Satisfied with diversity?
A quantitative research on the effects of diversity approaches on job
satisfaction and the moderating role of perceived discrimination.
Master Thesis
Student: Helen van der Weij
Student number: 10000531
Date: 29 – 06 - 2017
Supervisor: Dr. J. Slevin
Email address: hjmvanderweij@hotmail.nl
Master specialization: Corporate Communication
Abstract
Organizations experience major problems when they face diversity among employees. Diversity can cause negative effects when it is not managed properly, such as perceived discrimination and decreased job satisfaction. Diversity can be managed by implementing the right diversity approach within an organization and communicate this clearly. This study tried to answer the question what effect diversity approaches have on job satisfaction and how perceived discrimination influences this relation. Some important results have been found in the study. First, the results showed that workers that perceive more discrimination have indeed lower job satisfaction. Second, implementing the colorblind approach within an organization, which means that diversity is ignored and everybody is treated the exact same, is according tot his study the best way to manage diversity. This colorblind approach
increases job satisfaction and decreases perceived discrimination. There was no moderating effect of perceived discrimination found, this means that perceived discrimination does not influence the effect of diversity approaches on job satisfaction. With these results,
recommendations concerning the diversity problem can be made for organizations. It is recommended for organizations to implement the colorblind approach when it is facing, or will face, diversity. Both organization and workers are likely to benefit from it, though it is highly important that communication plays a big part in this. The message that diversity will be ignored and that everyone will be treated the exact same way, regardless gender, ethnicity or any other barrier of communication, should be clearly communicated throughout the organization.
Keywords: diversity; diversity management; discrimination; job satisfaction; diversity approaches; colorblind
approach; colorful approach; organizations; communication; organizational discrimination; work outcome; minorities; majorities; gender; ethnicity
Introduction
Starting a new chapter in life by accepting a challenging new job sounds as something
positive many people may strive for. Though, especially when you might belong to a minority this new job might be challenging in another, undesired, way. Problems of belonging to a minority may arise when your co-workers or supervisors start treating you differenty and communicate with you differently. They also may criticize you, this all not because of your capacities but due to for example your gender, ethnicity or any other barrier of participation. This way of treating people differently is what can be called discrimination (Barmes, 2003).
Discrimination is a problem for which society does not seem to have the solutions for. It would be good start with finding insights on how organizations could be able to manage this problem. It is stated that minorities, which are the people who are most likely to perceive discrimination, feel like they are treated more unequal than their majority co-workers (Dinsbach, 2007 ; Nunez-Smith et al., 2009). The feeling of being discriminated in the workplace is not only harmful for the employee, but also for the organization. Perceived discrimination among employees can lead to decreased job satisfaction, that again may lead to higher turnover intentions (Madera et al., 2012). Employees with skills that are important to the organization are extremely valuable for organizational success, therefore retention of these employees is highly important (Perryer et al., 2010). For this reason turnover intentions are something managers always want to prevent. A possible way to decrease perceived
discrimination is to implement the right diversity approach in the organization. This way, organizations will have clear guidelines on how to deal with diversity.
Different scholars have been researching workplace discrimination. Studies by Deitch et al., (2003), Hyondong, Lee and Sung (2013), Madera et al. (2012) and Taylor et al. (2013) show that perceived discrimination is indeed a predictor for job satisfaction. Two very common grounds of discrimination are gender (Patterson & Walcutt, 2013) and ethnicity (Nunez-Smith, 2009). Chan, Tran and Nguyen (2012) show that perceived discrimination differs between ethnic groups. Additional to that, it is also stated that women are more likely to feel discriminated than men (Patterson & Walcutt, 2013). Some of these prior studies, like Hyondong et al. (2013), already suggested that organizations should implement an approach to manage diversity, so they could work towards a better fit for all workers within the organization. Additional to that, there are scholars who state that for specific occupational groups organizations tried to already implement some sort of approach to handle diversity in their specific sector (Nunez-Smith et al., 2009). A recent study came up with a specific way of handling diversity in any organization. The study by Jansen et al. (2015) states that managers have two main options to handle diversity. First, managers can choose to embrace diversity and use the strength of each different individual. This is what can be called the colorful approach. Second, managers can choose to ignore diversity and treat every employee exactly the same, not considering that people are in fact different. This is what can be called the colorblind approach.
This current study examined the direct effect of the way organizations manage diversity on job satisfaction. Additional to that, the study examined if there actually exists perceived discrimination and if so, how this influences the effect of the approaches on job satisfaction. This is examined to provide solutions for the difficulties that organizations experience when facing diversity. Because of this study combining three important elements that have only
combine these elements themself. Which means that with this study it will be clear to managers which employees perceive discrimination, what diversity approach can be implemented in their organization best and what influence this all has on employees’ job satisfaction.
With the following research question it is aimed to find solutions for the diversity problem and with that provide concrete recommendations for organizations on how to manage
diversity and communicate this within their organization: “ What effect do different diversity approaches have on job satisfaction and to what extent is this moderated by perceived discrimination?”
Theory
In every setting in society, challenges with diversity are present. Minorities as well as majorities face problems with diversity, like negativity related to status and the amount, plus what kind of communication they receive. These challenges arise in the every day life, of which work is a big part (Broome, 2008). In the Netherlands organizations make their own policies on how to deal with diversity. The organizations that have clear policies on this, do this mainly to manage the diversity that is already present in the organization (Groeneveld & Verbeek, 2012).
To study this problem as a whole, different concepts were examined. The main concepts of the study were diversity approaches, job satisfaction and perceived discrimination. Two mutually exclusive diversity approaches were measured to have the most detailed view on how an organization handles diversity. This led to concrete outcomes, which are easy to translate to any organization. Communication is the most important aspect here because these
diversity approaches are all about what message is issued by the organization and how strong they communicate this to their employees. When diversity approaches are clearly
implemented and communicated within an organization, it is stated to improve the climate and reduce perceived discrimination (Nunez-Smit et al., 2009). Based on existing literature some expectations existed on the relationships between the main concepts. It was expected that the two different diversity approaches, colorful and colorblind, would have an effect on job satisfaction. It was also expected that perceived discrimination strengthens or weakens the effect of diversity approaches on job satisfaction. Additional to that, the influence of ethnicity and gender has been investigated.
Diversity approaches
An all-encompassing thought in modern society is that no matter the differences, people should be treated the same. Which is in line with some scholars’ thoughts, like the study by Green (2010) who tried to implement a method to reduce perceived discrimination by
complete equal treatment. An older study that is also in line with these thoughts is the one by van Knippenberg, de Deu and Homan (2004). They already stated that categorizing
employees or co-workers based on social elements could interrupt professional perspectives. Additional to this, they did state that all kinds of differences on which people might
categorize one another are different and for that reason may have their own threats and benefits for an organization. Chatman (2010) did not agree with the idea that diversity is inherently bad for an organization, she stated that showing differences and interaction between those different groups can be very useful for an organization. Though, she did state that it can also cause greater dysfunctions, but that an organization can overcome these by finding norms to make the different groups understand each other better. Dinsbach, Feij and
each other, majorities and minorities. This study did acknowledge the fact that people or groups within the same organization do differ from each other and that this should be taken in to account when the organization decides on how to take care of their employees. A recent study by Jansen et al. (2016) was even more specific on the topic. This study stated that differences can be acknowledged and embraced by an organization, but is does not have to be that way. The study highlighted both sides and stated that there are two specific ways to handle diversity within an organization. The first option is to indeed disagree with scholars like Green and embrace diversity within the organization. This means managers choose to look at the strengths and improvements that diversity brings to the organization. This is what is called the colorful approach. The second option is to agree with scholars like Green and ignore diversity completely, the so-called colorblind approach. This study by Jansen et al. agreed with Dinsbach et al. on the fact that there are differences between majorities and minorities. The study shows that the colorful approach is considered more positive among minorities and the colorblind approach among majorities. Jansen et al. did state that this is mediated by more data and that both approaches have strong benefits. One of these benefits could for example be increased job satisfaction. This concept is discussed in the next section. For both approaches, communicating the message that belongs to the specific approach is essential.
Job satisfaction and perceived discrimination
Different scholars showed in their studies that job satisfaction is directly influenced by perceived discrimination (Deitch et al., 2003 ; Hyondong, Lee & Sung, 2013 ; Madera et al., 2012). Though, there are also studies that showed that perceived discrimination is indeed a predictor for job satisfaction, but that the effect is indirect. Taylor et al. (2013) stated that the effect is both direct and indirect. This means that there are other aspects within organizations
that are important when this topic is studied. According to prior studies, important aspects of perceived discrimination are the differences between groups within an organization.
Dinsbach, Feij and de Vries (2007) stated that minorities within an organization perceive less person-related communication and with that feel like they are more often treated unequal than their majority co-workers. Contrary to that, minorities do perceive higher levels of work-related communication, which leads to increased job satisfaction. This means that belonging to a minority at the workplace does not necessarily also mean more negative work outcomes. Jansen et al. (2016) were in line with the thought that belonging to a minority may indeed increase the job satisfaction, but underlines that there are more concepts needed to examine this correctly. Jansen et al. stated that both minorities and majorities could perceive increased job satisfaction when the right approach in handling diversity is implemented in the
organization. According to their study, the colorblind approach leads to increased job satisfaction among majority workers. Though, this may be of disadvantage for manority workers, because there is no attention for the possible new ideas they bring to the table according to their background. Vice versa, this study states that the colorful approach leads to increased job satisfaction among minority workers, which again may be of disadvantage to the majority workers due to for example the changes they have to make. Jansen et al. did agree with Taylor et al. on the point that there are more concepts needed to me examined when drawing conclusions on this topic. Two well-examined aspects that may lead to belonging to a minority or majority and for that reason may have an influence on job
satisfaction or even discrimination (Jansen et al.; Dinsbach, Feij & de Vries) are the workers’ ethnicity and gender.
Ethnicity and gender discrimination
Perceived discrimination is stated to differ between groups, examples of very common grounds of discrimination are ethnicity (Chan, Tran & Nguyen, 2012) and gender (Patterson & Walcutt, 2013). Both ethnicity and gender appear as central concepts in the work of many scholars. The centrality of these two concepts can be explained by their relevance to all forms of organization. Nunez et al. (2009) state that these groups that differ from the rest are indeed more likely to perceive discomfort at the workplace. The study by Deitch et al. (2003) is in line with the thought that minorities feel less satisfied with their job. The study by Magee and Umamaheswar (2011) also agrees on these thoughts. In their study they found that workers with a different skin color perceive lower job satisfaction than their co-workers with skin colors that are more common within the organization. This decreased job satisfaction arises from the feeling of being treated unfairly. Contrary to these studies, as stated in the previous theory section, there are also scholars who state that minorities might indeed face some negative outcomes but actually experience increased job satisfaction (Dinsbach, Feij & de Vries, 2007). For gender discrimination applies that it is stated to be decreasing the past decades, but that it still exists in many organizations (Patterson & Walcutt, 2013). Patterson and Walcutt even state that every research up to 2013 on this topic shows evidence for gender discrimination. Comparing men to women, women are more likely to feel discriminated at the workplace than men. With this increased perceived discrimination, women are also more likely to perceive lower job satisfaction than men (Hyondong, Lee & Sung, 2013). Bringing both ethnicity and gender together, Green (2010) states that the use of both ethnicity and gender based decisions result indeed in workplace discrimination.
Further to these theories the following hypotheses have been formulated:
H1: The diversity approach that is implemented within an organization has a direct influence on job satisfaction.
H2a: The diversity approach that is implemented within an organization has a direct influence on perceived organizational discrimination.
H2b: The diversity approach that is implemented within an organization has a direct influence on perceived personal discrimination.
H3: The more perceived discrimination workers experience, the stronger the effect of the diversity approach on job satisfaction will be.
H4a: The more perceived organizational discrimination workers experience, the lower their job satisfaction will be.
H4b: The more perceived personal discrimination workers experience, the lower their job satisfaction will be.
H5a: Minority workers perceive more organizational discrimination than majority workers. H5b: Minority workers perceive more personal discrimination than majority workers.
H6a: Ethnic minority workers will perceive more organizational discrimination than ethnic majority workers.
H6b: Ethnic minority workers will perceive more personal discrimination than ethnic majority workers.
H7a: Female workers will perceive more organizational discrimination than men. H7b: Female workers will perceive more personal discrimination than men.
Method and sample Sample
For this research, a convenience sample was used. This allowed the researcher to find a large amount of respondents in a short amount of time. The study employed a cross-sectional survey among 247 adults between the age of 18 and 67 who work at least three days a week for the same organization. The respondents have been recruited through an online link via social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and LinkedIn) and personal emails. This again allowed the researcher to gain a sample as large as possible in a relative short amount of time. Using this sample, the actual society has been reflected the best as possible,
which means that the studied problems and connecting results are reliable. Because of the generalizability, this sample provided the most real life information possible and can be therefor implemented in real organizations.
Method
Diversity approach. Diversity approaches have been the independent variable in this research.
A scale from the research by Jansen et al. (2016) was used to measure this. All the items that were used in the original scale by Jansen were used in this research the same way. First, the colorblind approach was measured. The respondents were asked to what extent the four following statements apply to the organization they work for. For example, ‘Qualification matters in our organisation, not background’ and ‘when hiring, everybody is welcome as long as they meet the necessary requirements’. Second, the colourful approach was measured. Again the respondents were asked to what extent the four statements apply to the organization they work for. For example, ‘Cultural diversity brings new ideas and different knowledge to the workplace’ and ‘we adjust organizational strategies to fit new ways of working that employees from various backgrounds bring into the organisation’. The answering options were on a 7-point measuring scale, from 1 = Does not apply at all to 7 = Applies very much.
The study by Jansen showed benefits and challenges of both of the approaches. They showed
that both approaches may increase positive work outcomes, but also that not every approach is suitable for every workers group composition. Though, this study did not combine the direct effect of the diversity approaches on job satisfaction. It also does not implement the question if there is indeed perceptiveness of discrimination present.
Job satisfaction. The definition of this concept has been formulated as “The pleasurable
emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job as achieving or facilitating one’s job values” (Chung & Wing (2006). This definition was used because it focuses on workers’ feelings in combination with achieving their job values. Because of this, it is believed that this definition suited this study very well. Job satisfaction was the dependent variable in this research. To measure this variable a scale by Chun and Wing (2006) was used. Their scale was adapted from teachers’ job satisfaction to general job satisfaction. This scale consisted of five items, for example ‘In most ways, having the job I have now is close to my ideal’ and ‘ if I could choose my career over, I would change almost nothing’. These five items were
measured on a 7- point measuring scale, with answering options from 1 = totally disagree to 7 = totally agree.
Perceived discrimination. The definition of this concept has been formulated as “The feeling
of differential treatment on grounds of race, sex, or in relation to other barriers to
participation, so long a this is required to enable people to compete on equal levels” (Barmes, 2003). This definition is used because it specifically focuses on any barrier that may lead to unequal treatment. This is considered to be suitable for this study because the perception of discrimination has been investigated, regardless on what ground. Perceived discrimination was the moderating variable in this research, which means that it was expected that perceived discrimination would have an influence on the effect that diversity approaches have on job satisfaction. Perceived discrimination was expected to strengthen or weaken this effect. For this variable a scale by Chan et al. (2012) was used. The original scale consisted of nine items. The scale has been reduced to a scale consisting of only five items because some of the items did not measure information that was needed for this study. The respondents started with answering five questions based on their perceived discrimination concerning the
organization in general. The introduction to these five questions stated: ‘In the organisation I work for …’, after this the five statements followed. For example, ‘… there are people treated with less respect than others’ and ‘… there are people that act like they are better than others’. After that, five questions on perceived personal discrimination within the organization
followed. These questions were again introduced with the statement ‘In the organisation I work for..’, after that similar statements showed up. For example, ‘ ‘I am treated with less respect than others’ and ‘People act like they are better than me’. This means that in total there were ten items that measured perceived discrimination. The answering options were also reshaped, the six original options were adapted into a 7-point measuring scale, with answering options from 1 = Does not apply at all to 7 = Applies very much.
Control variables. Two variables for which was controlled at first are gender and ethnicity.
Gender was simply measured by a multiple-choice question where respondents could choose either male or female. To measure ethnicity, the focus has been on the respondents’ descent, which is one of the main features when defining an ethnic group (Zagefka, 2009). For this reason, the respondents were asked what their country of origin was. They had multiple options to choose from including a box that states ‘different’, where they could fill in an option that was not included in the list. After that, the respondents did the same for their parents’ country of origin. Next to these questions that measured gender and ethnicity, the respondents answered a question that started with ‘In the organization I work for, I feel like I belong to a…’, with after that the options ‘minority’, ‘majority’ or ‘neither of these’. Finally, respondents filled in some more questions on other demographics. They were asked for their age, their highest education level and for the sector in which they work.
Results
A total of 247 responses were collected during a two-week data collection period. The majority of these respondents was female (68,5%). Their average age was quite young (M = 31,7, SD = 12,48) and they were on average highly educated, 54% has at least a Bachelor’s degree. The respondents worked in 25 different sectors, of which the most common one’s were marketing/communications (15,32%), health care (12,1%) and the hospitality (10,9%). In terms of ethnicity, a clear majority of 89% was born in the Netherlands. Again, 86% of the respondents had a mother that was born in the Netherlands and for the fathers this was 85%. This means that the distribution in terms of ethnicity was very skewed. The respondents were not extremely satisfied, nor extremely unsatisfied with their job (M = 4,42, SD= 1,16). When it came to diversity approaches, the colorblind approach was a little more present in the organizations the respondents worked for (M = 5,34, SD = 0,84) than the colorful approach (M = 4,81, SD = 1,16). The respondents perceived more organizational discrimination (M = 3,76, SD = 1,42) than personal discrimination (M = 2,46, SD = 1,13). Half of the respondents felt like they did not belong to a minority neither to a majority within their organization. Of the people who did, 39% feels like they belong to a majority.
Before the data could be analysed, all the computed scales that measured the research variables have been tested on reliability. First, the scale measuring job satisfaction had been found to be reliable, Crohnbach’s alpha = 0, 80. Second, the scale measuring the colorblind approach had been found to be reasonably reliable, Crohnbach’s alpha = 0,62, there was no option to improve the reliability. Third, the scale measuring the colorful approach had been found to be reliable, Crohnbach’s alpha = 0,83. Last, the scales measuring organizational- and personal discrimination were tested. Both scales have been found to be reliable,
organizational discrimination scale, Crohnbach’s alpha = 0,87, and the personal discrimination scale, Crohnbach’s alpha = 0,84.
Hypothesis 1: The diversity approach that is implemented within an organization has a
direct influence on job satisfaction.
To test the first hypothesis, two regression analyses were conducted. First, the effect of the colorful approach was tested. The regression model was not significant, F (1, 246) = 0,79, p = 0,377. This means no effect of the colorful approach on job satisfaction was found. Second, the effect of the colorblind approach was tested. This regression model did show a significant result, F (1, 246) = 22, 73, p < 0,001. This means that the regression model can be used to predict job satisfaction, but the prediction is weak: Only 29% of the differences in job satisfaction can be predicted by means of the colorblind approach (R²= 0,29). The implementation of the colorblind approach, b* = 0,30, t = 4,95, p < 0,001, 95% CI [0,24, 0,57], has a significant, but weak, cohesion with job satisfaction. With each category of the colorblind approach the estimated job satisfaction increases with 0,40. This means that this hypothesis has been partly adopted, the colorful approach does not show any direct effect on job satisfaction but the colorblind approach does.
Hypothesis 2: The diversity approach that is implemented within an organization has a
direct influence on perceived discrimination.
To test the second hypothesis, four regression analyses were conducted. First, the effect of the colorblind approach on perceived organizational discrimination was tested. This regression model was significant, F (1, 246) = 7,46, p = 0,007. This means that the regression model can be used to predict organizational discrimination, but the prediction is very weak: Only 3% of
approach (R² = 0,03). The implementation of the colorblind approach, b* = -0,17, t = -2,73, p = 0,007, CI 95% [-0,10, -0,17], has a significant, but weak, cohesion with perceived
organizational discrimination. With each category of the colorblind approach the estimated perceived organizational discrimination decreases with 0,10. Second, the effect of the colorblind approach on perceived personal discrimination was tested. This regression model was also significant, F (1, 246) = 20,37, p < 0,001. This means that this regression model can be used to predict personal discrimination, but this prediction is also very weak: Only 8% of the differences in perceived personal discrimination can be predicted by means of the
colorblind approach (R²= 0,08). The implementation of the colorblind approach, b* = -0,28, t = -4,51, p < 0,001, CI95% [-0,30, -0,12], has a significant, but weak, cohesion with perceived personal discrimination. With every category of the colorblind approach the estimated
personal discrimination decreases with 0,21. Third, the effect of the colorful approach on perceived organizational discrimination was tested. This regression model was not significant, F (1, 246) = 0,01, p = 0,583. The last regression model, that tested the effect of the colorful approach on perceived personal discrimination, was also not significant, F (1, 246) = 0,30, p = 0,583. This means that no effect of the implementation of the colorful approach within an organization on any kind of discrimination was found. This all means that hypotheses H2a and H2b both have been partly adopted, the expected effects of the colorblind approach were indeed found, the expected effects of the colorful approach were not.
Hypothesis 3: The more perceived discrimination workers experience, the stronger the
effect of the diversity approach on job satisfaction will be.
With the third hypothesis the moderation effect in this study has been tested. To test this in it’s entirety four moderation analyses were conducted. The results of the first PROCESS analysis testing the moderation effect of perceived organizational discrimination on the
relation between the colorblind approach and job satisfaction showed a significant main effect of perceived organizational discrimination (b = -0,30, SE = 0,05, t (244) = -6,25, p < 0,001). This means that the more people perceive organizational discrimination the lower their job satisfaction will be. The main effect of the colorblind approach on job satisfaction also was significant (b = 0,32, SE = 0,09, t (244) = 3,72, p < 0,001). This confirms the results that were already stated in a prior section that described the results for hypothesis one. That means that the stronger the colorblind approach is implemented within an organization, the higher the job satisfaction will be. The interaction effect between the colorblind approach and perceived organizational discrimination was not significant (b = -0,03, SE = 0,06, t (244) = 0,50, p = 0,620). This indicates that perceived organizational discrimination does not moderate the effect of the colorblind approach on job satisfaction. Meaning that the effect of the colorblind approach is not different for people who perceive organizational discrimination than for people who do not perceive this. The results of the second PROCESS analysis testing the moderation effect of perceived personal discrimination on the relation between the colorblind approach and job satisfaction showed a significant main effect of perceived personal
discrimination (b = -0,36, SE = 0,06, t (244) = -6,01, p < 0,001). This means that the more people perceive personal discrimination the lower their job satisfaction will be. The main effect of the colorblind approach on job satisfaction did also show a significant result (b = 0,28, SE = 0,09, t (244) = 3,19, p = 0,002). This confirms the results that were already stated in prior sections. This means that the stronger the colorblind approach is implemented within an organization, the higher the job satisfaction will be. The interaction effect between the colorblind approach and perceived personal discrimination was not significant (b = -0,05, SE = 0,07, t (244) = -0,67, p = 0,500). This indicates that perceived personal discrimination does not moderate the effect of the implementation of the colorblind approach on job satisfaction.
personal discrimination than for people who do not perceive this. The results of the third PROCESS analysis testing the moderation effect of perceived organizational discrimination again, but this time on the relation between the colorful approach and job satisfaction showed a significant main effect of perceived organizational discrimination (b = -0,33, SE = 0,05, t (244) = 6,67, p < 0,001). This means that the more people perceive organizational
discrimination the lower their job satisfaction will be, a result that was also found in prior result sections. The main effect of the colorful approach on job satisfaction did not show a significant result (b = 0,05, SE = 0,07, t (244) = 0,78, p = 0,436). This means that no effect of the colorful approach on job satisfaction was found. The interaction effect between the colorful approach and perceived organizational discrimination was not significant (b = 0,00, SE = 0,05, t (244) = 0,02, p = 0,982). This indicates that perceived organizational
discrimination does not moderate the effect of the colorful approach on job satisfaction. This means that the effect of the colorful approach is not different for people who perceive
organizational discrimination than for people who do not perceive this. The results of the last PROCESS analysis testing the moderation effect of perceived personal discrimination on the relation between the colorful approach and job satisfaction showed a significant main effect of perceived organizational discrimination (b = -0,42, SE = 0,07, t (244) = -6,35, p < 0,001). This means that the more people perceive personal discrimination the lower their job
satisfaction will be, a result that was also found in prior result sections. The main effect of the colorful approach on job satisfaction did not show a significant result (b = 0,08, SE = 0,07, t (244) = 1,05, p = 0,295). This means that no effect of the colorful approach on job satisfaction was found. The interaction effect between the colorful approach and perceived personal discrimination was also not significant (b = 0,03, SE = 0,08, t (244) = 0,43, p = 0,669). This indicates that perceived personal discrimination does not moderate the effect of the colorful approach on job satisfaction. This means that the effect of the colorful approach is not
different for people who perceive personal discrimination than for people who do not perceive this. This all means that this hypothesis has been rejected, because no moderation effect of perceived discrimination was found.
Hypothesis 4: The more perceived discrimination workers experience, the lower their job
satisfaction will be.
To test the fourth hypothesis, two regression analyses were conducted. First, the effect of organizational discrimination on job satisfaction was tested. The regression model showed a significant result, F (1, 246) = 47,37, p = < 0,001. This means that the regression model can be used to predict job satisfaction, but the prediction is weak: Only 40 % of the differences in job satisfaction can be predicted by means of perceived organizational discrimination (R²= 0,40). Perceived organizational discrimination, b*=-0,40, t = -6,88, p < 0,001, 95% CI [-0,63, -0,35], has a significant reasonable cohesion with job satisfaction. With each category of perceived organizational discrimination the estimated job satisfaction decreases with 0,50. Second, the effect of perceived personal discrimination on job satisfaction was tested. This regression model did also show a significant result, F (1, 246) = 46,77, p < 0,001. This means that the regression model can be used to predict job satisfaction, but the prediction is weak: Only 40 % of the differences in job satisfaction can be predicted by means of perceived organizational discrimination (R²= 0,40). Perceived personal discrimination, b*=0,40, t = -6,84, p < 0,001, 95% CI [-0,50, -0,28], has a significant reasonable cohesion with job satisfaction. With each category of perceived personal discrimination the estimated job satisfaction decreases with 0,39. This all means that both hypothesis H4a and H4b have been adopted, because the expected effects have been found.
Hypothesis 5: Minority workers perceive more discrimination than majority workers.
To test the fifth hypothesis, two regression analyses were conducted. First, the effect of belonging to a majority/minority on perceived organizational discrimination was tested. The regression model was not significant, F (1, 121) = 0,27 p = 0,607. This means no effect of belonging to a majority/minority on perceived organizational discrimination was found. Second, the effect of belonging to a majority/minority on perceived personal discrimination was tested. The regression model was not significant F (1, 121) = 1,53, p = 0,218. This means no effect of belonging to a majority/minority on perceived personal discrimination was found. This all means that both hypothesis H5a and H5b have been rejected, because no effects of belonging to a majority/minority were found.
Hypothesis 6: Ethnic minority workers will perceive more discrimination than ethnic
majority workers.
To test the sixth hypothesis, only descriptive statistics could be measured due to a sample that included too little ethnic differences. In the sample 89% seemed to be Dutch and only 5% was born in a non-Western country. In this sample 86% has a mother that is born in The
Netherlands, 7,2% has a mother that is born in a non-western country. For the country of origin of the father there is only a small difference, 85% of the respondents’ fathers is born in The Netherlands, 8,8% in a non-western country. This means that the distribution in terms of ethnicity is very skewed and that made it impossible to analyse this data any further. Because of not being able to run more analyses on this variable, no effects could have been found. That means that both hypothesis H6a and H6b have been rejected.
Hypothesis 7: Female workers will perceive more organizational discrimination than men.
To test the last hypothesis, two more regression analysis were conducted. First, the effect of gender on perceived organizational discrimination was tested. The regression model was not significant, F (1, 246) = 0,77 p = 0,382. This means no effect of gender on perceived
organizational discrimination was found. Second, the effect of gender on perceived personal discrimination was tested. The regression model was also not significant F (1, 246) = 1,66, p = 0,199. This means no effect of gender on perceived personal discrimination was found. That means that both hypothesis H7a and H7b have been rejected.
Conclusion
Organizations experience major problems when facing diversity, this has been the main problem addressed in this study. These problems include perceived discrimination and decreased job satisfaction. The aim of the study was to investigate this topic and find
solutions to this diversity problem. The solutions for this problem include recommendations on how to manage diversity and communicate this within an organization. To investigate this in its entirety the main research question has been formulated as follows: What effect do different diversity approaches have on job satisfaction and to what extent is this moderated by perceived discrimination?
One of the main undesired effects that may arise within an organization due to diversity is perceived discrimination, which again may lead to lower job satisfaction among employees (Deitch et al., 2003; Hyondong, Lee & Sung, 2013; Madera et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2013). Next to the fact that this is highly uncomfortable for employees, job satisfaction may also lead
approaches could be implemented best in what situation. These two main approaches are the colorful- and colorblind approach. This means that an organization either chooses to embrace or to ignore diversity (Jansen et al., 2015). First, all hypotheses and corresponding results will be discussed, after that the main research question will be answered.
H1: The diversity approach that is implemented within an organization has a direct influence on job satisfaction.
This hypothesis has been partly adopted, because the expected effect of diversity approaches on job satisfaction has only been found for one of the two approaches. No effect was found for the colorful approach, this means that according to this study the implementation of the colorful approach within an organization has no effect on workers’ job satisfaction. For the colorblind approach the expected effect was found. A positive effect of the colorblind approach on workers’ job satisfaction has been found. This means that the stronger the colorblind approach is implemented within an organization, the higher the job satisfaction will be. This gives insight in what diversity approach can be implemented best within an organization regarding job satisfaction. The colorful approach does not seem to do anything regarding job satisfaction, but the colorblind approach increases it.
H2a: The diversity approach that is implemented within an organization has a direct influence on perceived organizational discrimination.
H2b: The diversity approach that is implemented within an organization has a direct influence on perceived personal discrimination.
Both hypothesis H2a and H2b have been partly adopted due to no significant results that were found regarding the colorful approach. This means that according tot his study, implementing the colorful approach within an organization has no effect on organizational discrimination as well as on personal discrimination. The part of both hypotheses that has been adopted refers
to the colorblind approach. There has been a negative effect found of the colorblind approach on both kinds of discrimination. This gives insight regarding the research problem that the stronger the implementation of the colorblind approach within an organization is, the lower the perceived organizational discrimination and personal discrimination among workers will be.
H3: The more perceived discrimination workers experience, the stronger the effect of the diversity approach on job satisfaction will be.
This hypothesis has been rejected because no moderation effect of perceived discrimination has been found. Although, as stated in prior hypothesis, there have been found some relations between diversity approaches and job satisfaction, but no moderation effect that strengthens or weakens these relationships has been found. This means that according tot his study, perceived discrimination has no effect on the relation between diversity approaches and job satisfaction. This helps the research problem in the sense that the previous found effect of the colorblind approach on job satisfaction seems to be a direct effect, which is not influenced by perceived discrimination.
H4a: The more perceived organizational discrimination workers experience, the lower their job satisfaction will be.
H4b: The more perceived personal discrimination workers experience, the lower their job satisfaction will be.
Both hypothesis H4a and H4b have been adopted. For both perceived organizational discrimination and personal discrimination a significant effect on job satisfaction has been found. For both kinds of discrimination a negative effect has been found. This means that the
more discrimination workers perceive, the lower their job satisfaction will be. This result shows again the importance of investigating the problem that was central to this study.
H5a: Minority workers perceive more organizational discrimination than majority workers. H5b: Minority workers perceive more personal discrimination than majority workers.
Both hypothesis H5a and H5b have been rejected, because no expected effects of belonging to a minority or majority on both perceived organizational discrimination and personal
discrimination has been found. This means that according to this study, belonging to a majority or minority has no effect on the amount of discrimination workers experience. This result helps to solve a small part of the research problem because it means that, unless it goes against prior literature, the focus of handling diversity should not be on minorities and majorities.
H6a: Ethnic minority workers will perceive more organizational discrimination than ethnic majority workers.
H6b: Ethnic minority workers will perceive more personal discrimination than ethnic majority workers.
Both hypothesis H6a and H6b have been rejected, this time because of the sample. The
differences in the field of ethnicity were too small to analyse. This means that with the sample in this study no effects of ethnicity on perceived discrimination, or any other variable, have been found.
H7a: Female workers will perceive more organizational discrimination than men. H7b: Female workers will perceive more personal discrimination than men.
perceived organizational discrimination and personal discrimination have been found. This means that according tot his study gender has no effect on perceived discrimination. This result helps again to solve a small part of the research problem because it means that, unless this also goes against prior literature, the focus of handling diversity should not be on gender.
After discussing all hypotheses, the main research question can be answered. First,
implementing the colorful approach within an organization does not seem to have any effect on job satisfaction nor on any other of the research variables. Opposite to this, implementing the colorblind approach does seem to have a positive effect on job satisfaction. The stronger the implementation of the colorblind approach, the higher the job satisfaction will be. This relationship between the diversity approach and job satisfaction is according to this study in no way moderated by perceived discrimination.
Recommendations
With answering this research question, concrete recommendations concerning the way to manage diversity can be made. These recommendations may be to solve or to prevent issues concerning diversity. Implementing the colorblind approach within an organization seems to be beneficial for both workers and employers because it may lead to decreased perceived discrimination and increased job satisfaction. This means that an organization ignores diversity completely and treats everyone the exact same. This way of working should be clearly communicated throughout the organization. The stronger the implementation of this approach, the lower the perceived discrimination is. This accounts for both organizational discrimination and personal discrimination. By decreasing perceived discrimination, workers will feel more comfortable in the workplace and perceive more communication with
co-be higher. This means workers enjoy their work co-better, which will again lead to less turnover intentions. Less turnover intentions are also beneficial for the organization, because skilled workers will be less likely to leave. The colorblind approach seems to be effective regardless of gender and whether people belong to a minority or not. This means that implementing the colorblind approach could work for almost any organization, regardless the composition of workers. This goes against the prior discussed literature that stated that the colorblind approach could be mostly effective for organizations that face a large amount of majority workers. This literature stated that the colorful approach would be effective for organizations that face more minority workers. According to this study, this colorful approach does not have any effect at all. This means that organizations and their workers are most likely to benefit from implementing the colorblind approach.
Discussion
With this study multiple expected effects have been confirmed, some others have been rejected. With these insights the research field on diversity management, job satisfaction and perceived discrimination is widened. With this study the specific choice has been made to focus on the perception of people on some variables instead of actually belonging to a certain category. The research variables could of course have been measured in both ways, but the reason for doing it this way is based on what the actual aim of this study was; solving the problems that arise when organizations face diversity. This study investigated perceived discrimination, the perception of how strong a certain diversity approach is implemented in the organization, and the perception of belonging to a minority or majority. For example, someone could officially belong to a minority while they do not perceive it that way. If officially belonging to a minority should have been measured, it would not have anything to do with how people feel and how they react to those feelings. Of course the outcomes could
have been different if the official guidelines on when someone belongs to a certain category would have been followed. Though, it is expected that this would not lead to the insights and recommendations this study aimed to provide.
Another point of discussion may be that this study does not assign any value to the colorful approach within an organization when it comes to diversity management. As stated in prior literature, the colorful approach was expected to be beneficial for organizations with a large amount of minority workers. In this study no effect of the colorful approach, regardless of minorities or majorities, was found. Future research can be conducted where equal groups of minority and majority workers are compared to make sure that no extra results were
overlooked in this study. This does not matter that for the colorblind approach also no
difference was found for majorities and minorities, while this was expected according to prior literature. Implementing the colorblind approach seems to be beneficial for all workers, which is the most important finding that contributes to solving the research problem.
Yet there are some recommendations for future research on this topic. With keeping the following recommendations in mind, future research should be able to gain even more useful results on this study’s topic. Additions could be applied by means of the collection of
respondents. This process can be better monitored and in that way collecting a sample that includes a wider range of diversity should be achieved. First, there should be more ethnic diversity present in the sample. For example, a research with half of the sample with people from a Western country and half of the sample with people from a non-Western country could be a strong starting point. Second, this sample contained young and far above average
educated people. This of course is not a reflection of the actual society and could have biased the results. This should also be kept in mind when developing future samples. Another
majority, minority or neither of these. This led to half of the people saying they felt like they did not belong to both. This means that for half of the respondents there has been no actual information on this variable. This problem can be solved by measuring this variable on a 7-point measuring scale, asking how strongly people perceive they belong to a majority. This way more information can be gained from the respondents on this variable.
By implementing the colorblind approach, organizations will be less likely to face serious problems concerning diversity. Implementing this approach should be communicated by sending the right message towards the organization in its entirety and always act up to this standard with no exceptions. The message with this approach is that everyone, regardless of anything that makes people different from others, will be treated the same. Next to
communicating this to the whole organization, it would be suitable to capture this diversity approach in documents that describe the organizational guidelines. This way anyone could find out what it means and how it works in the specific organization. With this, the
recommendations resulting from this study seem to be communicable and practical.
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Appendices
1. Informed consent
Dear respondent,
To obtain my masters degree at the University of Amsterdam I am conducting research in the field of Corporate Communication. This survey is part of the research, and will take no longer than 10 minutes to complete.
Before you start, it is highly important to read the text below. After you accept this
information, you can continue with the survey.
Thank you for participating and helping me graduate!
Kind regards, Helen van der Weij
I hereby declare that I have been informed in a clear manner about the nature and method of the research, as described in the email invitation for this study.
I agree, fully and voluntarily, to participate in this research study. With this, I retain the right to withdraw my consent, without having to give a reason for doing so. I am aware that I may halt my participation in the experiment at any time.
If my research results are used in scientific publications or are made public in another way, this will be done such a way that my anonymity is completely safeguarded. My personal data will not be passed on to third parties without my express permission.
If I wish to receive more information about the research, either now or in future, I can contact Helen van der Weij, hjmvanderweij@hotmail.nl.
Should I have any complaints about this research, I can contact the designated member of the Ethics Committee representing the ASCoR, at the following address: ASCoR secretariat, Ethics Committee, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 15793, 1001 NG Amsterdam; 020‐ 525 3680; ascor‐ secr‐ fmg@uva.nl
2. Survey questions
Now there will follow five statements about considering the job you have at the moment. Please indicate how much you agree with the statements.
1. In most ways, having the job I have now is close to my ideal
2. If I could choose my career over, I would change almost nothing 3. My job conditions are excellent
4. I am satisfied with the job I have
5. So far I have gotten the important thing I want to have in a job
(1 = Totally disagree, 7 = Totally agree)
Now there will follow eight statements considering the organization you work for. Please indicate to what amount these statements apply to this organization.
1. If people fit into our organization is based on the question if they match the required job qualifications
2. Promotion is dependent upon employee performance, not on someone’s background
3. Qualification matters in our organization, not background
4. When hiring, everybody is welcome as long as they meet the necessary requirements
5. Cultural diversity brings new ideas and different knowledge to the workplace
6. We adjust organizational strategies to fit new ways of working that employees from various backgrounds bring into the organization
7. Cultural diversity helps us to develop new skills and approaches to work
8. Cultural diversity helps us to become more innovative
(1 = Does not apply at all, 7 = Applies very much)
Now there will follow again five statements considering the organization you work for. Please indicate to what amount these statements apply to this organization.
Within the organization I work for…
1. there are people treated with less respect than others 2. there are people who think others are less smart than others 3. there are people who act like others are dishonest
4. there are people who act like they are better than others 5. there are people being insulted now and then
(1 = Does not apply at all, 7 = Applies very much)
Now there will follow again five statements considering, this time considering you within the organization. Please indicate to what amount these statements apply to you.
Within the organization I work for…
1. I am treated with less respect than others
2. there are people who think I am less smart than others 3. there are people who act like I am dishonest
4. there are people who act like they are better than me 5. I am being insulted now and then
(1 = Does not apply at all, 7 = Applies very much
1. Majority 2. Minority 3. Neither of these
Last, we want to know a little more about you. What is your gender?
1. Male 2. Female
What is your age? (In two numbers, 25, 57..) ..
What is the highest education level you completed? 1. Elementary school
2. High school
3. Intermediate vocational education (MBO) 4. Higher vocational education (HBO) 5. University, Bachelor
6. University, Master 7. PhD
In what sector do you work? 1. Agriculture 2. Art / Culture 3. Automotive 4. Banking 5. Cleaning 6. Construction 7. Education 8. Fashion / styling 9. Finance 10. Government 11. Graphic industry 12. Health care 13. Hospitality 14. ICT 15. Industry / production 16. Legal 17. Marketing / Communication 18. Real estate 19. Retail 20. Sports 21. Transport / logistics 22. Other, …
What is your country of origin? 1. Netherlands
3. England 4. Other EU country 5. United states 6. Morocco 7. Turkey 8. Other, …..
What is your mother’s country of origin? 1. Netherlands 2. Germany 3. England 4. Other EU country 5. United states 6. Morocco 7. Turkey 8. Other, …..
What is your father’s country of origin? 1. Netherlands 2. Germany 3. England 4. Other EU country 5. United states 6. Morocco 7. Turkey 8. Other, …..
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