Working gendered boundaries : temporary migration experiences of Bangladeshi women in the Malaysian export industry from a multi-sited perspective - Table of contents

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Working gendered boundaries : temporary migration experiences of

Bangladeshi women in the Malaysian export industry from a multi-sited

perspective

Rudnick, A.M.

Publication date

2009

Link to publication

Citation for published version (APA):

Rudnick, A. M. (2009). Working gendered boundaries : temporary migration experiences of

Bangladeshi women in the Malaysian export industry from a multi-sited perspective.

Vossiuspers - Amsterdam University Press.

http://nl.aup.nl/books/9789056295608-working-gendered-boundaries.html

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements . . . 9

Chapter 1: Introduction . . . 13

1.1 Temporary labour migration . . . 14

1.2 South to South migration . . . 15

1.3 The feminization of migration . . . 15

1.4 Focus of the study . . . 17

1.5 Outline of the book . . . 18

Chapter 2: Engendering Migration Theory . . . 19

2.1 Why does gender matter? . . . 20

2.2 Crossing boundaries: towards an engendered theoretical framework . . . 22

2.3 The pre-migration stage . . . 25

2.4 The migration stage . . . 36

2.5 The post-migration stage . . . 42

2.6 Conclusion . . . 44

Chapter 3: The Sending and the Receiving Country: Bangladesh and Malaysia. . 45

3.1 Bangladesh: Economic and demographic context . . . 45

3.2 Migration: scope and direction of flows . . . 48

3.3 Women, marriage and work in Bangladesh . . . 51

3.4 Female migration . . . 55

3.5 The recruitment process: government policies, recruiters and procedures . . . . 57

3.6 Destinations: the Middle East and Malaysia . . . 59

3.7 Malaysia: Economic and Demographic context . . . 60

3.8 The role of the manufacturing sector until the 1997 crisis . . . 62

3.9 Foreign workers . . . 64

3.10 The Asian economic crisis and its impact on migrant workers . . . 66

3.11 Migration policies . . . 68

3.12 Legal protection of migrant workers . . . 72

3.13 Public discourse . . . 73

Chapter 4: The Field Setting: Methodological Issues Regarding Gender-sensitive Research . . . 77

4.1 The research sites. . . 78

4.2 Research methods . . . 82

4.3 Respondents' and researchers' social position in the study. . . 86

Chapter 5: Why Migrate? . . . 99

5.1 Bangladeshi female migrants: socio-economic characteristics . . . 99

5.2 Why did the women migrate? . . . 102

5.3 Economic motivations . . . 105

5.4 Personal motivations for migration . . . 107

5.5 Socioculturally embeddedness of economic incentives . . . 109

5.6 Men's migration motivations . . . 123

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Chapter 6: From Desire to Decision and Departure . . . 129

6.1 Decision-making processes of female migrants and gendered constraints . . . 129

6.2 Decisions, strategies and resources . . . 131

6.3 Tapping into the migrant institution . . . 140

Chapter 7: Working in Malaysia's Export Industry: Conditions and Wages . . . 151

7.1 Companies . . . 151

7.2 Factors affecting employment conditions . . . 152

7.3 Collective action . . . 166

7.4 Divisions in the labour force . . . 168

7.5 Coping mechanisms . . . 172

7.6 Contract renewal . . . 175

7.7 Absconding . . . 176

7.8 Differences between migrant women and men . . . 180

7.9 Job satisfaction. . . 182

Chapter 8: Living in Malaysia: Negotiating Two Cultures . . . 187

8.1 Malaysia and Bangladesh: differences in gender roles. . . 188

8.2 The new social environment . . . 190

8.3 Defamation . . . 195

8.4 Women about women . . . 199

8.5 Courtship . . . 202

8.6 Potential grooms and marriages. . . 206

8.7 Staying on . . . 211

Chapter 9: Back in Bangladesh: a New Beginning? . . . 217

9.1 Remittances . . . 218

9.2 Allocation of remittances . . . 221

9.3 Money and gender . . . 226

9.4 Economic aspirations: financial investments made . . . 230

9.5 Fulfilling women's social migration aspirations . . . 244

9.6 Women's position in and versus the community . . . 255

9.7 Returned migrant women and work . . . 257

9.8 Personal gains. . . 259

Chapter 10: Conclusions . . . 265

10.1 The pre-migration stage . . . 265

10.2 The migration stage . . . 270

10.3 Post-migration stage: back in Bangladesh . . . 280

10.4 Towards a new analytical model . . . 287

References . . . 291

Summary . . . 309

Samenvatting. . . 313

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List of Figures

Figure 2.1: Dual domain embeddedness during migration. . . .37

Figure 10.1: Understanding the migration process . . . .288

List of Maps

Map 3.1: South-South East Asia . . . .45

Map 3.2: Bangladesh . . . .46

Map 3.3: Malaysia . . . .61

List of Tables:

Table 3.1: Structure of the Bangladeshi economy (% of GDP) . . . .47

Table 3.2: Migration by country of employment (1976-2002). . . .50

Table 3.3: Structure of the Malaysian economy (% of GDP) . . . .62

Table 3.4: Documented foreign workers in Peninsular Malaysia . . . .65

Table 3.5: GDP growth and growth per sector . . . .67

Table 4.1: Fieldwork structuring . . . .79

Table 5.1: Age upon arrival in Malaysia . . . .99

Table 5.2: Marital status and average age upon arrival in Malaysia . . . .100

Table 5.3: Number of children among the Bangladeshi migrant women . . . . .100

Table 5.4 Years of schooling among the Bangladeshi migrant women . . . .101

Table 5.5: Jobs prior to migration. . . .102

Table 5.6: Decision making regarding migration: impact of marital status . . .103

Table 5.7: Primary motivation for migration . . . .104

Table 5.8 Level of education of men and women . . . .124

Table 5.9: Men’s primary reason for migration . . . .125

Table 5.10: Decision making concerning migration . . . .125

Table 6.1: Decision-making process . . . .132

Table 6.2: Primary means by which the fee was financed . . . .142

Table 6.3: Primary sources of financing fee (extended) . . . .143

Table 6.4 Women’s fee by time of departure for Malaysia. . . .144

Table 7.1: Companies employing Bangladeshi women . . . .152

Table 7.2: Average net monthly earnings after deductions . . . .153

Table 7.3: Value of the Malaysian ringgit in Bangladeshi takas. . . .162

Table 9.1: Remittances per factory and average number of months spent in Malaysia . . . .220

Table 9.2: Allocation of remittances . . . .222

Table 9.3: Decision making concerning the allocation of remittances . . . .222

Table 9.4: Monthly earnings, living costs and remittances (in ringgits) . . . .224

List of Boxes:

Box 4.1: Fieldwork experiences. . . .92

Box 9.1: Nazma’s home coming – I. . . .218

Box 9.2: Nazma’s homecoming – II . . . .225

Box 9.3: Nazma’s homecoming – IV . . . .239

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Box 9.5: Nahar’s story – II . . . .248 Box 9.6: Nazma’s homecoming – V . . . .259 8 Table of Contents