, G eorge
BraziUer: N e w York, 1977, Plate 33. p . 501
P la te 10: Mi'raj-nama of 1436 w ritte n in H erat b y MaHk Bakshi. B ibhothèque N ationale, S upplém ent Turc 190, f. 44.
PubH shed in M arie-Rose Séguy's The Miraculous Journey o f Mahomet, G eorge
P late 11: E n g rav in g o f th e Palace a t Versailles, c. 1720.
In Fatm a M iige G ocek's, East Encounters West: France and the Ottoman empire in the
eighteenth century, O x fo rd U niversity Press: N e w Y ork a n d Oxford, 1987, p. 76.
p . 502 P lates 12a a n d b: T he K a'ba, from a pilgrim age scroll p rep a red for th e lady 'U m m Said, d a te d th e 9 th of D hu'l Hijja, 5 8 4 /Ja n u a ry 29,1189.
In A hm et E rtug's, In P ursuit o f Excellence: Works o f A r t from The M useum o f Turkish
and Islamic A rts, Istan b u l, 1993, p p . 9-10. Plate 7. p. 503 P lates 13: Im age of th e K a'b a from M uhyi al-din ib n Lari's Futuh al-haramayn, d a te d 1540 C. E., T S M R 917, Topkapi Sarayi M u seu m , Istanbul.
p . 504 P late 14: A p ilg rim ag e g u id e w ritten in 990/1582, b y M ah m u d ib n Jan M a h m u d o f Balkh. H a rv a rd M A 1985.265A, H arv ard U n iv ersity M u seu m (p rev io u sly in th e Binney collection).
In E dw in Binney, 3rd, Turkish Treasures from the Collection o f Edwin Binney, 3rd, P o rtlan d A rt M useum : P o rtlan d , O regon, 1979, p. 155. p. 504 P late 15: Im ages of M ecca a n d M edina in a Dala 'il al-khayrat by Y esarizade Ism ail Efendi, d a te d 1155/1742. In U. D erm an, K oym et G iray, a n d Fulya B odur E ruz,
Sabanci Collection, A k b a n k C u ltu re and Aut Publication: 60, Istanbul, 1995, p. 40.
p . 505 P late 16: Qadam $erif, o r th e Prophet's footprint, T o p k a p i Sarayi M u seu m ,
Istanbul. p . 506
P late 17: N in eteen th c e n tu ry ablution ew er a n d b asin .
In A hm et E rtug's, In P ursuit o f Excellence: Works o f A r t from The M useum o f Turkish
X V U l
GLOSSARY
Am m e cüz'ü - la s t section o f th e Qur'an. athar - relics.
aklam-i sitte, th e "six scripts," th a t w ould becom e th e basis of later O ttom an
calligraphy: nesih, sülüs, muhakkak, reyhani, tevki' an d rJca.
al-ashab al-kahf - th e C o m p an ion s of the C ave, o r th e Seven Sleepers. 'asma al-husna - th e M ost Beautiful N am es of G od.
'asma al-nabi - th e n am es of the Prophet M u h am m ad . ay at - a verse o f th e Q u r'an .
baraka - sp iritu al grace em an atin g from G od th a t is tran sm itted th ro u g h
pro p h ets a n d sain tly p eo p le or the objects th ey have com e in contact w ith.
beyne'setur - the illu m in a te d space "between th e lines" of text. bida ' - religious in n o v atio n .
cedvel - gold b o rd e rs of a text.
ciiz - thirtieth se ctio n o r p a rt of a Q ur'an.
Dala 'il al-khayrat - "The Index of Good Things,'' b y Im am fazuli, a fifteenth
century M o rro c an saint, containing d aily d evotions th at focus on
salawat. dervish - a Sufi.
dhikr - the rem em b ran ce of G od. A p art of th e Sufi liturgy. du'a - invocations, su p erero g ato ry prayers.
En'am-i ^erif - a la te O tto m a n religious m an u scrip t containing Q ur'anic
surahs, p ra y e rs a n d sacred images.
evrad - p ray er lita n y u se d b y a Sufi order.
E v r a d -i^ r if- A m a n u s c rip t containing the d a ily litan y of p ray ers u se d b y a
Sufi o rd er.
Fatiha - first su ra h , o r c h ap ter of the Q ur'an.
faqir - a poor m a n , freq u en tly u se d to indicate a d e rv ish or a Sufi. hadith - saying o f th e P rophet.
Hanafi. - one o f th e fo u r schools of orthodox (Sunni) Islam ic law . Hanbali - one of th e fo u r schools of orthodox (Sunni) Islamic law. hataym - the sem i-circular w all adjacent to th e Ka'ba.
hatt - calligraphy, o r "beautiful writing."
hijab - a w o rd m e a n in g am ulet, synonym ous w ith veil.
hilye - a textual d e sc rip tio n of a p ro p het or sa in tly perso n 's physical a n d m oral
characteristics.
hilye §erif - a te x tu a l descrip tio n of the P ro p h e t M u h am m ad 's physical a n d
m oral characteristics.
hirka - m antle, o r cloak.
Hirka-i sa'adet - th e a re a o f the Topkapi S arayi th a t ho u ses relics of the
hirz - collection o f prayers. hizb - collection o f prayers. hizn - collection o f prayers.
Hujra ^erif- th e T om b of the P rophet.
icazet - (Arabic ijaza). W ritten text acknow ledging a stu d en t's com m and of a
certain b o d y of know ledge a n d their teacher's perm ission to transm it th at k now ledge.
ijtihad - in fo rm ed ind iv id u al analysis, legal reasoning. imam - religious leader.
'ilm al-huruf - th e science of letters. jihad - struggle in th e w ay of God. jinn - beings m a d e o f sm okeless fire.
kafir - a n unbeliever.
ketebehu - sig n a tu re indicating the nam e of the calligrapher: "he w rote it." ketkhuda-i rikab-i humayun - d e p u ty director of the im perial court.
khalifa - a u th o riz e d representative, or successor of a Sufi shaykh. khalwa - p e rio d o f seclusion u n d e rta k en by the o rd er of a Sufi shaykh. khatim al-nubuvnuat - Seal of Prophethood.
kiszua - cloth c o vering the Ka'ba.
lizoa al-hamd - th e P rophet's Flag of Praise u n d er w h ich all M uslim s w ül gather
on the D a y of Ju d g m en t in h o p e of gaining his intercession.
madhab - school of Islamic law.
madrasa - O tto m a n T urkish medrese. Institution of h igher religious leam ing. mÂleb - the flap of a binding, u sed as a bookm ark.
minbar - p u lp it fro m w hich the im am delivers the F riday serm on. miszvak - tooth-stick for cleaning the teeth, a p relu d e to ritual ablution. mu'azuzoidhatan - th e tw o "refuge-seeking," surahs, the last tw o surahs of the
Q ur'an.
muhr - a seal.
murid - stu d e n t o f a shaykh, a disciple. musazvir - effigy-m aker, or picture-m aker. mushaf - m a n u scrip t copy of the Q ur'an. na'l the P ro p h et's sandal.
nazar - th e evil-eye.
nesih - cursive sty le of script favoured b y O ttom an calligraphers for w riting
Q ur'ans.
nishandji - the chancellor, or secretary of state for the Sultan's tughra. niyat - intention.
pence $erif- A n O tto m a n T urkish w o rd m eaning the w hole h an d , also a set
of five th in g s or persons, traditionally u n d ersto o d to be the Prophet a n d his fam ily: his d au g h ter Fatim a, son-in-law 'Ali, an d grandsons H asan a n d H ussain.
X X
qadam $erif- th e P ro p h et's footprint.
raldb - catch w o rd sy stem w hereby w o rd s w ritte n o n a sla n t in th e lo w er left
co m er of the verso p ag e indicate th e first w o rd o f th e follow ing page.
rashidun caliphs - th e first four leaders o f th e M uslim com m u n ity : A b u Bakr,
'U m ar, 'U th m an a n d 'Ali.
rawdah - tom b of th e P rophet.
reis al-kuttab - chief o f clerks, the h ead of the offices attach ed to th e G ra n d
V ezirate.
ruqya - a p ra y e r of protection.
sancak ^erif - O tto m an flag th at in co rpo rated fragm ents o f the P ro p h et's
b anner.
salawat - invocation of blessings on the P rophet. fcmse - central m ed allio n of a binding.
serlevha - the first, d ouble-page sp read of a n illu m in ated text. §eyh - O tto m an T urkish w o rd for shaykh.
feyh u l-isla m - A rabic, shaykh al-Islam, the h ig h est m em b er of the 'ulema in the
O tto m an em pire.
shafa'a - intercession. shifa'a - healing.
Shafi'i - one of the fours schools of o rth o d o x (Sunni) Islam ic law . shifa'a - healing.
shari'a -Isla m ic la w .
shaykh - sp iritu al lead er of a Sufi order.
shirk - sin of associating anyone or a n y th in g w ith G od. sirah - biography.
silsila - chain of transm ission of spiritual a u th o rity in a Sufi order. sohbet - association, religious gathering.
sülüs - cursive style of script, frequently u se d for c h ap ter h eadin g s. sunna - the religious exam ple set b y th e P ro p h e t M u h am m ad . surah - ch ap ter of the Q ur'an.
surat - a n effigy, im age, o r a statue. tabbaruk - the receiving o f D ivine grace. tamima - a pre-Islam ic bead-type am ulet. taqlid - follow ing qualified reHgous opinion. tarikat - Sufi o rd er, h e a d e d by a shaykh. tasawir - pictures.
tasbih - glorifying G od, also p rayer beads.
tasliya - p a rt of th e ritu al p ray er, or salat, in w h ich blessings are in v o k ed o n
the P ro p h e t M u h am m ad an d his fam ily.
ta 'viz - an a m u let p re p a re d according to th e Islam ic practice of u sin g
Q ur'anic verses, p ray ers, G od's N am es, etc., for h e a lin g o r protection; or th e practice itself.
ta'widh - A rabic for to'otz.
tazoassul - supplicating G od th ro u g h a n interm ediary, teber - battle-ax.
tekke - Sufi lodge.
tezhip - gilding, illum ination.
tilsim - a n A rabic w ord of p erh ap s G reek, Persian, or E thiopie origin
m ea n in g mystical w ords of p o w e r. The source o f o u r o w n w o rd talism an.
'ulema - Islam ic scholars.
unw an - Refers to a rectangular p an el o f iQurnination th a t m a y a p p ear above
o r b elo w an image. The unwan itself m ay contain in fo rm atio n su ch as th e title of the accom panying im ag e or text, or a b rie f ex planation o f its contents.
unvan sahifesi - richly d ecorated first p a g e of a n O tto m an p ra y e r book. va kf - religious endow m ent, in this case books, or libraries.
zvird - in d iv id u al, supererogatory p ra y e rs said by m em b ers o f a Sufi ord er. w u 'du - ritu a l ablution.
zazoiyye - Sufi teaching centre, or lodge.
Zemzem - w ell near the K ab a, its w a te r is considered to c o n tain baraka. Ziilfiqar - th e Prophet's sw o rd d o u b le-b lad ed sw ord in h e rite d b y 'Ali.
xxu
ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTS
M y in terest in the En'am-i ferif began in the a u tu m n o f 1995 w h e n the U niversity o f V ictoria p u rch a se d an eighteenth-century m a n u sc rip t a t the request o f m y su p erv iso r. D r. A n th o n y W elch. In ad d itio n to su g g e stin g the subject m atter of this dissertation. D r. W elch provided m e w ith in v alu ab le guidance an d g ro u n d in g in art-historical m ethodology. H is advice to focus m y early research o n a th o ro u g h exam ination o f the m anuscripts them selves h a s resu lted in one of the m o st significant contrib u tio n s of this w ork, the d etailed catalogue of some tw enty-eight m an u scrip ts fo u n d in A ppendix I. Dr. W elch is v e ry supportive of his stu d en ts, a n d I consider m yself very fortunate to have h a d h im serve as m y su p erv iso r for b o th m y M aster's an d Ph. D.
I w ish to m ake p articu lar m ention of the invaluable assistance p rovided by Dr. N an cy M icklew right. I am eternally grateful to h e r fo r th e countless hours she has sp e n t w ith m e d iscussing O ttom an p ain tin g an d relig io u s im agery. H er su g g ested changes to this d issertatio n have im proved it im m ensely.
The o th er m em bers of m y committee. Dr. John O sb o rn e a n d D r. H arold C o w ard , h ave also offered h elp above and beyond th at u s u a lly associated w ith su ch a n endeavor. I h av e h a d th e opportunity of taking sev eral of D r. O sborne's classes a n d he h as serv ed as departm ental chair a n d g rad u a te ad v iso r several tim es d u rin g m y years a t th e U niversity of Victoria. He h a s alw ays been trem en d o u sly su p p o rtiv e a n d encouraging. As the director of the C entre for Studies in R eligion a n d Society, Dr. C ow ard has also b een o f considerable su p p o rt. I a m v ery g rateful to Dr. Cow ard a n d the C entre fo r a w ard in g me the first Ian S tew art G rad u ate S tu d en t Fellowship.
Special thanks goes to m y external exam iner. Dr. Jere Bacharach, director of the H en ry Jackson School of International Studies at the U n iv ersity of
W ashington a n d p resid en t of the M iddle E astern Studies A ssociation. Dr. B acharach took tim e from h is v ery busy schedule to su g g est a n u m b er of im p o rtan t changes. H e also v ery kindly m ade the trip u p to V ictoria for my d issertatio n defence, w h ich is u n u su al in these days of video-conferencing.
I w o u ld also like to th a n k the Social Sciences a n d H u m a n ities Research C ouncil, the U niversity of V ictoria's faculty of G raduate S tu d ies a n d the
D ep artm en t of H isto ry in A rt for their financial su p p o rt. I w o u ld particularly like to th a n k the D ean of G ra d u ate Studies, Dr. G o rd an a L azarevich, for chairing b o th m y M aster's a n d Ph. D. defences. Dr. Lazarevich a n d h e r staff have done ev ery th in g th ey can to h elp m e throughout m y program .
The U niversity of V ictoria's D epartm ent of H istory in A rt could not function w ith o u t the d ed icatio n an d h ard w ork of d e p artm e n tal assistant
D arlene Poxiliot. N either could I. She m akes su re d ead lin es are m e t a n d frazzled n erv es are soothed w ith an alw ays friendly sm ile.
Thanks also go to C hris Fetter an d his staff in Special C ollections a t M cPherson L ibrary a t UVic, an d to slide librarian K aren M acD onald a n d h er staff in the D epartm ent of H istory in Art. T he Faculty o f Fine A rts C o m p u te r Lab, in p articu lar D ave Broome an d M ike H u sto n , re n d e re d g rea t service in w alk in g m e th ro u g h the process of scanning, m an ip u latin g a n d p rin tin g th e im ages.
The m anuscripts stu d ied in the course of this d isse rtatio n a re lo cated in Istanbul, L ondon an d N ew York. I send heart-felt th an k s to m y h o st fam ily in Istanbul, §ukria A nne a n d Resm iye Tarim, as w ell as m y research assistan ts Savaç Küic an d Zeynep C ebeed. Thanks also goes to th e d irecto rs a n d staff of the T opkapi Sarayi M useum Library, the Süleym aniye L ibrary a n d th e
U niversity of Istanbul Library. I also sen d w a rm e st th an k s to m y frien d Batul in N e w York for h e r w arm hospitality.
One of the highlights of m y research su m m er in T u rk ey w as the
o p p o rtu n ity to m eet one o f the forem ost au th o rities o n O tto m an calligraphy, M r. U gur D erm an. I w ish to express m y appreciation to M r. D erm an, w h o w as m ost g ra d o u s w ith his time an d encouragem ent. H eartfelt th an k s also go to A m erica's forem ost calligrapher, Mr. M oham m ed Z akariya, for re a d in g the p e n u ltim a te d ra ft of the dissertation a n d m aking valuable com m ents.
Spedal thanks to m y friend and fellow stu d e n t Janice C u rrie r for h er ongoing su p p o rt an d o u r m an y "Ph. D Walks" th ro u g h M ystic Vale! T hanks also go to a num ber of m y stu d en ts w ho frequently serv ed as so u n d in g b o a rd s a n d w h o have p ro v id ed m e w ith enorm ous m oral su p p o rt: D ealla F ah lm an , Jenne M cLennan, Kia M athison, D iana M ar fleet, Stephanie G ibson, a n d A lison W ickett.
This dissertation could not have been w ritte n w ith o u t the h elp o f m y sp iritu al teacher, Shaykh H isham Kabbani, a n d his w ife, N azih a A d il K abbani. In ad d itio n to p ro v id in g m e w ith O ttom an a n d A rabic tran slatio n s, th ey v ery k in d ly arranged for m e to stay w ith fam ily a n d friends in T urkey, E n g lan d an d Am erica th ro u g h o u t the perio d o f m y research a n d w ritin g . M y u n d e rsta n d in g of Sufism, an d the role these m anuscripts p lay ed in th e life of the Sufi o rd ers has b een shaped th ro u g h their teaching. Shaykh Flisham a n d his w ife are m y
g u id in g lights, an d I ask G od to send blessings a n d p eace u p o n th em , a n d re w a rd them for their w orks.
Finally, I w o u ld like to thank the three p eo p le w h o are m y rea so n for d o in g aU this, m y children, Katie Sm ardon-B odhjelian, a n d A m ina a n d H assen M oham ed. M ay A lm ighty G od bless a n d keep y o u safe, an d re w a rd y o u for y o u r patience.
X X IV
In the N am e of G od, the Beneficent, the M erciful.
All p ra ise a n d th an k s are due to A lm ig h ty G od. M ay He se n d peace a n d blessings u p o n H is b elo v ed P ro p h et M u h am m ad , his p u re family, righteous com panions a n d all of th e saints. This w o rk is d ed icated w ith sincere love and affection to m y g ran d sh ay k h , Shaykh M u h a m m a d N a zim Adil al-Q u b ru si al- H aqqani al-N aq sh b an d i. M ay God bless h im a n d g ra n t h im the re w a rd s of his efforts in th is life a n d in th e hereafter.
"Do they not travel through the earth and see what was the end o f those brfore them? They were even superior to them in strength, and in the traces (they have left) in the land...
A ll Islam ic actions are b ased u p o n the niyat, or intention. The believer form s the in te n tio n p rio r to beginning an action, for exam ple: "I in ten d to m ake zvu 'du (ritu al ablution) for the pu rp o se of say in g m y obligatory prayer." The Islam ic e n co u rag e m en t of the study of h isto ry is in ten d ed so th at "hearts (and minds) may
thus leam wisdom,"and "ears may leam to hear. T h e Q u r'an tells us th at h isto ry 's
lessons are to b e found in the contem plation of the athar, the ru in s or traces (w e m ig h t call it the m aterial culture) th a t a co m m u n ity leaves behind. Som etim es, as in the Q u r'a n ic exam ple of Egypt's p h arao h s, these athar are m agnificent palaces, tom bs a n d tem p les. Som etim es, as in the case of the O ttom an En'am-i §erif th ey a re
literally books th at fall in your lap.
U sed by com m on folk a n d ru le r alike, the En'am-i $erif w as p erh ap s th e m o st p o p u la r O tto m an prayer book of th e late eighteenth a n d nineteenth centuries, y et asid e fro m n o tin g the fact of its existence, little if an y th in g has been w ritte n a b o u t it. In 1995, the U niversity of Victoria p u rch a se d a n illustrated eighteenth-century
En'am -j ferif h o rn a local resident, R obert Noel-Bentley. The fam ily w as T urkish,
o rig in ally n a m e d Ben Ezra, a n d w ere th e descendents of Sephardic Jews fro m Spain.^ This tw o hundred-year-old m an u scrip t h a d been bro u g h t to C a n ad a from Ista n b u l in th e 1930s by Noel-Bentley's im m ig ran t g randfather, a Jew ish c arp et
^The Qur'an, chapter 40, verse 21. Qur'anic passages have been italicized for ease of
identification. The English translation b y Y usuf 'AH, The Holy Qur'an: English translation of the
meanings and commentary, revised and edited b y The Presidency o f Islamic Researches, EFTA,
Call a n d Guidance. Medina. 1410/1989-90. A ll further references to the Qur'an w ill sim p ly be noted according to chapter and verse, eg.: 40:21.
-22:46.
^At the tim e o f the Christian Reconquest, m any Jews accepted the invitation of the O ttoman sultan to settle in Ottoman lands.
m erchant. The m an u scrip t passed from fath er to son until 1995, w h e n the U niversity of V ictoria pu rch ased it from Noel-Bentley.^
A s b o th a M uslim a n d a scholar, I h av e fo u n d the stu d y of th e E n a m -i ^ r i f to be a rem ark ab le challenge, for its very existence flies in the face of w h a t has long b een accepted as a prim ary rule of Islam ic a rt, the rejection of
representational im agery in a sacred context. U n til now , existing religious im agery h a s b een dism issed by scholars as e ith e r being historical or d id actic in nature, o r as h av in g com e from heterodox, o r S h i'a sources. This s tu d y w ill prove th a t one of the m ost popular prayer books in the O ttom an E m pire from the m id -eig h teen th to late nineteenth centuries com bined Q u r’anic text w ith images th a t can only be described as sacred in n atu re.
T he En'am-i ferifw a s a m anuscript p ro d u c e d an d o w n ed b y m em b ers of the o rth o d o x religious clergy w ho w ere also freq u en tly initiates of th e v ario u s Sufi o rd ers or their affiliates. These Enam-x w ere often placed in e n d o w ed libraries b y m em bers of the ruling elite for th e u se of o rdinary M uslim s as a n aid or en h an cem en t to their daily devotions. T he m an u scrip t's sacred text, as w ell as its im ages, b o th calligraphic an d representational, w ere considered to be
conduits for baraka, o r Divine grace. In o rd e r to b e tter com prehend this concept, it helps if w e think in term s th at are analogous to the m o d em u n d e rs ta n d in g of electricity. The Q u r'a n refers to God as h a v in g "power over all things. G o d is perceived as being the source of all pow er, all D ivine grace. The average p e rso n w ishing to benefit from th a t grace, or p o w er, c an n o t tap directly into its Source, m uch as o n e cannot n o t p lu g directly into a n electric pow er station. W h at is needed is a tran sm itter of th at pow er, a sain tly p e rso n or object acting n o t as a source, b u t as a co n d u it for Divine grace. A s w e sh all see in the pages th a t follow, to th e O ttom ans of the late eighteenth a n d nineteenth centuries, the
En am-i ^ i f served as ju st such a conduit.
’’Knowing m y interest in the religious aspect of Islamic art, m y supervisor, A nthony W elch, suggested this manuscript as a possible dissertation topic, and the rest, as they say, is history. ^3:189.
T he question w e m u s t b eg in w ith , is to w h a t ex ten t can we ever rea lly k n o w a b o u t the p eo p le o f the p a st, given an y n u m b er o f b arriers such as a d iv ersity of religious beliefs, languages, as w ell as political a n d econom ic ideologies o r system s? For exam ple, the stu d y o f Islam ic a rt in th e late tw en tieth century h as b e en stro n g ly in flu en ced b y the w ork o f O leg G rabar. hn. a n u m b er of w orks, including his sem in al
The Formation o f Islamic A r i f G rab ar q uestions th e v alid ity of the v ery term ,
"Islamic" art. For G rabar, a self-proclaim ed secu lar h u m a n is t/ the term "Islamic” does n o t refer to the a rt o f a p articu lar religion.®
"...the adjective 'Islam ic' sh o u ld n o t be tak en seriously in its literal sense. It is a conventional term to cover a b ro ad ly defined cultural en tity ov er m an y centuries a n d the faith of Islam is only one aspect of th a t entity."^ S ecularism is an ideology w h o se p ro p o n en ts "consciously denounce all form s of su p e m a tu ra lism an d th e agencies d e v o te d to it, ad v o catin g non-religious o r an ti- religious principles as th e basis for p erso n al m o rality a n d social organization."^" G iv en this definition, it is n o t su p risin g th a t a scholar w h o em braces a secular id eo lo g y w o u ld reject relig io n as th e p rim a ry basis of Islam ic art.
G rab ar's secularist p o in t of v iew h as b een tak en u p b y his successors in the field. In th e first p a ra g ra p h of their 1997 book, Islamic Arts, Sheila Blair a n d
Jo n ath an B loom begin w ith a definition o f Islam ic art: "Islamic art refers to th e a rts of all Islam ic cultures a n d n o t ju st to the arts related to the religion of Islam." “ In th e
"Published b y Yale University in 1973 and revised in 1987.
' Althougir Dr. Grabar has not, to m y know ledge, m ade clear his ow n w orld-view in his w ritings, h e did so in his op en in g remarks delivered to a conference on "Inscription as Art in the W orld o f Islam," held A pril 25-27,1996 at Hofstra U niversity in Hampstead, N e w York.
O leg Grabar, The Formation o f Islamic A rt, revised edition, Yale University Press: N e w H aven and London, 1987, p. 1.
O leg Grabar, "The Aesthetics o f Islamic Art," in The Pursuit of Excellence: Works of art
from the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts, Istanbul, 1993, p. xix. The Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mircea Elide, vol. 6, p. 159.
The A rts and Architecture o f Islam, 1250-1800, Blair an d B loom n ote th at until recently
th e s tu d y of Islamic a rt w a s largely the p u rv iew of W estern scholars. H ow ever, they n ote, a n increasing n u m b e r of scholars from w ith in the Islam ic w o rld is perceiving the a rt "in a different lig h t a n d ask of it different questions."
"Paradoxically, w h ile m u ch of th e Islamic w orld h as been in ten t on rediscovering a n d v alid atin g a trad itio n of Islam ic art...other
scholars, p articu larly in the W est, have come to q u estio n the validity of concepts such as 'Islamic' art."^^
Blair a n d Bloom a rg u e th at the concept of a u n ified Islam ic a rt is largely a creation o f n in eteen th a n d tw entieth-century W estern scholarship th a t has been accepted "som ew hat uncritically by new ly em pow ered co u n tries seeking to v alidate th eir po sitio n in the tw e n tieth century a n d create connections w ith p a st glories."^^
O n the other sid e o f the arg u m en t w e find M uslim scholars such as Seyyed H ossein N asr, Titus B urckhardt, N ad er A rd alan an d L aleh B akhtiar w ho view Islam ic a rt as one w h ich is essentially sacred in nature, inextricably connected to the religion itself.
"The question of th e origin of Islam ic a rt and the n a tu re of the forces an d p rin cip les w hich b ro u g h t this art into b e in g m u st
therefore be rela te d to the w orld-view of Islam itself, to the Islamic revelation, one of w hose radiations is directly th e sacred a rt of Islam an d in d irectly the w hole of Islamic art. The causal relation b etw een the Islam ic revelation a n d Islamic art, m o reo v er, is borne o u t by the organic ra p p o rt b etw een this art an d Islam ic w orship, b etw een the co n tem p latio n of G od as recom m ended in the Q u r'an a n d the contem plative n atu re of this art, betw een th e rem em brance of G od (dhikrallah) w h ich is the final goal of all Islam ic w o rsh ip , and th e Islamic a rt of b o th a plastic a n d sonoral n a tu re in th e fife of in d iv id u al M uslim s a n d the com m unity or aTummah as a w hole. This art could n o t p erfo rm such a spiritual function if it w ere n o t
^^Sheila Blair and Jonathan Bloom, The A rt and Architecture of Islam, 1250-1800, Yale University Press: N e w H aven and London, 1995, (preface).
the Islam ic revelation."^^
O ne of the m ain problem s facing those w ho w o u ld ex am in e the
connections b etw een Islam as a religious system an d the p ro d u c tio n of a rt or architecture is th at of au th o rial voice. All scholarly w orks are w ritte n b y in d iv id u als w ho h av e a p articu lar p o in t of view. It has been a rg u e d th a t the g rea t d iv id e am o n g Islam ic a rt historians today is n o t so m u ch M u slim vs. non- M uslim as it is a secular w o rld v iew vs. one w hich is religious.^® W h en a n
au th o rial voice is n o t identified as such, underlying assu m p tio n s o r ag en d as m ay n o t be clearly articulated, ren d erin g scholarly argum ents difficult for th e read er to assess. O ne m ajor p ro b lem is th a t both secular an d religiously o rien ted scholars h av e fallen sh o rt of the m ark w hen it comes to ex arn in in g specific b u ild in g s or objects. W hile the secularists acknow ledge Islam 's essen tial role in the creation of an u n d e rly in g aesthetic or m eaning, their su b se q u e n t
consideration of p articu lar w orks generally omits a n y serious d isc u ssio n of religion. O n the o th er h a n d , w hile those w ith a religious w o rld -v iew h a v e m ade "a stro n g case for u n ity of expression in all Islamic a rt p ro d u c tio n b a se d o n Islam ic precepts," th ey have rarely attem pted a "serious c o n sid eratio n of th e a rt itself."^'
^^Seyyed H ossein Nasr, Islamic A rt and Spirituality, Ipswich, 1987, p. 4. This argum ent is repeated in various forms in the works o f Titus Burckhardt (see for example: A r t o f Islam:
Language and Meaning, trans. P. Hobson, World of Islam Festival: London, 1976, or "The
Spirituality of Islamic Art," in Islamic Spirituality, ed. Seyyed H ossein Nasr, v o l. 20 of W orld Spirituality: A n Encyclopedic H istory of the Religious (ÿrest. Crossroad: N e w York, 1991, pp. 506-527); and Nader Ardalan and Laleh Bakhtiar, The Sense of Unity: The Sufi Tradition in Persian
Architecture, University o f Chicago Press: Chicago and London, 1973.
For a discussion of the concept o f authorial voice and subject positions see Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: an introduction. University of Minnesota Press: M inneapolis, 1983, especially p. 67 and 119.
^^The follow ing argument is based upon N ancy Micklewright's lecture entitled: "Religious Imagery in Islamic Art: Problems of Definition and Understanding," delivered to the University of Victoria's Centre for Studies in Religion and Society on jTmuary 15,1998.
Taken from an unpublished paper by Dr. Nancy Micklewright and quoted b y perm ission of the author.
As a M uslim , m y o w n w orld-view is one th a t is inherently religious. A s such, I cannot h elp b u t w rite this d issertatio n fro m a religious, a n d specifically Islam ic p o in t of view.^® A s a scholar I a m tra in e d in the scientific m eth o d s o f observation a n d analysis, a n d these, too, fo rm a n integral p a rt of m y w ork. In his article entitled, "The S tu d y o f M uham m ad; a su rv e y of approaches from th e
p erspective of th e h isto ry a n d phen o m en o lo g y o f religion," Jam es R oyster o u tlin e d th e benefits of a p henom enological a p p ro a c h to the stu d y of religion. R oyster
rejected a strictly h isto rid stic approach, o n e th a t seeks "w hat really h ap p en ed ," for a n u m b e r of reasons. H isto rid sm , he says, rem ain s valid as lo n g as it is d escrip tiv e. U nfortunately, faced w ith a frequent lack o f reliable sources researchers h a v e
som etim es m ad e "hasty observations fro m w h ic h th ey d raw non-sequitur conclusions u p o n w hich th ey base sw ee p in g generalizations th a t lead to erroneous
pronouncements."^® These p ro n o u n cem en ts are th e n d te d by stu d en ts as "facts."~° R oyster also discredits red u ctio n ist m ethodologies, such as cu ltu ral red u ctio n ism , o r functionalism , w h ich seeks to explain th in g s in term s of their cu ltu ral context, a n d exordial red u ctio n ism w h ich seeks to d isco v er origins, sources a n d influences b ecause they "can co n trib u te little to an u n d e rsta n d in g of h o w germ inal elem en ts are ap p ro p riated , a d a p te d a n d n u rtu re d w ith in a given religious trad itio n , m u c h less w h a t such features actu ally m ean to th e p eo p le w ho have assim ilated them ."“^
A phenom enological approach, o n th e o th er h an d , m akes u n d e rs ta n d in g its prim ary objective. This u n d e rstan d in g , th e "gaining of insight into th e n a tu re of religious experience,"^ is achieved th ro u g h the process of grasp in g m ean in g , eith er the m ean in g of a n actio n or, in the case of the , an object, from the p o in t of
her introduction to Deciphering the Signs of God: A phenomenological approach to Islam,
Annemarie Schimmel notes that especially w h en dealing w ith religion "the personal bias o f the researcher cannot but be reflected in the study." p. xii.
^®James Royster, "The Study o f Muhammad: a survey of approaches from the perspective o f the history and phenom enology o f religion," The M uslim World, vol. 62,1972, p. 55.
^°The illusory nature of historical facts has been a subject o f epistemological debate since Edward Hallet Carr's What is History? Vintage Books: N e w York, 1961. See pages 89-94. ^^Royster, p. 61.
of p h en o m e n o lo g y h as been to focus on the p ro cess of u n d e rstan d in g th a t takes place w h e n a g iv en subject, say for exam ple a religious p e rso n or scholar,
confronts a n object, a religious ph en o m en o n , o r text.~^ A phenom enological a p p ro a c h assu m es th a t the em pirical m anifestations of religious p h en o m en a conceal d e e p e r n o u m en a l o r sacred realities.^ By v iew in g th e process o f relig io n in term s o f s tim u lu s /re sp o n se w h ereb y the sacred or n o u m en al calls fo rth a religious th o u g h t o r action, phenom enologists are able to isolate this religious resp o n se o r experience as a field of research .^
D ue to th e sacred n atu re o f th e E n a m -i §erif, a n d o n th e basis of th e a rg u m e n ts o u tlin e d in the above discussion, I h a v e d ecid ed to use a
m eth o d o lo g y th a t is b o th phenom enological a n d historical in approach.-^ A n a p p e n d e d catalo g u e includes d etailed d escrip tio n s of som e tw enty-eight m an u scrip ts. T his catalogue has b een p ro d u c e d u sin g the tools of observation, reco rd in g a n d analysis fam iliar to anyone w h o has stu d ied a rt history. W h erev er possible, in th e b o d y of the text I h ave u sed th e voices o f M uslim s them selves, p referab ly th o se of the contem porary period. A s it is n o t possible to q u estio n eig h tee n th a n d nin eteenth-century O ttom ans concerning th eir use of these
m an u scrip ts, I h av e relied u p o n the kn o w led g e of those w h o are the in h erito rs of th eir o ral tra d itio n s.^ As to m y ability to b rack et o u t m y beliefs, a vital factor in
~^The phenom enological goal o f understanding an object "from the point o f view of those w h o created or u sed it," is not an easy one. It has m any of the sam e difficulties as functionalism , w h ich tries to gain an understanding o f h o w objects w ere used in society. A lthough both approaches make understanding their primary objective, a functional approach concentrates on the function, or role a given object m ay have played, w h ile the phenom enological approach focuses o n its m eaning.
Richard C. Martin, "Islam and religious studies: an introductory essay," in Approaches
to Islam in Religious Studies. Tucson: The University o f Arizona Press, 1985, p. 8.
^M artin, p. 7 ^^Martin, p. 8.
“^According to Martin (p. 7), "Many phenom enologists have opted for m ethodological pluralism , com bining w hatever approaches in historical, linguistic, and social-scientific studies that w o u ld seem to throw light o n the religious phenom ena under
investigation."
^®The m ethods o f learning and transmitting know ledge in the Islamic w orld have traditionally b een oral. Beginning w ith the Qur'an, Islamic texts have been learned ”h y
8
successfully u sin g a phenom enological approach, I m ake no su ch claim .^
In ste ad , I p ro p o se to clearly identify these beliefs, a n d h o p efu lly allow the reader to see h o w these beliefs have sh ap ed m y argum ents.
II. Field w o rk.
I b e g an m y research by tho ro u g h ly fam iliarizing m yself w ith the
U n iv ersity of Victoria's m anuscript. I researched the catalogues of library a n d m u se u m h o ld in g s in N o rth A m erica a n d Europe, finding several exam ples of m an u scrip ts th a t seem ed sim ilar in content. The earliest of these m anuscripts, O R 4251, d a te d 1170/1756-57, w as located in the British L ibrary's O riental an d In d ia n Office collection, necessitating a prelim inary visit to L o n d o n in 1995. D u rin g th e w in ter of 1996 I travelled to N ew York to exam ine a n d p h o to g rap h sev eral m an u scrip ts in the N ew York Public Library. The su m m er of 1996 w as s p e n t in Istanbul, p h o to g rap h in g an d taking detailed notes of m ore th a n a h u n d r e d m an u scrip ts in several locations, including the Süleym aniye Library, th e T o p k ap i Sarayi M useum Library, the Istanbul U niversity L ibrary, a n d the
heart," and a teacher’s perm ission to transmit them, the icazet, w ould be granted only after the student had offered proof o f their memorization and understanding. These w ritten icazet w o u ld contain the names of all those who had transmitted the text, reaching back to the original author. The was a manuscript produced and used prim arily b y members of the various Sufi orders and their affiliates. The Sufi orders a lso have their silsilas, or chains of transmission of authority, reaching back from teacher to p up il to the Prophet Muhammad. As such, today’s Sufi shaykhs are the inheritors o f their orders’ oral traditions concerning Islamic belief and ritual. I have relied u p on this oral tradition to explain the ritual use of the images found in these texts, especially in m y discussion of the practice of ta 'viz, or the preparation of protective am ulets, in Chapter Three.
Royster’s statement that the phenom enological approach is the closest one m ay come to an understanding o f som eone else’s religion short of achial conversion (p. 64) m ight b e taken as an argum ent which w ou ld preclude me from using this m ethodology. M y answ er to this challenge w ou ld be two-fold. First, that being a believer does not mean that one m ust necessarily lack either objectivity or balance. Secondly, from an Islamic p o in t o f view , all revealed religions are sim ply variations of the sam e M essage.
Because there are as m any understandings o f Islam as there are M uslim s, the challenge to be objective and balanced should not be any harder for m e than it w o u ld be for scholars o f another faith.
