The Career Preferences and Patterns of Third Culture Kids
Tessa ten Cate, ID: 10628479
Master’s Thesis, Graduate School of Communication
Master’s Program Communication Science, University of Amsterdam Supervised by Dr. James Slevin
Abstract
Third culture kids are individuals who have spent a significant portion of their
developmental years living in a single or multiple foreign countries. This study focuses on the career preferences and patterns of third culture kids between the ages of 18 and 35. Previous literature illustrates third culture kids as a valuable source of employees for corporate recruiters, due to their uniquely international skills. This study aims to provide valuable information for companies looking to employ these individuals by analyzing their degree of self-identification as a third culture kid and it’s effect on their career outlooks and patterns. The Third Culture Kid Career Model is a proposed visualization of how self-identification as a third culture kid may influence the degree to which an
individual embraces their global background, also known as constructive marginality, as well as how self-identification as a third culture kid affects preferences for careers that incorporate international work elements. Additionally, the model sheds light on the degree to which third culture kid self-identification affects current and future career goals. Data was collected via an online survey for 65 participants that indicated the degree to which individuals identify as third culture kids positively and significantly affects constructive marginality, which in turn positively and significantly affects the preference for work with international elements. In regards to career commitment, the variable career identity was shown to have a significant influence on career resilience. The results deliver recruiters a better understanding of the career preferences and self-identification attitudes of third culture kids in the corporate world of business.
Keywords: third culture kid, TCK, constructive marginality, international elements, career commitment, recruitment, corporate communication.
The Career Preferences and Patterns of Third Culture Kids
Globalization is a powerful concept that has changed and eased worldwide communication and travel. It has dramatically changed how businesses function on an increasingly global scale. Entering the international market has now become an integral part of the corporate company lifestyle (Appelbaum, Roy, Gilliland, 2011). The
technological advancements embroiled in globalization have increased the opportunity and need for engagement in cross-cultural communication. In some respects, this engagement has shaped a seemingly less daunting environment for families to take international job assignments and live abroad as expats over extended periods of time. The children in these families grow up surrounded by foreign cultures, and though research is still rather limited, there is a special term for children and adults who are accustomed to this international lifestyle so early on: third culture kids.
Third culture kid is a term coined by anthropologist, sociologist, and psychologist Dr. Ruth Hill Useem in the 1960s to describe a unique subgroup of the population (TCK World, 2014). Authors and experts on the subject, David C. Pollock and Ruth E. Van Reken provide a more recent definition of the term third culture kid (TCK) as follows:
A person who has spent a significant part of his or her developmental years outside the parents’ culture. The TCK builds relationships to all of the cultures, while not having full ownership in any. Although elements from each culture are assimilated into the TCK’s life experience, the sense of belonging is in
relationship to others of similar background (2001, p. 19).
Third culture kids, sometimes referred to as TCKs, are children who have grown up developing a nomadic lifestyle while absorbing diverse cultures in the process. The
“third culture” part of the term represents how these individuals are part of their own distinctive culture: they are not fully part of their passport country’s culture, nor are they fully part of their host(s) country’s culture. Instead, the combination of all of these cultures creates this new “third” culture unique to the individual.
Due to their extensive travel and familiarity with change, third culture kids have naturally picked up intercultural mannerisms and etiquette, ultimately increasing their ability to communicate with diverse populations in social, academic, and business settings (Pollock and Van Reken, 2001). Third culture kids have a particular set of internationally honed skills as their exposure to multiple cultures has often taught them how to accommodate to rapidly changing working styles and unfamiliar office customs. Research has shown that these third culture kids have the skills and abilities to become internationally valuable employees once they are of age – yet they feel they have “limited opportunities to exercise” these skills (Bonebright, 2010, p.357).
Researcher Denise Bonebright (2010) refers to third culture kids as an
“undertapped source of high quality employees” (p.358) but highlights the challenge of recruitment and retention surrounding third culture kids in corporations. Third culture kids are so accustomed to consistent travel and contact with global nomads that they do not easily settle down – hence the problem of retention. By discovering what kinds of organizational conditions attract third culture kids and how being a third culture kid influences career commitment, this study aims to clarify the issues surrounding third culture kid retention in the workplace. Additionally, this study not only takes into consideration the degree to which an individual self-identifies as a third culture kid and how it impacts his or her career choices, but also the extent to which a third culture kid
embraces his or her global background – known in theoretical terms as constructive marginality. In sum, the research question of this study is: Does the degree to which an individual self-identifies as a Third Culture Kid have an effect on his or her preference for international work elements, mediated by constructive marginality, and subsequently how does it impact his or her job commitment in terms of career identity and resilience?
Theoretical Framework
Though the term third culture kid was coined in the 1960s, the concept is still largely underdeveloped and limited academic research exists on the subject. The majority of studies that involve third culture kids focus on factors influencing childhood development during their time abroad. With the exception of Bonebright’s work, there is a lack of information and analysis on how third culture kids grow up and enter the workforce (also known as ATCKs: adult third culture kids). The literature review in this study therefore examines articles about the overall preferences of third culture kids and the ways in which corporations can benefit from employees with international skill sets and exposure. The research gains significant value once the articles on the two subjects interact and link together to truly connect third culture kids to the realm of corporate communication. In order to visualize these connections, this study proposes a visual model: The Third Culture Kid Career Model, as depicted in figure 1 below.
Figure 1: The Third Culture Kid Career Model
Third Culture Kids and the Preference for Work with International Elements In a study on the life choices and commitment of adult third culture kids, Cottrell (2007) discovered a variety of distinct patterns. Through the use of a survey, Cottrell found that 54% of respondents who identified as third culture kids had committed to a single line of work – though not necessarily to a single company. Furthermore, Cottrell asked respondents to evaluate if their work histories incorporated an international element (2007). The definition of an international element was rather broad, including
tasks that required global communication as well as tasks that required actual travel. Though there were varying degrees of how international their work histories were, only 27% of respondents had no international element at all. This indicates that 73% chose to at some point in their lives work at a company that incorporated an international element.
In a similar study, Selmer and Lam (2004, p.440) found that third culture kids “desire international careers and a life of travelling without settling-down.” In their study, the researchers concluded that third culture kids are more likely to “make sincere efforts to fulfill [these] desires by actively looking for such career opportunities” (2004, p.440). In another study by Lam and Selmer from the same year, the researchers discuss how a third culture kid’s childhood experiences interacting with multi-cultural surroundings influence their career choices later in life as they are likely to “have a desire for internationally mobile careers” (2004, p.119).
Previous literature largely converges on the premise that third culture kids have an explicit preference for careers with an international element to them. Thus the first
hypothesis is as follows:
H1: One’s degree of self-identification as a third culture kid has a positive effect on his or her preference for work with international elements.
Constructive Marginality as a Mediator
Constructive Marginality is a concept that remains largely theoretical. It has been discussed at length, but not substantially tested in previous research. Based on academic work by Fail, Thompson, and Walker (2004), the term describes to what extent third culture kids embrace their global background. Constructive marginality stems from the
more general idea of marginality in that third culture kids may feel isolated and
marginalized because they do not always fit in socially as easily as non-third culture kids (Pascoe, 2008).
In relation to studies done on third culture kids in college, Bonebright (2010 discusses how living in a place where one has no knowledge of the local pop culture and popular trends can make it difficult to fit in. Due to this difficulty, Bonebright suggests job-seeking third culture kids may opt for “less collectivist organizational cultures where ability to fit in around the water cooler is perceived to be of less significance” (2010, p. 356). The ability to fit in weighs heavily on many third culture kids (Pollock and Van Reken, 2001) and how they choose to approach this difficulty may influence their work preferences. These researchers highlight how this group can feel marginalized; the turning point is whether third culture kids let being different deter them or if they embrace being different. For example, third culture kids with high levels of constructive marginality “appear positive and enthusiastic about their ability to ‘feel at home in different places and relate to people like themselves’” (Fail, Thompson, Walker, 2004, p.333). The Third Culture Kid Career Model in this study focuses on the positive aspects by measuring one’s level of constructive marginality and subsequently hypothesizes that an increased exposure to the third culture kid lifestyle will increase the amount of
constructive marginality present.
Constructive marginality is proposed as a mediating variable in the relationship between the extent to which an individual self-identifies as a third culture kid and the preference for work with international elements. This stems from the notion that those who appreciate their internationality are predicted to embrace it by seeking out
international working environments where they feel they can truly flourish (Selmer and Lam, 2004). This theory therefore produces the following hypotheses:
H2a: The extent to which an individual self-identifies as a third culture kid has a positive effect on his or her constructive marginality.
H2b: One’s degree of constructive marginality has a positive effect on his or her preference for work with international elements.
H2c: The relationship between the extent to which an individual self-identifies as a third culture kid and the preference for work with international elements is
positively mediated by constructive marginality. Third Culture Kids and Career Commitment
Though the third culture kid preference for international elements is established in previous literature, the discussions involving career commitment tend to vary and conflict across researchers. As previously mentioned, Cottrell (2007) discovered that third culture kids have the tendency to stay within one line of work, while Selmer and Lam (2004) discovered that third culture kids did not want to settle down in one line of work. To understand whether the degree to which one is a third culture kid influences their career commitment, this study measures the relationship between the two variables, paying particular attention to the third culture kid’s emotional attachment.
In order to do so, the variable career commitment is divided into two subcategories: career identity and career resilience. Career identity refers to how
emotionally attached one is to his or her line of work, while career resilience focuses on how determined one is to plan out and organize their career path. Due to the
developmental need to find an environment where they can fit in, third culture kids have spent a lot of time during their childhood focusing on where they could find this kind of environment to suit their interests (Lyttle, Barker, Cornwell, 2011). In other words, previous literature suggests that third culture kids start thinking early on about what line of work they fit into. Therefore the Third Culture Kid Career Model predicts that the degree to which one is a third culture kid will positively influence his or her career identity. Going one step further, this model additionally hypothesizes that when one does strongly identify with their career, they strive to make it happen – instigating a high level of career resilience. Thus the final hypotheses are as follows:
H3a: The extent to which an individual self-identifies as a third culture kid has a positive effect on his or her career identity.
H3b: Career identity has a positive effect on career resilience.
Deliverables: The Corporate Benefits of Hiring Third Culture Kids
Previous literature portrays the idea that corporations can benefit from this third culture kid preference for internationality. Researchers Caligiuri and Cascio (1998) discuss how the search for quality applicants with the preferred skills for international assignments is one of the largest concerns for multi-national corporations.
Lam and Selmer (2004) establish that third culture kids are outstanding candidates for business expatriate positions as they fulfill most of the important criteria for such positions, as ranked by Franke and Nicholson (2002). Lam and Selmer (2004) thoroughly recommend that human resource departments use third culture kids as a source when hiring to fill positions in multinational offices in order to benefit from their distinct skill
sets. Additionally, they highlight that third culture kid employees are better prepared to engage in international work as they will likely require less cultural office training – in turn maximizing the opportunity to dive into the real work as soon as possible. Lam and Selmer conclude by arguing that “it may be worthwhile for globalizing firms to consider recruiting this group of culturally adept individuals” and that “former TCKs may be close to the ideal business expatriates” (2004, p.119).
Bonebright emphasizes that only a limited number of third culture kids currently work in global corporations and that this should be seen as a vibrant recruitment
opportunity. By combining research from several authors, (Gerner and Perry 2000; Langford 1998; Selmer and Lam 2004), Bonebright compiled a brief list of the overarching strengths of third culture kids, “these include ability to speak several languages, an international world view, cross cultural skills, and an increased maturity reflected in high levels of independence and ability to cope with crises” (2010, p.357). Bonebright, similar to Selmer and Lam (2004), states that another benefit of hiring third culture kids is that they do not require as much cultural training. According to her
research, multinational corporations spend large amounts of money on these trainings and would therefore cut costs by hiring third culture kids already proficient in the desired skills.
Previous literature has established that third culture kids prefer careers with an international element and multi-national corporations can benefit from hiring third culture kids due to their global skill sets. How this relationship plays out practically, however, has yet to be fully investigated. This study aims to investigate more closely and
presence of international elements in their offices and the role that constructive
marginality plays. Additionally, corporations can gain more information about how the extent to which an employee self-identifies as a third culture kid could potentially affect his or her career commitment in terms of career identity, career resilience, and retention.
Method Participants
There were a total of 78 survey respondents, 65 of which completed the survey in its entirety. The 13 incomplete survey results were excluded from the analysis. 72.3% of participants were female, 26.2% male, and 1.5% preferred not to indicate their gender. Respondents ranged in age from 19 years old to 35 years old, with a mean age of 24.34 and a standard deviation of 3.32. All participants in the sample completed high school, and 73.8% also completed a bachelor’s or higher degree. The majority of respondents were residents of the United States of America (37.5%), followed by The Netherlands (27.5%) and the United Kingdom (6.25%) while the remaining respondents were scattered across a variety of additional countries.
The majority of participants considered themselves to be third culture kids: 23.1% strongly disagreed that they were third culture kids, 7.7% disagreed, 4.6% neither agreed nor disagreed, 21.5% agreed, and 43.1% strongly agreed. Overall this accounts for 64.6% of participants who consider themselves to some extent to be third culture kids. The sample was moderately varied and any potential bias may be attributed to how the survey was distributed within the researcher’s personal social network outlets.
Materials and Procedure
Data was collected using a single cross-sectional self-report survey distributed via a URL link online. The survey was created using Qualtrics online survey software. Respondents were recruited through the personal networks of the researcher via e-mail and a variety of social media network outlets including Facebook and Twitter. The full survey can be reviewed in the appendix.
Independent Variable. The degree to which an individual qualifies as a third culture kid was measured using three items. The first was a self-evaluation question prompted with a series of bullet points describing the term third culture kids based on Pollock and Van Reken’s work (2011). These bullet points covered the following four themes: (1) A third culture kid is a person who was raised abroad at some point in his or her developmental years (before the age of 18). (2) Third culture kids build relationships to all of the cultures they are introduced to, while not having full ownership in any. (3) Although elements from each culture are assimilated into the third culture kid’s life experience, the sense of belonging is in relationship to others with similar global backgrounds. (4) Third culture kids have experienced being an international student before the age of 18.
After these points, respondents were asked to what extent they consider
themselves to be a third culture kid based on the information presented. This item was measured on a 5-point likert scale. The second item to measure the third culture kid variable addressed how many years the respondent lived abroad before they turned 18. The data for this item was later recoded into percentage of time living abroad and subsequently converted to a scale from 1 to 5. Similarly, the final item addressed how many countries the respondent lived in before the age of 18. The answers given by
respondents ranged from 1 to 5. Factor analysis testing (correlations > .40) detected that all three items successfully measure the same latent construct with high factor loadings. A reliability test produced a Cronbach’s alpha value of .837 for this scale and there were no significant increases in reliability by deleting any items. Thus, all three items were utilized in the data analyses. To do so, an overall variable labeled “Third Culture Kid-ness” was computed in the final step to unite all three items.
Dependent Variables. The variable ‘preference for work with international elements’ was measured using four items based on Bonebright’s (2010) research conclusions. The items therefore question the participant’s attitude towards ethnic and lingual diversity at work, traveling for business, and global communication with foreign offices. All items were measured using a 5-point likert scale. Factor analysis testing (correlations > .40) revealed that all four items successfully evaluate the same latent construct. A reliability test was performed and resulted in a Cronbach’s alpha value of .595 for this scale. There were no opportunities for increases in reliability by deleting an item and therefore all items were included in the analysis. In the final step, the four variable items were computed into one overall variable for further analyses.
Career identity and career resilience are both measured using pre-determined scales produced by Carson and Bedeian (1994). Career identity evaluates how personally and emotionally committed a participant is to his or her career path. There were four items including self-evaluation statements such as, This line of work/career field has a great deal of personal meaning to me. One item was reversed to avoid matters of
acquiescence. All items were measured on a 7-point disagree to agree likert scale. Factor analysis testing (correlations > .40) detected that all four items successfully measure the
same latent construct. A reliability test was conducted and conveyed a Cronbach’s alpha value of .876 for this scale. There were no opportunities for significant increases in reliability by deleting any items and therefore all items were included in the analysis. In the final step, the four variable items were computed into one variable for further analyses.
Career resilience addresses how committed the respondent is to planning out their career. In total there were four items to measure career resilience, such as, I have created a plan for my development in this line of work/career. All four items were measured on a 7-point disagree to agree likert scale. Three items were stated inversely to avoid
acquiescence issues and were therefore reversed prior to further analysis. A factor analysis was completed (correlations > .40) and revealed that all four items successfully measure the same latent construct. A reliability test was conducted and conveyed a Cronbach’s alpha value of .799 for this scale. There were no opportunities for increases in reliability by deleting any items and thus all four items were included in the analysis. In preparation for further analyses, the variable items were computed together into one variable to represent career resilience overall.
Mediator. Constructive marginality is predicted to positively mediate the relationship between third culture kid-ness and the preference for work with an international element. As this variable has not previously been quantitatively tested, the items utilize a
combination of questions based on the insight of Fail, Thompson, and Walker’s research (2004) as well as Eakin’s work (1998). Due to the fact that the concept of constructive marginality is only applicable for third culture kids, the survey required those who considered themselves third culture kids, based on the operationalization of that variable,
to answer these questions. The items request that participants self-evaluate how well four statements apply to them, such as, I have the ability to feel at home in different places and I consider my global background to be an advantage. All items were measured using a 5-point likert scale. Factor analysis testing (correlations > .40) detected that all four items successfully measure the same latent construct. A reliability test was performed and revealed that the Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was .708. There were no opportunities to increase reliability by deleting any items and therefore all items were included in the analysis. In the final step, the four variable items were computed together into one overall variable to represent constructive marginality in further analyses.
Results Hypothesis 1
The first hypothesis predicts that one’s degree of third culture kid-ness positively affects his or her preference for work with international elements. A linear regression was performed, b = .079, p > .05 (R2 = .041, F (64) = 2.667, p > .05), revealing that the extent to which one self-identifies as a third culture kid does not significantly affect the
preference for work with international elements. Therefore, H1 is not supported. Hypothesis 2a
Hypothesis 2a predicts a positive relationship between one’s degree of third culture kid-ness and one’s amount of constructive marginality. A linear regression analysis yielded the following results: b = .207, p < .05 (R2 = .105, F (48) = 5.517, p < .05), indicating that the extent to which one self-identifies as a third culture kid
significantly and positively predicts his or her constructive marginality. Thus, H2a is supported.
Hypothesis 2b
Hypothesis 2b predicts that constructive marginality positively affects the preference for work with international elements. The results of a linear regression
analysis, b = .364, p < .01 (R2 = .202, F (48) = 11.888, p < .01), revealed that constructive marginality does indeed positively and significantly affect the preference for work with international elements. Therefore, H2b is supported.
Hypothesis 2c
Hypothesis 2c predicts that constructive marginality positively mediates the relationship between third culture kid-ness and the preference for work with international elements. In the process of mediation analyses, it became clear that due to the
non-significant results of third culture kid-ness on the preference for work with international elements, the chances of finding partial or full mediation were close to zero. Further regression analyses proved this to be true as constructive marginality does not play a mediating role in the relationship between third culture kid-ness and the preference for work with international environments. Thus, H2c is not supported.
Hypothesis 3a
The first portion of the third hypothesis predicts that the degree to which one is a third culture kid positively affects his or her level of career identity. A linear regression analysis, b = .185, p > .05 (R2 = .035, F (64) = 2.287, p > .05), yielded results that
indicate there is no significant relationship between the two. Therefore, H3a is not supported.
Hypothesis 3b
The final hypothesis predicts that career identity positively affects career
resilience. The results of a linear regression analysis, b = .415, p < .001 (R2 = .185, F (64) = 14.337, p < .001), revealed a positive significant relationship between career identity and career resilience. Thus, H3b is supported. For a summary of which hypotheses were accepted and rejected see table 1 below.
Table 1
Summary of Results
Hypotheses
Significance
Level Result
H1: One’s degree of self-identification as a third culture kid has a positive effect on his or her preference for work with international elements.
p > .05 Reject
H2a: The extent to which an individual self-identifies as a third culture kid has a positive effect on his or her
constructive marginality.
p < .05 Accept
H2b: One’s degree of constructive marginality has a positive effect on his or her preference for work with international elements.
p < .01 Accept
H2c: The relationship between the extent to which an individual self-identifies as a third culture kid and the preference for work with international elements is positively mediated by constructive marginality.
H3a: The extent to which an individual self-identifies as a third culture kid has a positive effect on his or her career identity.
p > .05 Reject
H3b: Career identity has a positive effect on career resilience.
p < .001 Accept
Conclusion
After several data analyses pursuing the overarching research question, ‘Does the degree to which an individual self-identifies as a Third Culture Kid have an effect on his or her preference for international work elements, mediated by constructive marginality, and subsequently how does it impact his or her job commitment in terms of career identity and resilience?’ the results indicate that three out of the six hypotheses were successfully supported.
One’s degree of third culture kid-ness can significantly (p < .05) predict one’s amount of constructive marginality 10.5% of the time. Similarly, constructive marginality can significantly (p < .01) predict the preference for work with international elements 20.2% of the time. Lastly, career identity can significantly (p < .001) predict career resilience 18.5% of the time. The results did not yield significant results for the relationships between third culture kid-ness and the preference for work with
international elements with constructive marginality as a mediator, and the hypothesized relationship between third culture kid-ness and career identity.
It is interesting to note how constructive marginality is both affected by the extent to which one self-identifies as a third culture kid and affects the preference for work with international elements, yet does not mediate the relationship between the two. Bonebright
(2010), Fail, Walker and Thompson (2004) emphasized the importance of taking into consideration that third culture kids may feel marginalized by their global backgrounds. This proved to be true for the individual relationships to the constructive marginality variable but did not seem to make a significant impact on a grander scheme as a mediator. In future studies it may be beneficial to conduct focused interviews to get a better understanding of the reasons why constructive marginality does not act as a mediator in this relationship.
As it was purported by numerous previous literature articles, it was unexpected that one’s degree of self-identification as a third culture kid had no influence on how he or she feels towards having a career with international elements present. This may be due to the fact non-third culture kids simply also aspire to careers with international elements of some sort. When viewing the range, mean, and overall descriptive statistics for the variable ‘preference for work with international elements,’ as seen below in table 2, it is clear that a large portion of the sample rated their preference for international elements highly. The lowest value on the 5-point likert scale was a 3.25, indicating that overall no respondents did not prefer international elements, regardless of their third culture kid or non-third culture kid upbringing. This could potentially explain to some degree the lack of significant results for the relationship between third culture kid-ness and the preference for international elements.
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics for Preference for Work with International Elements
N Mean Median
Standard
Deviation Range Minimum Maximum
As mentioned in the theoretical framework, the topic of third culture kids, their career commitment, and career identity is widely debated in previous literature. Cottrell (2007) found that third culture kids tended to commit to one line of work, while
researchers Selmer and Lam (2004) found that third culture kids avoid settling down with a single career path. Though the results of this study did not support the hypothesis that one’s degree of third culture kid self-identification positively affects his or her career identity, they do support the theories and conclusions of Selmer and Lam (2004). In this study a positive direction between the two variables was chosen based on the idea that third culture kids who have experienced and seen many facets of the world may have a clearer outlook on where they see themselves in terms of career development. Future studies would benefit from teasing apart the career identity variable into various smaller aspects to clarify and get a better understanding.
Discussion
Strengths
There are several aspects to this study that were particularly strong. To start off, the manner in which the survey was conducted was highly ethical. The first page of the online survey prompted respondents to read through a series of brief texts explaining the anonymity of their input and the option to stop at any point if they wish to do so. The first and last page of the survey provided the respondents with contact information for if they felt the need to share any comments, concerns, or questions. In the end, no respondents reached out to the researcher expectantly indicating that no one had any difficulty completing the questions.
The survey was conducted using an online survey software tool allowing for reliable data entry and data collection as well as increasing the replicability of the study. As the study was focused on third culture kids, it was fortunate that 64.6% of respondents considered themselves to some extent to be third culture kids. In an effort to avoid
matters of acquiescence, a handful of questions were phrased inversely, to check if respondents were carefully reading each question or simply skimming through them. Overall the results show that these reversed questions did seem to catch respondents off-guard to a minor extent, but were largely noticed and answered accordingly.
The survey was distributed online via social media network outlets allowing respondents to answer the questions in a real world setting causing a high level of ecological validity. Similarly, this accounts for a great deal of external validity as these results and conclusions can likely be generalized to a larger group of third culture kids and non-third culture kids combined.
Limitations
Though the Third Culture Kid Career Model produced a variety of significant results, there were also several non-significant results and therefore numerous limitations of the study need to be considered.
This study relied heavily on the self-evaluation abilities of the participants. While the questions regarding demographics were straightforward, all five of the main variables included questions requiring respondents to make use of a 5-point self-reporting scale. It is therefore possible that respondents may have scored themselves higher or lower when indicating their preferences than what they may actually prefer in reality. Preference for work with international elements was a particularly troublesome variable, as a reliability
test yielded a low Cronbach’s alpha value of .596, indicating the scale’s reliability was not ideal.
Additionally, as the survey was distributed via the researcher’s social media networks, it is possible that there may have been some degree of response bias. Many of the viewers of the survey link post were friends of the researcher and may have been answering questions in the mindset of wanting to help the researcher achieve positive results. This bias was minimized, however, by the absence of leading questions and minimal detail in the pre-explanation of the study’s purpose.
The total number of participants who entered useable data ended up reaching 65, but originally 78 participants opened the survey link. Unfortunately, 13 respondents started the survey but at a certain point decided to discontinue. The data shows that the majority of these non-response participants only had minimal interest in partaking in the study as they closed the survey soon after reaching the first page. Those who did
complete the survey in its entirety took between 1 and 12 minutes to do so. This range of completion time suggests that some respondents may have been more thorough while others simply skimmed the questionnaire.
Implications
The topic of third culture kids is a relatively new term for many readers, and finding in-depth research on the effects of being a third culture kid later in life in regards to career preferences was minimal. The Third Culture Kid Career Model proposed in this study yielded significant results for only three hypotheses, however it still successfully adds to the discussion and understanding of third culture kid employment preferences.
This study was able to formulate a scale to assess constructive marginality based on previous literature. Now that constructive marginality as been operationalized, further research can be done to uncover more about it’s role for third culture kids in the realm of corporate communication. The results of this study demonstrate that constructive
marginality is a vital concept to take into consideration when evaluating the decisions made by third culture kids. For corporate recruiters to truly grasp and understand the preferences of third culture kids it is necessary to get insight on their emotional mindset towards identifying themselves as a third culture kid. Constructive marginality
successfully measures whether or not third culture kids are proud and optimistic about their global backgrounds, causing them to embrace their third culture kids qualities in all aspects of life. This study focused specifically on their outlook on career paths and preferences, but future studies would benefit from investigating how constructive marginality also impacts other facets of the third culture kid lifestyle.
In regards to the career commitment branch of the Third Culture Kid Career Model, it would be beneficial to understand the process of identifying with your career path and consequently studying the speed and time in which this process occurs for both third culture kids and non-third culture kids. In this study all participants were asked the same career identity and career resilience questions regardless of where they fell in the age range (18-35) but fine-tuning the process may lead to a deeper understanding of the relationships between these variables.
To conclude, the Third Culture Kid Career Model, with both significant and non-significant results, not only adds to the discussion of third culture kids, but also connects it to the realm of corporate communication studies. The Third Culture Kid Career model
particularly sheds light on the importance of constructive marginality and has hopefully set the stage for future investigations into how third culture kid attributes impact adult life.
Globalization is continuously growing and the world of business is therefore becoming increasingly international. In such a worldly and technologically advanced environment the number of third culture kids is bound to magnify over the next several decades. Though third culture kids may be a minority today, studying their diverse patterns and habits may provide substantial insight into the future of corporate communication.
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Eakin, K.B. 1998. According to my passport, I’m coming home. Washington, DC: US Department of State. <http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/2065.pdf> Fail, H., Thompson, J., & Walker, G. (2004). Belonging, identity and Third Culture Kids. Journal of Research in International Education, 3(3), 319-338.
Franke, J., & Nicholson, N. (n.d.). Who shall We Send?: Cultural and Other Influences on the Rating of Selection Criteria for Expatriate Assignments. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 21-36.
Lam, H., & Selmer, J. (n.d.). Are former “third-culture kids” the ideal business expatriates? Career Development International, 9(2), 109-122.
Lyttle, A., Barker, G., & Cornwell, T. (2011). Adept through adaptation: Third culture individuals’ interpersonal sensitivity. International Journal of Intercultural
Pascoe, R. (2006). Raising Global Nomads: Parenting Abroad in an On Demand World. Vancouver: Expatriate Press.
Pollock, D., & Reken, R. (2009). Third Culture Kids Growing Up Among Worlds (Rev. ed.). Boston: Nicholas Brealey Pub.
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TCKWorld: The Official Home of Third Culture Kids (TCKs). (n.d.). Retrieved October 20, 2014. Appendix Full Survey Question 1 Dear participant,
You are invited to participate in a research study to be conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School of Communication, a part of the University of Amsterdam. The goal of this study is to generate insight about work preferences for former third culture kids. Everyone between 18 and 35 years old is invited to participate. In this online survey, you will be asked a series of questions about your career path. Completing the survey will take you about 5 to 10 minutes.
As this research is being carried out under the responsibility of the ASCoR, University of Amsterdam, we can guarantee that:
1. Your anonymity will be safeguarded, and that your personal information will not be passed on to third parties under any conditions, unless you first give your express permission for this.
2. You can refuse to participate in the research or cut short your participation without having to give a reason for doing so. You also have up to 24 hours after participating to withdraw your permission to allow your answers or data to be used in the research. 3. Participating in the research will not entail your being subjected to any appreciable risk or
discomfort, the researchers will not deliberately mislead you, and you will not be exposed to any explicitly offensive material.
4. No later than five months after the conclusion of the research, we will be able to provide you with a research report that explains the general results of the research.
For more information about the research and the invitation to participate, you are welcome to contact the project leader Tessa ten Cate at tessa.tencate@student.uva.nl at any time.
By clicking the ">>" (next page) button you acknowledge that you understand the text presented above, and agree to participate in this research study.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank you in advance for your assistance with this research. Your cooperation is greatly appreciated.
Best regards,
Tessa ten Cate
Should you have any complaints or comments about the course of the research and the procedures it involves as a consequence of your participation in this research, you can contact the designated member of the Ethics Committee representing ASCoR, at the following address: ASCoR Secretariat, Ethics Committee, University of
Amsterdam, Postbus 15793, 1001 NG Amsterdam; 020‐525 3680; ascor‐secr‐ fmg@uva.nl. Any complaints or comments will be treated in the strictest confidence.
Question 2
Please indicate your gender. Male
Female
I prefer not to answer Question 3
Please select your age.
(Answer options ranged from 18-35) Question 4
Please select the highest level of education you have completed. Less than high school
High school Bachelor's degree Master's degree Doctoral degree Other Question 5
Please select the industry category that best matches your career path. (Answer options consisted of a range of industry categories)
Question 6
What countries are you a resident of? [To select more than one, hold down the Command (for Mac) or Control (for Windows) key.]
(Answer options consisted of a list of all countries) Question 7
How many countries have you lived in (for more than 3 months) before you turned 18? (Answer options consisted of a list of numbers)
Question 8
The term "passport country" refers to the country or countries from which you own a passport. How many years did you live outside of your passport country before you turned 18?
(Answer options consisted of a list of numbers) Question 9
How many languages do you speak fluently? (Answer options consisted of a list of numbers) Question 10
Which language(s) do you prefer to speak? [To select more than one, hold down the Command (for Mac) or Control (for Windows) key.]
(Answer options consisted of a list of languages) Question 11
Please read the following bullet points about the term “Third Culture Kid” carefully.
A Third Culture Kid is a person who was raised abroad at some point in his or her developmental years (before the age of 18).
Third Culture Kids build relationships to all of the cultures they are introduced to, while not having full ownership in any.
Although elements from each culture are assimilated into the Third Culture Kid’s life experience, the sense of belonging is in relationship to others with similar global backgrounds.
Third Culture Kids have experienced being an international student before the age of 18. (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001)
Please rate how well the following statement applies to you.
Based on the information presented above, I consider myself a Third Culture Kid. Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree
Question 12
Please rate how well the following statements apply to you. (Presented with an answer selection chart using strongly disagree – disagree – neither agree nor disagree – agree – strongly agree).
I have the ability to feel at home in different places. I relate well to other third culture kids like myself. I consider my global background to be an advantage.
When I’m asked how I can stand to move around so much, I reply along the lines of “I couldn’t imagine life any other way.”
Question 13
Please rate how well the following statements apply to you. (Presented with a answer selection chart using strongly disagree – disagree – neither agree nor disagree – agree – strongly agree).
I enjoy working with a mix of ethnically diverse co-workers. I enjoy working in a multilingual environment.
I enjoy traveling abroad for work.
I prefer jobs that require global communication with foreign offices. Question 14
Please rate how well the following statements apply to you. (Presented with a answer selection chart using strongly disagree – disagree – neither agree nor disagree – agree – strongly agree).
My line of work/career field is an important part of who I am.
This line of work/career field has a great deal of personal meaning to me. I do not feel “emotionally attached” to this line of work/career field. I strongly identify with my chosen line of work/career field.
Question 15
Please rate how well the following statements apply to you. (Presented with a answer selection chart using strongly disagree – disagree – neither agree nor disagree – agree – strongly agree).
I do not have a strategy for achieving my goals in this line of work/career field. I have created a plan for my development in this line of work/career field.
I do not identify specific goals for my development in this line of work/career field. I do not often think about my personal development in this line of work/career field.
Thank you so much for your participation in this research study.
If you have any questions or concerns, feel free to contact the project leader Tessa ten Cate at tessa.tencate@student.uva.nl at any time.
