Understanding the factors contributing to the farmer-herder conflict

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UNDERSTANDING THE FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE FARMER-HERDER CONFLICT:

Source: MINADER, 2017

A Case of Akum Village, North West Region, Cameroon

By

Jude Kiang Asongwe

Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences

The Netherlands

September, 2020

All rights reserved.

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UNDERSTANDING THE FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE FARMER-HERDER

CONFLICT: CASE STUDY OF AKUM VILLAGE, NORTH WEST REGION, CAMEROON

A research project submitted to

Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Management of

Development (Specialization: Disaster Risk Management)

By

Jude Kisang Asongwe

September, 2020.

All rights reserved.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Above all, my gratefulness and perpetual glorification to God Almighty whose omniscience, omnipotence and omnipresence bestowed on me the wisdom, motivation, strength and good health to successfully accomplish the entire Master’s Program and most especially this research project. I wish to express my sincere thankfulness to Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences for granting me admission without which the pursuit of this Master’s Degree would not have been possible. My profound gratitude to the Management of Development Program Coordinator Dr. Pleun van Arensbergen for ensuring the success of the entire program.

It is my utmost pleasure to specially appreciate my Supervisor Astrid Van Rooij for her coaching, guidance and mentorship throughout the entire master’s program, most especially during the research process. Her meticulousness and enthusiasm in my work motivated me to succeed. I also wish to express my utter gratitude to my Assessor Dr. Gerrit-Jan van Uffelen for his wealth of experience, support, guidance and feedback.

My absolute appreciation and reverence to all the lecturers and professionals in the Management of Development and the Disaster risk management specialization for their dedication, hard work, inspiration, professionalism and service. They provided me with a solid foundation which gave me the capacity to undertake this research. My utmost gratitude goes to all the stakeholders who participated in this research: Key Informants, farmers and herdsmen. I am highly indebted to them.

I acknowledge more importantly, the efforts of my research assistant, Mr. John Mbah who did the data collection on my behalf, because of the COVID-19 pandemic, I could not be personally in the field to collect data. I applaud him for his discipline, hard work, collaboration, sacrifices and team spirit in the research process. Special thanks to the research commissioner – The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER) for their collaboration in this research. Finally, I am extremely thankful to my family for the encouragements, advice, love and support throughout my academic study.

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DEDICATION

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LIST OF PICTURES

PICTURE 1:KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW WITH NGOREPRESENTATIVE ... 22

PICTURE 2:KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW WITH THE REGIONAL VETERINARY OFFICER ... 22

PICTURE 3:KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW LEGAL OFFICIAL IN CHARGE OF LAND TENURE ... 23

PICTURE 4:FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS WITH MALE FARMERS/HERDERS ... 23

PICTURE 5:FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION WITH FEMALE FARMERS/HERDERS ... 24

PICTURE 6:IN-DEPTH-INTERVIEW ... 24

PICTURE 7:IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW ... 25

PICTURE 8:PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION OF DAMAGED FARM AS A RESULT OF THE CATTLE ENCROACHMENT AND TRESPASSING ... 25

PICTURE 9:PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION DURING CONFLICT RESOLUTION PROCESS ... 26

PICTURE 10:OBSERVATION OF THE HERDING PROCESS ... 26

PICTURE 11:SPRAYING OF GRASS WITH CHEMICAL AND CATTLE ALLEGED POISONING AS A RESULT ... 42

PICTURE 12:CROP DESTRUCTION BY CATTLE ... 43

PICTURE 13:TRESPASSING AND ENCROACHMENT BY HERDER AND CATTLE LEADING TO CROP DESTRUCTION ... 44

PICTURE 14:CATTLE RUSTLING ... 45

PICTURE 15:CATTLE RUSTLING ... 45

PICTURE 16:CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ... 46

PICTURE 17:CLIMATE CHANGE LEADING TO CATTLE MIGRATION ... 46

PICTURE 18:LAND OWNERSHIP AND DEMAND FOR LAND CREATING COMPETITION ... 47

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACCRONYMS

AEO Agricultural Extension Officer

APC Agro Pastoral Commission

CDP Community Development Project

CFGL Control of Farming and Grazing Land

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

COVID-19 Corona Virus Disease 2019

DPO Divisional Police Officer

DRM Disaster Risk Management

DTA Department of Tropical Agriculture

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

FGD Focus Group Discussion

FGL Farming and Grazing Land

GDP Gross Domestic Product

ICG International Crisis Group

ICS Institute of Conflict Studies

IDI INTRACEN

In-Depth Interview

International Trade Statistics

JTF Joint Task Force

KII Key Informant Interview

LGA Local Government Area

M.Sc. Master of Science

MBOSCUDA Mbororo Cultural and Development Association

MINADER Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

NACCR National Authority Cattle Control Rules

NEC National Economic Council

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NLTP National Livestock Transformation Plan

NWR North West Region

PAR Pressure and Release Model

PESTEL Political, Economic, Socio-cultural, Technological and Environmental

SLF Sustainable Livelihood Framework

SSIDI UNISDR WFP

Semi-Structured In-depth Interview

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction World Food Program

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ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to examine the factors contributing to the Farmer-Herder conflict in Akum village, Cameroon. The study further aimed at analyzing the effects of the conflict, stakeholder involvement and conflict resolution mechanisms proffered to help mitigate the conflict in Akum village. A thorough understanding of the conflict was imperative in the design of recommendations to ensure peaceful coexistence between farmers and herders as requested by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Farmers and herders once coexisted and had a symbiotic relationship, however the mutual relationship deteriorated thus leading to violent conflict. Farmer-herder conflicts have therefore become an issue in Cameroon especially in Akum village given its repercussions on livelihood, food security and community relation. Data was collected using focus group discussions, semi-structured in-depth interviews, key informant interviews and observations. Respondents constituted local farmers, herdsmen, traditional /leader, leadership of cooperatives, security, religious and government officials, and NGO representative. The study applied the qualitative research strategy while case study research design was adopted for the study on farmer-herder conflict in Akum village.

There were 28 respondents for the Semi-structured In-depth Interview, 2 focus group discussions with 6 participants per focus group and finally 10 key Informants for the key informant interview. Purposive sampling technique was applied to get respondents for this study. Participatory tools used included stakeholder analysis, rich picture and timeline to gain a thorough perception of the factors driving the conflict between farmers and herders. Data collected were analyzed using thematic analysis based on the research objectives. Data was grouped in to 4 main themes and 41 sub themes for a detailed analysis. The study found that farmer-herder conflict was triggered by competition for land, crop destruction, cattle rustling, contamination of water sources, spraying of chemicals, migration, population increase, drought, erosion of traditional authority, exploitation by security forces and the absence of effective conflict mediation mechanisms. In addition, root causes such as bad governance, lack of equal opportunities, inadequacy of political participation, different ideologies, culture and tradition, land tenure systems and land expropriation, political insecurity, and urbanization, accounted for the conflict.

Findings from the study shows that government intervention to bring peace by using security forces, is addressing mainly the triggers of the conflict rather than its root causes. Government response is also slow in addressing the conflict. Further findings indicate that government has not been proactive in solving the conflict. This has been the major weakness of the government in tackling the issue. Apart from the government, the onus is also on other stakeholders notably: farmers, herders, community leaders, traditional authorities, religious officials, NGO’s, cooperatives, local community, public and private organizations to intervene in conflict resolution. The study also found that the conflict has caused food insecurity, poverty, displacement of families, injuries, loss of lives, decline in agricultural production and productivity. The study concluded that solving the conflict needs a cognizance of the root causes and triggering factors. In line with the findings, the study strongly recommends that MINADER should set up a Justice, peace and reconciliation commission (JPRC), Agriculture technology transfer and capacity building, Paddocking and Ranching policy, Establishment of a fodder bank, promoting Alliance Agriculture and agricultural cooperatives, Land reforms, Grazing reserves and a buffer zone, promote climate smart agriculture, Community policing and vigilante, Holistic education campaign and financial incentives. The researcher also recommends that herders and farmers should be registered for quality, security, control, tracing and tracking purposes. A fodder bank should be established in Akum village. This will prevent encroachments and allay fears of crop destructions.

Keywords: Conflict, Farmer-Herder Conflict, Smallholder Farmers, Mbororo Herdsmen, Nomadism, Pastoralism, Migration, Population, Climate change.

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CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

Farmer-herder conflict has been a characteristic of economic livelihood in Africa, particularly in Cameroon (Mbih, 2020). Cameroon has been grappling with plethora of security challenges, predominant among them are insurgency, post-election violence, kidnapping, anglophone crisis and the farmer-herder conflict among others (Moritz et al, 2013). The episodic struggle over access to land and its resources as well as social diversity and ethno-communal heterogeneity accounts for the farmer-herder conflict in Cameroon (Sone, 2012). Farmers and herders once enjoyed a symbiotic relationship that suddenly deteriorated due to plethora of factors (Moritz et al, 2013; Mbih, 2020). This research was aimed at analyzing the factors contributing to the farmer-herder conflict in Akum village, Cameroon. Consequently, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER) mindful of the repercussions of the farmer-herder conflict on food security and peaceful coexistence; commissioned this research, to understand the root causes, triggers and recommendations that can solve the problem. Therefore, getting the perspective of farmers and herders is fundamental to solving the issue. Food insecurity is a major concern because farmlands, farmers, herders, crops and cattle are being destroyed thus reducing agricultural production and productivity (Mbih, 2020). About 3.9million Cameroonians face moderate to severe food insecurity due to multiple crisis among which are the farmer-herder conflicts (WFP, 2017). Cameroon is located in Central Africa with a population of 26million people (CIA, 2020). There are 10 regions and the farmer herder conflict is predominant in the North West Region (Mbih, 2020).

Figure 1: Map of Cameroon

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3 1.3 Contextual Background of the Study

The proliferation of conflicts is a phenomenon common not only to Cameroon but to the world in general and Africa in particular (Okeke, 2014; Abbas, 2012). Violent conflicts notably farmer-herder conflict has been a prominent feature of West African livelihood notably Nigeria, Ghana and Burkina Faso (Blench, 2010). East Africa has had its own share of farmer-herder conflict especially in Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia (Nwamfupe, 2015:1). Farmer-herder conflict is also an issue in Mali, Sudan (North Africa) and Chad, (Central Africa) with dire repercussions for the security of these areas (Adano, et al., 2012). Farmer-herder conflict comes to add to the security challenges Cameroon has been grappling with though unsuccessful. Cameroon is par excellence highly polarized by virtue of its multi-ethnicity and multicultural heritage having over 250 ethnic groups speaking over 250 assorted languages across the 10 regions (Mbih, 2020). By default, considering its cultural and linguistic dichotomy, conflict is an obnoxious phenomenon in Cameroon (Mbaku, 2005). The farmer-herder conflict has been provoked by population increase and the globalization of the economy (Mbih, 2020). Smallholder farmers have limited access to adequate and secure land (Azuhnwi et al, 2017). Farmer-herder conflict also is facilitated due to migration, land scarcity, land tenure insecurity as a result of agricultural expansion and diversification, conflicts and land grabbing (Mbih et al, 2018). Olagbaju and Awosusi (2019) postulates that, conflicts emanate from the differences in individual or group aspirations, values, or interests.

These conflicts no doubt, portend harmful effects on the country’s cultural and social values. This study focuses on the farmer herder-conflict in Cameroon with specific emphasis on the situation in Akum Village. Akum village is an attraction to many herdsmen due to its favorable environmental conditions, thus making it a key hotspot area of the farmer-herder conflict. The favorable environment leads to increase in population thus putting pressure on natural resources (Mbih, 2015). Being a social conflict, the farmer-herder conflict has been orchestrated by severe and persistent violence that have resulted to human and environmental insecurity issues among the population of Akum village. This is often based on partial judgment or unresolved cases of crop damage by cattle or rangeland encroachment by farmers (Benjaminsen and Ba, 2019). Open violence with a deadly tendency becoming socio-economically untenable have been a major characteristic in the North West Region (NWR) of Cameroon particularly in Akum village (Brottem, 2016; Mwamfupe, 2015). Sometimes the conflict is worsened by the Muslim-Christian divide, exacerbated by climate change, population growth, increasing threat of terrorism and the availability of arms in the hands of herders. This aggravates hostilities and influence ethnic and religious segmentation across the North West Region (NWR), notably in Akum Village (Benjaminsen and Ba, 2019). Gun trafficking has made the conflict worsened in the region. The historical background of farmer-herder conflicts in Akum village in retrospect, dates back to the British colonial period in Southern Cameroon in the 1920s and 1930s, which coincided with the early arrival of the first Fulani pastoral migratory waves into the territory (Blench, 2010).

The Fulani herders in their early arrival were mainly nomads, whereas the host farming communities were farmers and hunters. Over time, Fulani pastoralists became sedentarized and semi-nomadic, encouraged by the British Colonia Administration; they realized growth in their cattle numbers while also increasing crop damage by trespassing cattle in the Bamenda grass-fields (Blench, 2010). The Fulanis’ became accustomed to pastoralism and transhumance activities as a result of the British Colonial policies which was aimed at encouraging pastoralism in order to increase cattle tax revenue to finance the colonial administration (Blench, 2010). This conflict has escalated in communities in Akum Village, exacerbated by population growth and climate change (Azuhnwi et al, 2017). Preferential treatment was thus enjoyed by the Fulani herdsmen due to the tax, and other financial gains by the government of Cameroon (Mbih, 2020). Today the Farmer-herder conflicts has become the dominant form of land use conflicts in Akum Village alongside inter-tribal wars and natural resource conflicts related to communal land grabbing (Mbih, 2020). Police brutality is common as a result of the farmer-herder conflict. (Azuhnwi et al, 2017). Conflicts between farmers and herders have been in existence since the 1990s in Cameroon and the management of it has been very problematic. It is against this background that this study examines the contributing factors and recommendations to solve the farmer-herder conflict.

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Figure 2: Farmer-Herder Conflict Hotspots in Cameroon: Akum Village has been highlighted as one of the hotspots.

Source: Mbih, 2020

1.3.2 Community Relationship and Farmer-Herder Conflict

Relationship is a key attribute and determinant of conflict between farmers and herders in Akum Village (Moritz et al, 2013). The relationship between small-scale farmers and herders has deteriorated over the years despite their interdependence for survival (Monod, 2018), leading to violent clashes (Mbih et.al, 2018: 789). Farmers depended on herders for their animal dunk to be used as manure on farmland while the herders relied on farmers for crop residues or agricultural left over, to feed their cattle (Mbih, 2020; Feldt et al, 2020). Fulani herdsmen in Akum Village are traditionally pastoralists who depend mostly on the land and water resources to feed their cattle (Dosu, 2011). The mutual understanding led to peaceful coexistence, with the herdsmen migrating from the drought prone north to the equatorial climate in the North West region (Moritz et al, 2013). This mutual relationship deteriorated overtime thus leading to conflict (Dosu, 2011).

1.3.4 Nomadic Activities and Farmer-Herder Conflict

Nomadic activities contribute to the farmer-herder conflict (Nzeh, 2015). In addition, Okeke (2014) opined that damages frequently done during nomadic activities include overgrazing, destruction of crops, loss of yields, destruction of reservoir and source of drinkable water, burning of rangelands, and destruction of irrigational facilities. Farmer-grazer conflict has had severe repercussion on agriculture, livelihood and the economy of Cameroon, that depends on agriculture for its survival (Moritz et al, 2013). This was corroborated by Abia et al (2016) who posited that “A key feature of Cameroon Agriculture is the dominance of small-scale farms”.

1.3.6 Politics, government policies, legislations and the Farmer-Herder Conflict

There is an impactful political influence and interference in land ownership and access (Sone, 2012). Customary and state legislations reduce the potentials of land ownership by future investors in agricultural sector (Sone, 2012). Thus, with limited resources to do farming and grazing, the few available land is being exposed to the competitive strength of both groups. Yembilah and Grant (2014) highlighted politics as a factor in the farmer-herder conflict. For example, land ownership is prohibited till the age of 40 in Cameroon (Mbih, 2020).

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1.3.7 Women and the Farmer-Herder Conflict in Akum village

Women have been at the center of the farmer-herder crisis in Akum village since the colonial period (Mbih, 2020). The location of their farms often close to rangelands has always made them vulnerable to crop damage by cattle. Most of the complaints and early protests related to crop damage by cattle against Fulani herders Akum village were often orchestrated by women (Mbih, 2020). Women often seized cattle from herders and demanded fines and compensation for the damaged crops before returning the seized cattle. Some cattle were impounded in frustration by the women who desperately wanted fines to be paid before herders could collect their cattle. This often led to tension and conflict between the two groups (Mbih, 2020).

1.4 Statement of the Problem

The mandate of MINADER is to ensure food security and improvement in livelihood of Cameroonians. Achieving the sustainable development goals of the United Nations while ensuring that Cameroon become an emerging economy by 2030 according to national roadmap is also the vision of MINADER. To fulfill this ambition, MINADER has been operating with key partners to develop its agricultural sector. However, the vision to achieve sustainable food production has been hindered by the farmer-herder conflict. According to Mbih (2020), Sone (2012), the conflict affects livelihood, food security, and peaceful co-existence. There is lack of evidence of systematic research on the influencing factors of the farmer-herder conflict especially on the root causes and triggering factors. Finding solution to the conflict has been a real challenge to stakeholders (Azuhnwi, 2017). The following commissions and legislations were created but failed to solve the conflict: Control of Farming and Grazing Law (CFGL) of 1962, the Agropastoral Commision (APC) created in 1978, the Nseke Commission created in 1973, the Fundong Sub-divisional Farmer-Herder Commission of 1985, the Jani Commission of 2003, and the K oumpa Issa Commission of 2003, (Django, William and Jeidoh, 2011). Most attempts by stakeholders through the Agro-pastoral Commission (APC) have registered limited success in the conflict resolution (Azuhnwi et al, 2017). It is for these reasons that MINADER will like to understand how to mitigate the quagmire. Endeavors to provide a policy framework through the national disaster institutional framework and agreements to manage the conflict transpired fruitlessly (Bang, Miles and Gordon, 2019). The government policy and regulation on land use and grazing has been met with agitation as it didn't consult stakeholders involved (Azuhnwi, 2017). Many have opined that governments’ response is tantamount to increasing the conflict because their strategy hinges on land expropriation (Moritz, 2010).

Local policies also have not been shaped to provide a platform for sustainable agro-pastoral development by resolving farmer-herder conflicts and protecting farming and grazing resources in favour of local farmers and herders. Farmer-grazer conflict is a threat to livelihood security in Akum Village which has been exacerbated by population growth and climate change. Inadequate attention has been given to this conflict by the government of Cameroon (Azuhnwi, 2017). The appellation of the conflict by the government of Cameroon as local, endemic, low-intensity conflict, is also detrimental to policy implementation (Moritz, 2010). Due to poor management of the conflict, it has escalated into complex issues and prevalent upheavals characterized by property destruction, human displacement and killings in communities. The history, effect and impact of the farmer-herder conflict have not been adequately analyzed using the expert and indigenous knowledge. Moreover, resolution mechanisms have equally not been given thorough attention and focus. Implementation of reforms in the agricultural sector is also slow to be realized. An assessment of migratory risk factor especially the spread of animal diseases from one region to another have not been addressed. Despite these farmer and herder cooperatives, they are incapacitated to solve the farmer-herder problem. They lack the technical expertise and competencies dealing with conflict situations. Secondly, most of the issues faced are beyond the jurisdiction of these cooperatives as they are root causes strongly linked to the political, economic, socio-cultural, environmental and technological faculties (Sone, 2012). Concluding from the problem statement above, the key issue highlighted is: failure in government policies in solving the conflict. Examining the rational for this failure by government is crucial to any intervention strategy. A new approach is therefore needed to find solution to this conflict.

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1.5 Knowledge Gap and Research Significance

Very few studies have examined the root causes and triggering factors precipitating the farmer-herder conflict in Cameroon. Therefore, the findings will benefit MINADER in formulating appropriate policies on holistic sustainable disaster risk management. This research is significant given its repercussions on food security and livelihood (Tellen, Shu and Anchang, 2016; Rashid, 2012; Oyama, 2014).

1.6 Justification of the Study

With the increasing number of farmer-herder conflicts in Akum village in particular and other villages of Cameroon (Bello, 2013), it has become imperative to understand the underlying factors and the nature of the conflict, so that appropriate interventions could be designed. Addressing the root causes is vital in any conflict resolution mechanism. In addition, management of man-made hazards is yet to receive adequate attention in Cameroon (Olaniyan, et al., 2018).

1.7 Research objective

The Main objective of this research is to explore the root causes of the farmer-herder conflict in Akum Village, North West Region of Cameroon. Understanding the root causes of the conflict will enable the researcher to recommend to the problem owner, (MINADER), effective strategies and interventions, to manage and promote sustainable peace between farmers and herders.

Sub Research Objectives

1. To identify the kind of conflict that exist between farmers and herders in Akum Village

2. To examine the root causes and triggering factors of the farmer-herder conflict in Akum Village 3. To describe the effects of the conflict on farmers and herders in Akum Village

4. To discuss how stakeholders influence farmer-herder conflict in Akum Village

1.8 Research Question

From the objective above, one research question along with four other sub-questions have been formulated as follows:

Main Research Question

What are the factors contributing to the farmer-herder conflict in Akum Village? Sub-Questions

1. What kind of conflict exists between small-scale farmers and herders in Akum Village?

2. What are the root causes and triggers of the conflict between farmers and herders in Akum Village? 3. What are the effects of the conflict on small-scale farmers and herders in Akum Village?

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CHAPTER TWO. LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter examines previous studies in relation to the farmer-herder conflict. It consists of the conceptual and theoretical frameworks which helps to give more meaning to the findings. The major concepts are discussed in this chapter. The operationalization of the conflict has been described using the pressure and release model adapted for conflict setting. The sustainable livelihood framework has been used to conceptualize the farmer-herder conflict. Doing this literature review has enabled the researcher to unravel the research objectives and questions.

2.1 Operationalization of the Farmer-Herder Conflict

The operationalization of the farmer-herder conflict, helped in understanding the influencing factors in the conflict and also enabled the researcher to answer the research questions.

Figure 3: Operationalization of the farmer-herder conflict

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2.2 Conceptual Framework

This study is focused on the farmer-herder conflict while exploring the root causes and the triggers. By conceptualizing the framework, it enabled the researcher to accomplish the research objectives. The occurrence of conflict is explained by the PAR model above (Wisner, et al., 2004). Farmer-herder conflict is caused by the root causes and triggers according to the framework.

Figure 4: The Conceptual Framework

Source: Adapted from Wisner et al., (2004).

2.2.1 The Concept of Conflict

Conflict is a situation where there is incompatibility between individuals and groups (Conroy, 2014). According to this study, conflict means the struggle inherent among small-scale farmers and the herdsmen.

Direct Physical Violence and Structural Violence

Conflict are caused by direct physical violence or structural violence. Direct physical violence includes murder, war, rape and assault while structural violence consists of injustice, exploitation and bias (Conroy, 2014). Structural conflict occurs due to struggle over resources such as land, water and pastures (Hagberg, 2000).

2.2.2 The Concept of Small-Scale Farming (SSF)

Small-scale farmers are linked to limited resources (Dixon, et al., 2003); According to World Bank (2003), they own land which is less than 2 hectares. In relation to this study, small-scale farmers are members of Akum Village

Figure 1: • Killing (poisoning) of Cattle ▪ Crop destruction • Trespassing and Encroachment • Cattle Rustling • Climate change • environmental degradation • Population increase • Land ownership and

competition

• Pollution of water

• Escalating conflict in the North • Unsafe rural location

• Exclusion of herdsmen • Erosion of traditional authority • Small arms proliferation • Exploitation by political and

security forces

• Absence of conflict

Resolution mechanisms

• Colonial and post

Colonial policies

• Land

Tenure Systems

Land Expropriation and land grabbing

• Poor Governance • Government policies and

legislations

• Marginalization and lack of

equal opportunities

• Lack of participation • Culture

• Political Insecurity

Root Causes of the Conflict between farmers and herders

Triggers of the Conflict between farmers and herders

Progression of the farmer-herder Conflict in Akum Village

Disaster Risk = Hazard x Vulnerabilities Vulnerabilities • Loss of farmland and grazing land • Killing of herdsmen and farmers • Killing of Animals • Destruction of crops, farmland and cattle. • Displacement of people • Livelihood at risk • Structural violence • Direct physical violence • Drought • Armed Conflict Hazard Disaster Risk

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who grow cash crops and domesticate animals. A feature common to SSF is the limited resources which makes them to be less competitive.

2.2.3 The Concept of Farmer-Herder Conflict

The term farmer-herder conflicts in this research refers to competition over agro-pastoral resources in an ethnically and culturally heterogonous environment between local farmers and Mbororo herders (Mwamfupe, 2015). The term also emphasizes the tension between farmers and herders (Bollig and Osterle, 2013). The livelihood of these groups is characterized primarily by crop cultivation and livestock production. Access to land resources is critical for agro-pastoral production and is perceived as a powerful and symbolic relationship (Mwamfupe, 2015).

Root Causes of the Farmer-Herder Conflict

Moritz, (2010) posits that political factors accounts for root causes of the conflict such as colonial and post-colonial policies, land tenure system, land expropriation and land grabbing, poor governance, lack of equal opportunities, lack of political participation, and culture (Jeong, 2008).

Colonial and Post-Colonial Administration policies

Sone (2012) also attributes farmer-grazer problem to political and legal influence. Herding practices were promoted more by the colonial authorities because it generated a lot of revenue compared to crop farmers (Blench, 2010). The economic policies of the British colonial administration and post-colonial administration, led to the development of agro-pastoral policies that favored Fulani herders, such as the issuing of protected status with land certificates referred to as Certificates of Occupancy for Fulani settlements (Blench, 2010). The colonial policy of favoring the herders due to the economic benefits, transpired into the postcolonial era with same motives (Moritz, 2012). The postcolonial policy on agro-pastoralism favored herders by giving them land rights, cases between herders and farmers were judged in favour of herders or delayed judgment against herders (Moritz, 2012). The transition from colonial period of British and French rule to the government of Cameroon, granted access to grazing lands to the Mbororo and Fulani herders (Blench, 2010). This created tension between farmers and herders.

Land Tenure Systems, land expropriation and Land Grabbing

Farmer-herder conflicts in Cameroon gets its roots from the poor application of the statutory laws guaranteeing land ownership (Sone, 2012). Cameroons’ land tenure system is embedded in discriminatory power structures and procedures (Mbih, 2020). Through the land tenure system, there is unequal allocation of land based on class, gender, and other social hierarchical structure (Mbih, 2020). This situation instigates farmer-herder conflicts. Land is often monopolized and abused by traditional authorities who are the custodians of the land (Mbih, 2015). Land ownership laws in Cameroon prohibits illegal acquisition of land, however, the weak and vulnerable are often being outsmarted by the influential persons in the society, who illegally acquire at the detriment of farmers, herders and the community whose livelihood hinges on the land (Sone, 2012). Increase state control on communal lands also limits land available for agriculture (Mbih, 2015). The farmer-herder conflict remains a major problem of land use and natural resource conflicts in Akum Village (Sone, 2012). The farmer-herder conflict in Akum village from yesteryears has been due to the repugnant seizure of land by government and wealthy individuals (Mbih, 2020). Government during and after the colonial period, often claim ownership of unexploited land and land duly bought and having land titles (Ojuku, Enchaw and Tselefac, 2010). This was done as a result of government policy to create social amenities (Sone, 2012). Land owners were hardly compensated for the expropriated land (Mbih, 2020). This often led to conflict between farmers and herders who struggle for survival

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over limited available piece of land (Mbih, 2020). This results to competition over limited land available ((Ojuku, Enchaw and Tselefac, 2010; Mbih, 2020).

Poor Governance

This manifests in the form of bribery and corruption, marginalization, bureaucracy and centralized system (Moritz et al, 2013). This was supported in research done by Belaunde, (2010). Dimelu and Salifu (2017); Moritz (2013) and Fonjong et al, (2010) opined that poor governance manifested in bribery and corruption and marginalization fuels the conflict. The interests of stakeholders (socio-economic and political) for example income generation via tax revenue, bribery, partiality in judgment regarding farmer–herder conflicts, and annual gifts and tributes to government officials and traditional leaders influence policies and judgments thereby provoking more conflicts than resolving them (Mbih, 2020). The economic interests of stakeholders in NWC is the focus of conflicting policy preferences, irrational allocation of farming and grazing resource, and power over agro-pastoral resource conflicts management.

Lack of Political WILL

The government at all levels have demonstrated near absence of needed political will to proffer lasting solutions to the conflicting claims of different actors in the ongoing conflict between farmers and herders (Mbih, 2020). Political leaders have failed to invoke appropriate legislations backed by action that would define rules and regulations for farmers and herders. Lack of Political Will to implement protocols and frameworks remains an enabler to the conflict (Mbih, 2020).

Marginalization and Farmer-Herder Conflict

Marginalization fuels the farmer herder conflict especially with regards to land ownership in Cameroon (Pelican and Maruyama, 2015). Farmers and herders have low access to power, structures and resources due to marginalization (Pelican and Maruyama, 2015). The 1974 Land Ordinance law which is the main governing body on land, recognizes and propagates equal landownership rights in Cameroon (Pelican and Maruyama, 2015). However, the reality is land discrimination due to ethnicity, gender, and economic circumstance (Pelican and Maruyama, 2015). Inequality is strongly entrenched in the system of land ownership where the wealthy and influential individuals and organizations, enjoy usufruct rights while the poor farmers and herders are marginalized and discriminated against in terms of access to land and land ownership (Pelican and Maruyama, 2015). Lack of equal rights, marginalization and the ineffective implementation of land laws is leading to conflict between farmers and herders (Pelican and Maruyama, 2015).

Political Insecurity and Farmer-Herder Conflict

The ongoing insecurity in the Northern Region of Cameroon due to the terrorist sect Boko Haram, have led to the mass influx of herders into the North West Region of Cameroon most especially Akum Village. This has added pressure on the already growing demand for grazing and farmland (Sone, 2012). Moreover, competition for limited natural resources such as water, has intensified the conflict (Sone, 2012).

Culture

According to Mbih, (2020); culture account for farmer-herder conflicts. Dimelu, Salifu and Enwelu (2017) all suggests that cultural practice is a hindrance to peaceful coexistence thus leading to farmer-herder conflicts. Triggers of the Farmer-Herder Conflict

Triggers are activities with the intention to spark off or amplify violent battle (Conroy, 2014). Examples of triggers and unsafe conditions are; crop destruction, killing of animals, trespassing and encroachment, drought. Migration, population growth, insufficient grazing land, increase demand for farmland, exploitation by security forces and the absence of mediation mechanisms.

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Environmental Degradation, Scarcity of resources and Farmer-Herder Conflict

Oyama (2020), Mbih (2020), Steier and Cianci (2019) and Bukari (2020) all emphasized and elaborated on the environmental influences with regards to the conflict. There said that the deteriorating environmental conditions, desertification and soil degradation have led Mbororo herdsmen to flee from the North to the North West thus degrading the environment. The environment plays a key role in the farmer-herder conflict according to Bergius et al, (2020). Pressure resulting from resource degradation and scarcity of quality water, arable land and pasture is aggravating the situation of competition between farmers and pastoralists (Adelakun, et al., 2015). This was corroborated by Mbih, (2015). Moritz (2010) highlights same issue of scarcity of resources causing the conflict. Farmers increasingly compete with nomadic herders for land, water and the use of rangeland in general (Muhammed, Ismaila and Bibi, 2015). The conflict has resulted to loss of lives, displacement, loss of cattle and destruction of arable crop farms which were livelihood sources (Nformi, Mary-Juliet & Nji, 2014). Oyama, (2014), emphasizes on resource degradation as a principle factor in the farmer-herder conflict. Resource degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources. Oyama (2004) reiterates that environmental degradation and scarcity of resources causes conflict.

Climate Change and Farmer-Herder Conflict in Akum village

The drought conditions plaguing the northern regions of Cameroon has precipitated the migration of herdsmen and their cattle into the North West Region, particularly to Akum Village due to its rich ecosystem and environment (Mbih, 2010; Nformi et al, 2014; Mbih, 2010). This was corroborated by Brottem, (2016); Ntangti, (2019) and Cabot, (2017). The conflict threatens food security and livelihood (Adano et al., 2012). Increasing fluctuations in rainfall, is a characteristic of the climate change (Audu, 2013). Climate change leads to migration thus leading to conflict (Pearson and Newman, 2019; Mbih, 2020; (Audu, 2013). Fon, Fonjong, and Sama-Lang,

(2010) in their study, corroborates that drought accounts for the onset of the farmer herder conflict.

Cattle Rustling, killing of cattle and crop destruction

cattle rustling, killing of cattle by poisoning, are factors perpetuating and precipitating the conflict (Okoli, and Okpaleke, 2014; Olaniyan, 2016). Beyene (2017) opined that farmer grazer clashes are due to the crop destruction following seasonal movements of pastoralists and their flocks. This is in congruent with the research of Bayene (2017) and Olaniyan et al (2015) in their study on the conflict stated that the destruction of crops by cattle form the basis of the conflict. Other unsafe conditions leading to the conflict as highlighted by Fon, Fonjong, and Sama-Lang (2010) are extortion by vigilantes, unsafe rural location, political/ethnic strife, contested land rights, livelihood at risk, exclusion of herders.

Migration, Population Growth, competition and Farmer-Herder Conflict

According to Benjaminsen et al, (2012) migration and population growth accounts for farmer-herder conflict. The mass migration of Fulani herdsmen in search of pasture for their herds, increased competition for land and resources (Okoli and Atelhe, 2014). Increase in the population of Akum village over the years from 2000 in 1990 to over 5000 in 2020 has led to competition due to scarcity for resources. Cattle population has also increased over the years from 10,000 heads in 1922 to about 651, 782 heads in 2019 in Cameroon (Mbih, 2015). The increase in cattle population was as a result of migration into Cameroon of cattle from neighboring Nigeria (Mbih, 2015).

Urbanization and Farmer-Herder Conflict

The construction of roads, houses and other infrastructure take up land for agriculture (Moritz et al, 2013). These have resulted to limited land available for grazing and farming activities. As a result, there is competition between farmers and herders which puts them into conflict (Sone, 2012).

Land Expropriation and Land Grabbing

Farmers and Grazers are vulnerable to land expropriation and land grabbing especially from the rich and influential as well as the government (Nformi, Mary-Juliet and Nji, 2014). This was corroborated by (Babiker, 2001)

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who stated that land grabbing and expropriation, limits the land available to farmers and grazers thus limiting their farming and grazing activities (Moritz, 2010). Furthermore, it creates competition among them thus leading to conflict (Oyama, 2004).

Increase Demand for Grazing and Farmland

There is an increase in the demand for grazing and farmland in Akum village (Mbih, 2020). Due to the influx of grazers from other regions, it has come to put the high demand for grazing lands in Akum Village (Moritz, 2010). This has created a mad rush for farmland and grazing land thereby leading to conflict between farmers and gazers. This study was highlighted by Moritz, (2010) in his study on the farmer-herder conflict. There was a correlation in the same study by Mosely (2017) about the farmer-herder conflicts in relation to the increase demand for grazing and farmland.

Economic Crisis, Poverty Moritz, and Farmer-Herder Conflict

The economic crisis and poverty in Cameroon of the late 1980s and 1990s resulted in massive retrenchment of workers who immediately resort to agro-pastoralism as a survival strategy, thus contributing to the increasing pressure over declining agro-pastoral resources, leading to persistent conflicts (Kum and Takor, 2018)

2.2.4 The Concept of Herding

Herding is the act of bringing individual animals together into a group (herd), maintaining the group, and moving the group from place to place – or any combination of those (Hanotte et al, 2002). Herding can refer to the process of animals forming herds in the wild, or to human intervention forming herds for some purpose.

2.2.5 The Concept of Pastoralism

Pastoralism is a type of animal husbandry which is historically carried out by nomadic people who move with their herds from place to place in search of pastures, water and other resources (Hanotte et al, 2002). Pastoralism involves various species of herding livestock such as cattle, camels, goats, and sheep (Tobias and Lynn, 2018). Pastoralism is practiced by 200 to 500 million people globally and 75% of countries have pastoral communities (Moran, 2016; Dong et al, 2011). In Cameroon, there is the practice of pastoralism which includes moving herds for distances in search of fresh pasture and water (Motta,et al, 2018). Africa is estimated to have about 268 million pastoralists (McGahey et al, 2014). Pastoralists manage rangelands covering about a third of the earth’s terrestrial surface (Dong, 2016). Estimated figures shows that several hundred million people practice pastoralism in more than 100 countries worldwide (Dong, 2016). Some pastoralists in large parts of Sub Saharan Africa are preferring livestock breeds that can adapt to their environment (Hanotte et al, 2002). Pastoralists in the Sahel regions of Africa have often been held responsible for the depletion of resources triggered mostly by the punitive climatic conditions (Dongmo et al, 2012). Studies shows that the pastoralists land use strategy suffered criticisms of being unstable and the major cause of environmental degradation (Dongmo et al, 2012; Moritz et al, 2013).

Pastoralism in Cameroon

In Cameroon, livestock pastoralism represents a key adaptation strategy to environmental variability (Moritz et al, 2013). It is an established practice among cattle herders in order to overcome the constraints of the dry season (Moritz et al, 2013). During this adverse condition and period, a large proportion of cattle herds migrate as a coping mechanism to the environmental constraints (Shidiki, Tchamba and Pamo, 2018). Pastoralists’ leave the northern region characterized by drought conditions to the North West Region characterized by tropical climate (Shidiki, Tchamba and Pamo, 2018). Seasonal livestock transhumance in Cameroon has been criticized for bringing about infectious diseases among cattle (Moritz et al, 2013). Transhumance is a common practice In Cameroon especially during the dry season across all the main livestock production zones and it is aimed at ensuring cattle survival thus guaranteeing the production of dairy products (Moritz et al, 2013). The milk, beef and fur are being

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sold to raise money for these pastoralists in order to support their livelihood (Motta, Porphyre and Hamman, 2018). In Akum Village, the animals commonly being used for pastoralism include cows, goat and lamb (Moritz et al, 2013). Pastoral communities are mostly found in variations throughout the world where climate change affect agriculture (Lynn and Jose, 2014). The violent farmer-herder conflicts in Akum Village, have been exacerbated by climate change and population growth. Pastoralism supports livelihood despite being a source of conflict (Kossoumna, Dugue and Torquebiau, 2010).

2.2.6 Farmer-Herder Conflict within the Pressure and Release Model for conflict setting

Figure 5: Farmer herder conflict within Pressure and Release model for conflict setting

National and Political Economy and the interface between scales • Government policy • Land Tenure systems Social structures, political systems and governance mechanisms • Bad governance • Bureaucracy • Bribery and corruption • Marginalization • Lack of participation • Inadequate access to power structures Conditions of vulnerability, including livelihood opportunities • Inadequate access to land, • Vulnerable to effects of climate change, poverty, government policy DISASTER (With varying prevalence and longevity) • Farmer-herder conflict • Herder-herder conflict • Farmer-farmer conflict • Herder-community • Farmer-community • Inter-tribal conflict Hazards: • Climatic • Environmental • Scarcity of resources • Political insecurity in the North and North West Regions • Land degradation

Climate change and climate extremes In the Northern Region of Cameroon • Drought • Flooding • Strong Winds • High Temperatures

PROGRESSION OF VULNERABILITY

Conditions of conflict, fragility and insecurity impact on – and co-construct – All stages of the progression of vulnerability

Source: Adapted from Harris, Keen and Mitchell (2013).

The figure above has been adapted to describe the farmer-herder conflict. It states the root causes of the farmer herder conflict such as government policy, land tenure system, bad governance, bribery and corruption, lack of participation as well as the triggers of the conflict such as climate change, scarcity of resources, inadequate access to land and land degradation.

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2.2.7 Release Model showing the role of MINADER in releasing the pressure

Figure 6: Release Model showing how MINADER can release the pressures causing the farmer-herder conflict

Source: Adapted from Wisner et al., (2004)

The above Release Model is important in disaster risk reduction and it shows how pressure can be taken off the farmers and herders by the commissioner (MINADER) so as to ease the conflict. For example, through compensation of farmers for damaged crops, irrigation systems, capacity building through training and development.

2.2.8 Link between PAR concepts and the research questions

These elements such as the root causes, dynamic pressures, triggers and unsafe conditions of the PAR model were deemed to be fundamental and relevant in the design and unravelling of the research question.

2.3 Conceptualizing the conflict using the Sustainable livelihood framework.

The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) is vital in understanding the farmer-herder conflict with respect to its influencing factors, consequences and conflict resolution mechanisms available to redress the conflict (Serrat, 2017). The SLF enabled the researcher to understand the vulnerability context, the livelihood assets, policies and legislations, livelihood outcome and livelihood strategies. Apine et al (2019), emphasized on sustainable livelihood as a key factor in the farmer-herder conflict. Small-scale farmers and herders are vulnerable to climate change and environmental hazards which puts pressure on these groups thus leading to violence (Sone, 2012).

• Climate change adaptation training and development • Drought resistant seeds • Subvention to farmers • Feed production technology • Ranching system • Compensation of farmers

and herders for damages to their land and crops,

• Irrigation system, • Capacity building for

farmers and herders,

• Training and Education • Appropriate infrastructure

and methods to reduce impacts

• Improve coping capacity

Safety Progression Address Root Causes Address the Triggers Improve Conditions

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Figure 7: Conceptualizing the Farmer-Herder Conflict using the Sustainable Livelihood Framework

Source: Adapted from Carney et al (1999).

The Sustainable Livelihood Framework and the Pressure and Release model are interrelated in that, they both expose the vulnerabilities, shocks, trends, socio-economic and political influences leading to conflicts and disasters.

2.3.1 The Vulnerability Context

Olson (2010) said vulnerability context is the source of famer-herder conflict. Farmers and herders are exposed to vulnerabilities which causes conflict such as climate change, leading to the degradation of natural resources, scarcity of water and grass for cattle. Climate change leads to migration and competition for resources. Other vulnerabilities are political insecurity and government policy (Mbih, 2020). Unravelling these vulnerabilities will help to design strategies to help solve the conflict.

2.3.2 Capital Assets

Capital Assets are crucial to farmers and herders in order to ensure the success of their activities. However, farmers and herders especially in Akum Village lack adequate resources such as financial, natural and physical assets (Conroy, 2014). These resources are often limited in supply thereby causing scarcity, competition and conflict amongst farmers and herders (Sone, 2012).

2.3.3 Transforming structures and processes

Government policies affect farmers and herders. For example, government land ownership policy prohibiting land ownership until the age of 40 years pose a big challenge to young farmers and herders in their efforts to invest in agriculture (Mbih, 2020). For those already doing agriculture, they mostly rent land which is more expensive and unsustainable thus leading to pressures. This often causes conflict between farmers and herders (Olson, 2010).

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2.3.4 Livelihood Outcome

The vulnerabilities, limited assets, transforming structures and processes affects food security and livelihood (Mbih, 2020). To ensure a satisfactory livelihood outcome, it is vital to prevent conflict and solve existing conflict situation.

2.3.5 Livelihood Strategies

As a result of the susceptibility to shocks, trends and seasonality, diversifying the activities of farmers and herders and also engaging in capacity building are important coping mechanisms (Sone, 2012).

2.5 Disaster Risk

There is a risk of disaster risk when hazards come into contact with vulnerabilities (Estrella and Saalismaa, 2012). When this occurs, there are bound to be the following: Loss of farmland and grazing land, killing of herdsmen and farmers, Killing of Animals, destruction of crops, farmland, cattle and the displacement of people (Akorede, 2018).

2.6 Hazard

Hazards are the forces that come into contact with the vulnerability, thus leading to the farmer-herder conflict (Akorede, 2008). These includes: Drought, Armed Conflict, Physical and Structural hazards (Estrella and Saalismaa, 2012).

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CHAPTER THREE. METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN

This chapter began by explaining the research adaptation to suit the corona virus pandemic. It further explores the role of the researcher and the research assistant. It went further to explain the research process, the study area and the research context. Furthermore, the research design and strategy, sampling method and strategy, sources of data, ethical consideration and finally the data analysis plan have been described.

3.1 Research Adaptation to suit the Corona Virus (COVID-19) Pandemic situation

This research was designed to suit the Corona Virus Pandemic (COVID-19), which made the researcher not to go for data collection in the field. A research assistant was recruited to collect field data.

3.2 The role of the Researcher and the Research Assistant

3.2.1 Role of the Researcher

The researcher was responsible for the overall management of the research process. He prepared the research proposal and recruited the research assistant. He ensured collaboration with the research assistant to collect data. The researcher was also responsible for doing transcribing and report writing.

3.2.2 The Role of the Research Assistant

The research assistant was responsible for data collection, communication with the researcher, organising and conducting focus group discussions, semi-structured interviews, and participant observations. He was responsible for recording the data, taking down notes, corresponding regularly with the researcher. He also had the duty of adhering to the ethical code of conduct of doing research for example; the respect of privacy and confidentiality, consent seeking, data protection, right to participate or decline in the research and ensured the health, safety and security of respondents.

3.3 The Research Process

The research process provided the plan and procedure for the research. It began with the introduction and background, research methodology, methods of data collection, analysis, results, discussion of results, conclusion, recommendation and final thesis. The diagram below shows the research process.

Figure 8: The Research Process

Source: Author’s construct, 2020. Research Proposal

Final Thesis

Data Collection

Primary Data Secondary Data

Data Analysis

Results from Analysis

Discussion of Results

Conclusion

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3.4 The study area

The study was conducted in Akum Village, Cameroon. It is part of the department of Mezam Division (CIA, 2020). In consultation with MINADER, Akum Village was purposively selected because the community has witnessed conflict between local farmers and Mbororo herdsmen. High influx of Mbororo (Fulani) herders from the North due to climate change have been witnessed in Akum village over the past years thus creating competition for land and resources leading to a decline in the relationship between farmers and herders (Adelakun, et al., 2015). Akum village has a population of about 4,788 Inhabitants, characterized by an equatorial climate consisting of the wet season from (April-October) and dry season from (November-March) with relatively high humidity (Odjugo, 2005). Figure 9: Map of Akum Village

Source: MINADER, 2019.

3.5 Research Context

Introduction

This section examines the background of the ministry of agriculture and rural development of Cameroon (MINADER). It further analyses the structure of MINADER, its mandate, mission and vision as well as MINADER project regarding the farmer-herder conflict.

Background of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Cameroon (MINADER)

The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Cameroon (MINADER) was created in 1960 with the goal of ensuring food security and improvement in livelihood of Cameroonians. In order to achieve this mission. The Structure of MINADER

At the helm of MINADER is the Minister of Agriculture responsibility for the ministry. The ministry has secretary of state, regional managers and directors to run the affairs of the ministry at regional levels. Within the ministry, there are several departments in charge of agriculture; accounting and finance, planning, development, logistics, investments, livelihood, policies, and technology. These departments support the mission, vision and mandate of the Ministry. The ministry has 10 regional sub ministries headed by regional directors who reports directly to the Ministry of Agriculture.

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MINADER has as mandate to ensure food security, food availability and food accessibility by all Cameroonians irrespective of their location and differences.

The Mission and Vision of MINADER

MINADER has the responsibility to develop rural and urban agriculture, promote agricultural policies that will encourage agricultural growth and development, implementation of agricultural projects, training and development of farmers amongst other responsibilities. Achieving the sustainable development goals of the United Nations while ensuring that Cameroon become an emerging economy by 2030 according to national roadmap is also the vision of MINADER.

MINADER Project

Currently, MINADER is working on a project to boost rural agriculture. This project concerns rural development. This research will help MINADER realize the rural development project by providing solutions to the farmer-herder conflict. Without solving this problem, development will be impossible.

3.6 Research Strategy and Design

Research must follow a systematic method for its results to be valid (Bender, et al., 2002). Case study design was applied for the purpose of this study since it focused on the factors influencing the farmers-herdsmen conflict in a specific community (Akum Village) within the North West Region of Cameroon. Case study design enabled the researcher to use multiple sources of evidence to establish the quality of findings. In addition, qualitative research strategy was adopted to understand the type of conflicts, root causes and triggering factors, as well as effects of the conflict and stakeholder involvement. Qualitative research is defined as a scientific method of observation to gather non-numerical data (Earl, 2014: 303). As qualitative research is based on subjective, interpretive and contextual data (Auberbach & Silverstein, 2003), the most important test of any qualitative study is its quality. The quality of a qualitative study was strengthened by triangulating. Triangulation combines of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon." Smith, Bekker, and Cheater (2011) believes the use of triangulation by stating “triangulation strengthens a study by combining methods. This can mean using several kinds of methods or data, including using both quantitative and qualitative approaches”. The use of qualitative method in this research ensured reliability and validity of the findings.

3.7 Sampling Method and Strategy

Purposive sampling was appropriate for this research due to its validity and reliability and its ability to get participants who are knowledgeable in the farmer-herder conflict (Smith, Bekker, and Cheater (2011). Purposive sample is a non-probability sample that was used to select 50 participants based on characteristics of a population and the objective of the study (Smith, Bekker, and Cheater (2011). This was made up of 10 Key Informants who had knowledge and information regarding the farmer-herder conflict and 28 respondents for semi-structured in-depth interviews. The Focus Group Discussions were used to complement the findings from the interviews. Participants for the FGD comprised of 2 groups which consisted of 6 participants per group making a total of 12 participants. The first focus group discussion was made up of 6 female farmers and herders, while the second focus group discussion constituted 6 male farmers and herders. All two FGD were segmented into two age groups namely: 18 to 30 and 31 to 60 years. For the semi-structured interview, purposive sampling technique was used by choosing 14 farmers and 14 herdsmen (28 participants) to be interviewed while with regards to the Key Informant Interview, the researcher purposively selected 10 samples for this study. The study duration took a total of 3 months from July to September, with 5 to 6 weeks of data collection. From preliminary study, the sampling frame from the regional delegation of agriculture is made up of farmers (300) and herders (200). This list is also available at the Farmers Trade Association, while the list of the herders is available at the Mbororo

Understanding the factors contributing to the farmer-herder conflict

UNDERSTANDING THE FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE FARMER-HERDER CONFLICT:

A Case of Akum Village, North West Region, Cameroon

By

Jude Kiang Asongwe

Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences

The Netherlands

September, 2020

All rights reserved.

UNDERSTANDING THE FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE FARMER-HERDER

CONFLICT: CASE STUDY OF AKUM VILLAGE, NORTH WEST REGION, CAMEROON

A research project submitted to

Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Management of

Development (Specialization: Disaster Risk Management)

By

Jude Kisang Asongwe

September, 2020.

All rights reserved.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

DEDICATION

Table of Contents

... II

... III

... VII

... VII

...VIII

... IX

... IX

CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ...2

CHAPTER TWO. LITERATURE REVIEW ...7

CHAPTER THREE. METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN ...17

CHAPTER FOUR. THE RESULTS AND FINDINGS ...28

HAPTER FIVE. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ...58

CHAPTER SIX.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...61

...65

...67

...75

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF PICTURES

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACCRONYMS

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

1.4 Statement of the Problem

1.5 Knowledge Gap and Research Significance

1.6 Justification of the Study

1.7 Research objective

1.8 Research Question

CHAPTER TWO. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Operationalization of the Farmer-Herder Conflict

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 The Concept of Conflict

2.2.2 The Concept of Small-Scale Farming (SSF)

2.2.3 The Concept of Farmer-Herder Conflict

2.2.4 The Concept of Herding

2.2.5 The Concept of Pastoralism

2.2.6 Farmer-Herder Conflict within the Pressure and Release Model for conflict setting

PROGRESSION OF VULNERABILITY

2.2.7 Release Model showing the role of MINADER in releasing the pressure

2.2.8 Link between PAR concepts and the research questions

2.3 Conceptualizing the conflict using the Sustainable livelihood framework.

2.3.1 The Vulnerability Context

2.3.2 Capital Assets

2.3.3 Transforming structures and processes

2.3.4 Livelihood Outcome

2.3.5 Livelihood Strategies

2.5 Disaster Risk

2.6 Hazard

CHAPTER THREE. METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN

3.1 Research Adaptation to suit the Corona Virus (COVID-19) Pandemic situation

3.2 The role of the Researcher and the Research Assistant

3.3 The Research Process

3.4 The study area

3.5 Research Context

3.6 Research Strategy and Design

3.7 Sampling Method and Strategy