Mindfulness at School
The Effects of School- Based Mindfulness Practice on Attention and Executive Functions University of Amsterdam
Bachelor Thesis
Nienke Boere (11013907)
Bachelor Thesis Educational Sciences University of Amsterdam Supervisors: Monique Verhoeven and Els Kuiper
Words: 10565 Date: 25-10-2018
Content
Abstract ... 3
Introduction ... 4
Theoretical Framework ... 5
Attentional Control and Executive Functions ... 5
How does mindfulness improve AC and EFs? ... 6
Research questions ... 7
Method ... 8
Chapter 1: The effects of School-based Mindfulness Programs on Attentional Control .. 9
Teacher-Reports ... 9
Standardised-tests ... 13
Alternative Measures of AC ... 17
Interim conclusion ... 18
Chapter 2: The effects of School-based Mindfulness Programs on Executive Functions 19 Executive Functions Measured by the BRIEF ... 20
Inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and working memory ... 22
Interim conclusion… ... 25
Conclusion and Discussion... 25
Alternative explanations and future research ... 26
Implementing Mindfulness training in schools ... 28
Abstract
Mindfulness (MF) programs for schools are increasingly popular. However, little research has been done on the effects of school-based MF training on school performance. In order to get more insight in the possible effects of MF training on school performance, this literature study evaluated the evidence regarding the effects of school-based mindfulness trainings on attentional control (AC) and executive functions (EFs), which are two important predictors for school performance. For this literature review systematic searches were
conducted in five databases (Web of Science, PsycINFO and Google Scholar), which resulted in finding sixteen studies suitable to evaluate in this literature review. The sixteen studies that have investigated the relationship between school-based MF trainings on the AC and EFs of pupils showed reasonably positive but ambiguous results. With regard to the effects of MF on AC Inconclusive results were found: The studies that examined the influence of MF on AC using teacher reports to measure AC, all found positive results. However, the studies that used standardised test to measure different forms of AC found ambiguous results. With regard to the effects of MF on EFs also ambiguous results were found. More research is needed to get a clearer insight into the effects of school-based MF training on AC and EFs of pupils.
Furthermore, this literature review shows that especially more research using larger and randomized samples with active control groups and follow-up measures is needed and makes recommendations for follow-up research.
Introduction
The students of grade five and six of the Pieter Jelles Troelstra elementary school in Amsterdam are sitting with their eyes closed in a small classroom. Schoolteacher Yvon Mul stands in front of the class and rings a bell. The children are allowed to open their eyes again. “What thoughts came up?” Mul asks (Ottens, 2015).
Mul’s students were practicing Mindfulness (MF). Mindfulness is defined as “the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non- judgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). In other words: mindfulness means to be attentive to what is happening within us, to us, and around us, in the present moment.
Worldwide Mindfulness has become increasingly popular. This popularity is also visible in the field of education as a growing number of primary and secondary schools have included mindfulness in their curriculum (Zenner, Herrnleben-Kurz, & Walach, 2014). A frequently mentioned reason for schools to implement MF is that MF training might improve academic performance (Weare, 2012). However, research into the effectiveness of
mindfulness on academic performance among youngsters is a relatively new research area and it is not yet known whether MF training contributes to the academic performance of
youngsters. Nevertheless, more research has been done on the effects of MF on various cognitive functions including attentional control (AC) and executive functions (EFs), which are two important predictors for school performance (Duncan, et al., 2007; Best, Miller, & Naglieri, 2011). When research shows that school-based MF training would improve the AC and EFs of pupils, this could be an indication that school-based MF training improves the school performance of pupils. Therefore, the aim of this study is to discuss and analyse the studies that have been performed on the influence of school-based MF training on the AC and EFs of pupils in order to provide an answer to the question: “What are the effects of school- based MF trainings on the AC and EFs of pupils?”. It is my hope that by answering this question schools will be supported in their decision whether and how to implement mindfulness training at their school.
Theoretical Framework
Attentional Control and Executive Functions
Attention has been classified and defined in many different ways by neuroscientific researchers. In this thesis the most common classification is used, namely the classification of Michael Posner (Posner & Petersen, 1990). Posner divides the different forms of attention into three different, attentional brain networks: The Alerting, Orienting and Executive Control networks. The Alerting network is responsible for the ability to maintain a state of vigilance or preparedness to environmental stimuli. It modulates arousal, alertness and attentional engagement. The Orienting network is responsible for the ability to select stimuli, which ensures that you can shift your attention. The Executive control network is involved in the regulation and control of thoughts and feelings, which is also called ‘conflict monitoring’. Recent neurologic evidence further subdivides the function of the Executive Control network in the Executive network and the Salience network. The Salience network is involved in detecting relevant or salient events and provides signals to the Executive network to act in line with its current stated goal (Malinowski, 2013). The Executive network and the Salience network are responsible for the performance of various executive functions such as inhibition, planning, goal-setting, problem solving and emotional responses (Lezak, 2012).
Both AC and EFs are strong predictors for school performance. Based on six longitudinal datasets, Duncan and colleagues (2007) found that AC together with math and reading levels were the strongest predictors for future school achievement among preschool children. That AC is one of the key predictors for future school achievement among preschool children is supported by similar experimental research of McClelland, Morrison, and Holmes, 2000; Yen, Konold, and McDermott, 2004; Howse, Lange, Farran, and Boyles, 2003. AC helps pupils to engage in classroom activities and their school work. Therefore, it is valid that AC is a strong predictor for school achievement.
Research has also shown that EFs plays an important role in child academic performance. Since EFs provide the ability to remember and process information, EFs are needed for learning and therefore affect academic performance (Best, Miller, & Jones, 2009) The cross-sectional study of Lan et al.(2011) found that executive functions predict the ability to read, count and calculate of both children in China and in the United States (U.S.). Another cross-sectional study among 1395 children and adolescents in the U.S. found that executive functions have a strong positive association with the reading and math skills of students (Best, Miller, & Naglieri, 2011). The other way around, studies found that EFs deficits predict
writing and reading difficulties (Hooper, Swartz, Wakely, de Kruif, & Montgomery, 2002; Protopapas, Archonti, & Skaloumbakas, 2007). The studies discussed in this paragraph show that AC and EFs are important predictors for school performance among pupils. When the AC and EFs among students are promoted, this might have a positive effect on the school
performance of the pupils.
How does mindfulness improve AC and EFs?
To understand whether mindfulness can improve attention and EFs it is necessary to know what mindfulness is and how it works. Mindfulness is about being open and
consciously present in the present moment. You could say that mindfulness stands for being completely awake and being able to observe what is happening in the here and now without any judgment (Segal, Williams & Teasdale, 2013). Being mindful can be trained by
mindfulness meditation. Mindfulness meditation involves selecting a point of focus in the present moment and regulating and directing attention to that point with sustained focused attention. This point of focus only serves as a neutral anchor which is not contemplated or evaluated during the process. Examples of points of focus for meditation are a physical action or a sound. Generally, the breath is used as an anchor to focus on something that is happening in the present moment. When the mind wanders, the practitioner recognises, without
judgement and rumination, the thought or feeling that arises and brings back the attention to the point of focus (Bishop et al. 2004) and
then the cycle starts again. This cycle is called the ‘phenomenological experience of the meditator’.
Malinowski (2013) presented a theoretical framework on how the practice of MF can enhance and develop AC and EFs. He does this by explaining how the
attentional processes and brain network are activated when practicing mindfulness meditation (see Figure 1). In Figure 1, the practitioner focuses on the breath with
sustained attention from the alerting network. When the mind of the practitioner wanders (distraction), the default mode network becomes active. The practitioner then recognizes that the mind has wandered away by monitoring the thoughts through the salience network. The
distracting thoughts or experiences are then released by disengaging attention through the executive network. Next, the practitioner brings back his attention on the primary point of focus (the breath) by shifting his attention through the orienting and executive control networks (Malinowski, 2013).
So, the theory of Malinowski states that by repeating the meditation cycles the
orienting, alerting and executive control networks are trained, which will positively influence the AC and executive functions. Training AC and EFs might, in turn, help children to improve their learning performance. Based on the theory of Malinowski, it can be expected that
school-based mindfulness training improves AC and EFs.
Research questions
The aim of this research is to provide an answer to the question: “What are the effects of school-based MF trainings on the AC and EFs of pupils?” In order to answer this question, the first chapter will provide an answer to the question: ‘What are the effects of a school- based mindfulness training on the AC of pupils?’ Subsequently, the second chapter will provide an answer to the question: ‘What are the effects of a school-based mindfulness training on the EFs of pupils?’ Finally, a conclusion will be drawn on the extent to which school-based mindfulness training promotes AC and EFs among pupils.
Method
In order to give an answer on the research question only studies that met the following inclusion criteria were selected for this literature review: a school-based MF program as an independent variable, attention or an executive function as dependent variables, quantitative research, that, moreover, was performed in primary or secondary education. The following databases were used to search for literature: Web of Science, PsycINFO and Google Scholar. The search method included the following keywords: mindfulness OR meditation AND; school OR classroom AND; child OR children OR adolescence OR adolescent AND; cognition OR attention OR alerting network OR orienting network OR executive functions OR inhibitory control OR cognitive flexibility OR working memory. The emerging hits were screened based on the title and the abstract by the author to check whether they met the inclusion criteria. Furthermore, by means of snowballing, the reference list of the relevant studies were screened for additional references based on the inclusion criteria to ensure that all relevant studies were included.
Sixteen studies which met these criteria were identified. Ten of these studies examined the effects of a school-based MF training on AC, four studies examined the effects of a
school- based MF training on EFs and two studies examined the effects of a school-based MF training on both the AC and EFs op pupils. Of the sixteen studies seven were conducted in the United States, two in the United Kingdom, two in Canada and one in India, Italy, Spain, Israel and Germany. All sixteen studies have been carried out in the past eight years.
First, the studies that investigated the influence of school-based MF trainings on AC will be discussed in chapter one. An overview of these studies can be found in Table 1.
Second, the studies that investigated the influence of school-based MF trainings on EF will be discussed in chapter two. An overview of these studies can be found in Table 2.
Chapter 1: The effects of School-based Mindfulness Programs on Attentional Control The aim of this chapter is to provide an answer to the question: ‘What are the effects of a school-based mindfulness training on the AC of pupils?’ To reach this goal different studies performed on the influence of school-based MF training on the AC of pupils will be investigated and discussed. The influence of school-based mindfulness training on AC has been researched in many ways. The studies that investigated this relationship are
characterized by different designs, sample sizes, the type of MF training that was applied in the school and the ways in which AC was measured. The research results and the strengths and weaknesses of the studies are highlighted in this chapter. The order in which these studies are discussed is based on the method that is used to measure AC. An overview of the studies that will be discussed in this chapter can be found in Table 1.
Teacher-Reports
A common way to measure pupils’ attentional control is through teacher reports, for which the teacher answers likert-scale questions regarding each of their pupils. The higher the total score, the higher the degree of AC of the pupil. ‘Does the child daydream in class?’ is an example of a question to which the teacher is asked to respond.
The study of Napoli, Krech, and Holley (2005) is an example of a study that used teacher reports to measure AC as a dependent variable. Napoli et al. (2005) investigated the influence of Attention Academy Program (AAP) among 194 primary school children between six and eight years old, from two elementary schools located in a South-western city in the U.S. Pupils were randomly assigned to the experimental group (n = 97), which received the AAP training, or the passive control group (n = 97), which means that this group received no training or any form of intervention at all. The AAP is a mindfulness-based program that consisted of twelve lessons of 45 minutes, given every other week during pupils’ regular physical education class period. The classes were given by two professional mindfulness training instructors. Each class session consisted of a breathing exercise, a physical exercise and a sensory activity in which the pupils had to pay attention to what they experienced in the present moment. Napoli et al. (2005) found that the pupils from the experimental group scored significantly better on AC compared to pupils in the passive control group (p < .001).
Thomas and Atkinson (2016) and Klatt, Harpster, Browne, White, and Case-Smith (2013) also used teacher reports to measure the attentional functioning of pupils. In these two studies also the long-term effects were examined. Thomas and Atkinson (2016) investigated the influence of the mindfulness program Paws .b , among 30 primary school children
between eight and nine years old, of a primary school located in the north-west of England. In this study, a quasi-experimental design with an experimental group (n = 16), and a waitlist control group (n = 14), which means that the control group received the intervention after the experimental group completed the intervention, was employed. The Paws .b training was given one hour a week over the course of six weeks. In both groups the training was given by an established mindfulness teacher who received training to deliver Paws .b for the
‘Mindfulness in Schools’ Project. Every Paws .b session consisted of a theoretical
explanation, a mindfulness exercise and a discussion in which experiences were shared. The teacher reports were completed four times by the teachers of both classes over a period of 20 weeks.
Among the experimental group, the scores on the teacher reports increased
significantly from pre-intervention to post-intervention (p < .05). Nevertheless, this effect was not preserved at follow-up 1, but the positive effect returned at follow-up two with a large estimated effect size (p < .002). Within the waitlist control group, the teacher report scores did not change significantly during their waiting period. From pre-intervention to post- intervention the teacher reports scores decreased significantly (p < .05), which was the opposite of what was expected. However, this opposed intervention effect was not preserved in week 20.
The results of the experimental condition indicates that the Paws .b training had a positive impact on the attentional functioning of pupils. However, the results of the waitlist control group indicates that Paws. b training had a briefly negative effect on the attentional functioning of pupils. According to Thomas and Atkinson (2016) a possible explanation for the decrease in the teacher report scores for the waitlist-control group could be that the original teacher of the waitlist control group went on maternity leave right before the pupils received the Paws .b training. Therefore, the pupils of the waitlist control group received the
Paws .b training at the same time as they had to get used to the second waitlist control
teacher, which might have influenced the effects of the Paws .b training. Another explanation given by Thomas and Atkinson (2016) is that the participants in the experimental group and the participants in the waitlist control group may have differed too much from each other on characteristics like agreeableness/conscientiousness or openness to experience, which can influence the effect of the training (Norman, 1963). If one of these explanations is correct, the study of Thomas and Adkinson (2016) indicates that the MF training has had a positive influence on the AC of the pupils right after the training. Furthermore, this study shows ambiguous results with regard to the long-term effects of the Paws .b training on attentional
control, which makes it difficult to draw a clear conclusion about the long-term effects of this training.
Klatt et al. (2013) investigated the effects on AC of the Move-into-Learning (MIL) training among 41 pupils from two classrooms of a primary school located in a low income, urban neighbourhood in the U.S.. The two classes were randomly assigned to the
experimental condition (n = 20) or the waitlist-control condition (n = 21). The MIL training consisted of eight weekly sessions of 45 minutes, provided by a graduate student that had been trained by one of the researchers. The program included mindfulness meditation, yoga movement with breathing exercises, and Appreciative Inquiry exercises. The teacher of class one completed the teacher reports three times over a period of nineteen weeks. The teacher of class two completed the teacher reports two times over a period of eleven weeks. Since both groups improved their AC after the intervention, a combined dataset of both groups was used to interpret the results. The results of the combined data set showed that the pupils improved significantly (p <0.001) on AC according to the teacher reports. The follow-up measure of class one showed that the pupils continued to improve their AC significantly (p = 0.01). These results suggest that the MIL training has a positive influence on the AC of the pupils.
Furthermore, they indicate that these effects last at least eight weeks after the training.
However, it is hard to state that the improvement in the follow-up measure of class 1 is due to the MIL training without comparing this result to the results of a similar control group.
In the studies discussed above, the MF trainings were taught by trained MF trainers. This raises the question whether the effects of MF training on the AC of the pupils are the same when the training is provided by a regular teacher. Schonert-Reichl and Lawlor (2010) investigated the effects of the Mindfulness education (ME) program on AC among 246 pupils of twelve elementary school classrooms in Canada that was performed by the regular teacher of the pupils. The ME training focuses on the development of positive emotions and social and emotional competence in which daily mindfulness meditation plays an important role. For this study, a quasi-experimental design was used. The experimental group consisted of the pupils of six classes from different primary schools (n = 139). The waitlist control group consisted of the pupils of six classes from different primary schools (n = 107) that received the ME program in the subsequent school year. The age of the pupils ranged between nine and thirteen years old. The ME training consisted of ten classes that were taught once a week, each class lasting approximately 40 to 50 minutes. In addition, daily mindfulness attention exercises were given three times a day for approximately 3 minutes per session. The results of the teacher reports showed that, in contrast to the waitlist control group, the pupils who were
exposed to the ME program were rated by their teachers as having significantly improved in AC and concentration. The results of this study show that the MIL training, given by the regular class teacher, has a positive effect on AC of pupils.
The results of the studies described above suggest that various MF trainings have a positive effect on the AC of the pupils. However, an important limitation of using behavioural ratings from teachers to measure AC is that this kind of measurement is sensitive to social desirability and bias. Research on conformation bias teaches us that people see what they want to see (Zimbardo, Weber, & Johnson, 2007). Therefore, teachers who would like the MF training to work might really think to see positive effects of the MF training even when this is not the case. The risk of a confirmation bias is particularly greater when teachers themselves have put a lot of effort into making the training successful, as was the case in the research of Schonert-Reichl and Lawlor (2010).
A study in which this teacher bias and social desirability has been avoided as much as possible has been carried out by Crescentini, Capurso, Furlan, and Fabbro (2016). Thirty-one pupils within 7–8 years of age of a primary school in Italy were enrolled in this study. A quasi-experimental design was used in which the two classes were randomly assigned to the experimental group (n =16) or the passive control group (n =15). The experimental group received an 8-week mindfulness-oriented meditation training provided by two trained mindfulness-meditation instructors. The meetings took place three times a week with an average duration of 45 minutes. The passive control group received a similar program that was also focused on emotion awareness but did not involve any meditation exercises. Instead of meditating, the activities of the passive control group consisted of reading and discussing a book on emotions. Both the children and the teachers were blinded for the research purpose, specific training activities and expected results. No teacher was in the classroom during the trainings. The main teacher of the two classes completed the teacher report for each child five days before and eight days after the intervention. The results of this study showed a
significant reduction in inattention for the experimental group (p < 0.02). From the study of Crescentini et al. (2016), it can be concluded that the mindfulness meditation training has a positive effect on AC of pupils.
The outcomes of the studies that used teacher reports as a measure for AC by pupils, suggest that school-based MF trainings may have a positive effect on the AC of pupils. Additionally, the results suggest that it does not appear to make a difference whether the MF training is given by a professional MF trainer or the regular class teacher. From the studies discussed in this paragraph it cannot be concluded that MF training also has positive effects
on the AC of pupils over a longer period of time, because too little research is done that investigated the long-term effects of school-based MF training on AC.
Standardised-tests
In this section studies in which the impact of a MF training on AC is measured by a standardised test will be discussed. Even in the blinded study of Crescentini (2016), the behavioural ratings of teachers can remain biased because the perception of the teacher with regard to the AC of the pupils is measured, and not the AC of the pupils themselves.
Therefore, it is useful to look at the results of studies that have used standardised tests as a measuring instrument as well.
Another difference between studies that used standardised test as a measuring tool and the studies that are discussed before, is that the former examines specific forms of attention, rather than attention in general. As explained in the introduction, the various forms of attention can be subdivided into the alerting network and the orienting network. In this
section, the studies that investigated the forms of attention that are part of the alerting network will be discussed first. Studies that examined the forms of attention that are part of the
orienting network will be discussed next.
Alerting network. Studies that examined the effects of MF training on forms of attention that are part of the alerting network show contradicting results. First, studies that did not found a positive effect between a MF training and a form of attention regarding the
alerting network will be discussed. Then, studies that did find a positive effect between these variables will be discussed.
Studies that investigated the influence of MF training on sustained attention, which is the ability to hold attention over a longer period of time (Napoli et al., 2015), will now be discussed. Sustained attention is similar to alerting attention. Corbett (2011) explored the influence of the Mindfulness Meditation Intervention (MMI) program on sustained attention among 107 children between eight and eleven years old from an elementary school in the U.S. in Florida. For this research, a quasi-experimental groups design was used. The experimental group (n = 63) received the MMI program 15 minutes per day for five weeks. The program was offered by the regular teacher of the pupils. The MMI program consisted of meditation exercises in which the participants had to focus on their breath. A standardised test was performed before and after the intervention. The analyses showed that the experimental group had an extremely high score on the pre-test that regressed toward the mean at post-test, while the scores of the passive control group remained the same from pre- to post-test. No
significant differences between the scores of the experimental group and the scores of the passive control group were found. These results suggest that the MMI program did not
improve sustained attention. Two explanations for this result are given by Corbett (2011). The first explanation is that the duration of the intervention was not long enough. The second explanation is that the participants were too young to benefit from the intervention.
Another study that measured the effect of Mindfulness training on sustaining attention was conducted by Wimmer, Bellingrath and Von Stockhausen (2016). In this study, 34 pupils between ten and eleven years old from a Gymnasium in Germany participated. The
participants were randomly assigned to the mindfulness intervention (MI) group (n = 16), the concentration training group (active control group; n = 8) or the passive control group (n =10). This study included an active and passive control group to identify cognitive effects that were specific to mindfulness training. The MI consisted of two exercises that were practiced in each session: a sitting meditation and a body scan. The aim of the sitting meditation was to focus on one’s breath while letting go of arising thoughts or emotions. The aim of the body scan was to bring one’s attention through the whole body, from the feet to the head. The concentration training group practiced text comprehension, learning strategies and memory. The passive control group did not receive any training. The MI and the concentration trainings were given twice a week (one session of sixty minutes and the other ninety minutes) for 18 weeks. The results of this study showed no significant difference between the groups on sustained attention. These results suggest that the MI did not improve sustained attention.
An explanation for not finding a significant positive effect of the MI provided by the authors of the study is that the training was not intense enough to affect the ability to sustain attention. Another explanation could be that the sample size was not large enough to detect a significant effect, while this significant effect is present.
A strong point of the studies of Napoli et al. (2015) and Thomas and Atkinson (2016) is that, next to teacher reports, also a standardised test was used to measure sustained
attention. In the study of Napoli et al. (2015) the teacher reports showed that there was a significant positive effect of the AAP on attention (see p. 9 of this thesis). However, the results of the standardised test demonstrated no significant differences between groups pre- and post-test scores and no significant differences between pre- and post-test scores of both groups. The findings on the standardised test indicate that the AAP does not improve sustained attention by pupils. According to Napoli et al., not finding an effect on the standardized test could be due to the poor validity of the test.
effect of the Paws. b training on attention, measured with teacher reports (see p. 9), as well as on sustained attention, measured with a standardized test. Within the experimental group the scores on sustained attention increased significantly from pre-intervention to post-intervention (p < .005). This effect was maintained at the eight-week follow-up (p < .003) and 14-week follow-up (p <.001) with large estimated effect sizes. The scores of the waitlist control group did not increase significantly during their waiting period. Yet, the scores of the waitlist control group did increase significantly from pre-intervention to post-intervention (p < .03). However, this effect was not maintained at the six-week follow-up. These results suggest that the Paws. b program improves the ability to sustain attention by pupils, but shows ambiguous results regarding the long-term effects of the Paws .b program on sustained attention.
Possible explanations for the results being stronger in the experimental group compared to the waitlist control group are given on page 9 of this thesis.
Ricarte, Ros, Latorre and Beltrán (2015) examined the influence of the mindfulness- based intervention (MBI) program on sustained attention, among 90 primary school children between six and thirteen years old from a rural school in Spain, located in a low-income neighbourhood. The pupils were randomly assigned to the MBI group (n = 45) or the waitlist control group (n = 45). The MBI group participated in the MBI program for 15 minutes per school day over the course of six weeks. The MBI program was taught by their regular teacher. The MBI consisted of multiple exercises in which the pupils had to bring their
attention to their breathing, senses or body. The results of this study showed that the scores on sustained attention increased significantly more than the scores of the waitlist control group (p
< .001). These results suggest that the MBI program improves sustained attention among
pupils.
Another study that found a positive result regarding the influence of MF training on sustained attention was the study of Tarrasch (2018). Tarrasch used a computerised test to measure the influence of a mindfulness workshop on sustained attention by 101 primary school children in Tel Aviv between nine and eleven years old. The experimental group consisted of 58 fourth grade pupils and the passive control group consisted of 43 pupils from third and fifth grade classes. The experimental group received a weekly mindfulness
workshop of 45 minutes, for ten weeks. This workshop was given by students from the Tel Aviv university, who completed a training in delivering the program to the children. The MF workshop was taught in small groups of 3-4 pupils. The mindfulness workshop was based on the Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) method in which each session of the workshop consisted of three specific exercises namely, aiming the awareness to (1) physical
processes, (2) feelings and (3) thoughts. The outcomes of the computerised test showed that on average all pupils improved from pre- to post-test. However, this improvement was stronger in the MF group, which resulted in a significant interaction effect between time and group (p < .01). These results indicate that the Mindfulness workshop had a positive effect on the ability of pupils to sustain attention.
Baijal et al. (2011) examined the effects of concentrative meditation training (CMT) on attentional alerting by 95 pupils between thirteen and fifteen years old of two secondary public schools in India. The experimental group (n = 79) received the CMT program, which involved daily exercises of 10 minutes, twice a day, for at least one year. The exercises of the CMT program comprised training in transcendental meditation which involves a silent mantra (sound) chanting as an object of meditation. The training also included pulse reading and breathing exercises. The passive control group consisted of pupils (n = 76) from a different school that did not provide CMT or any other form of MF training. The results of this study revealed a significant difference between the experimental group and the passive control group on the standardised test which measured attentional alerting (p < .05). These results suggest that the CTM contributes to a better alerting network. However, a limitation of this study is that no pre-measurement has been performed before the MF training, which makes it difficult to determine if the difference in score on the alerting network measurement is due to the MF training.
Orienting network. Four of the studies discussed above also investigated the effect of school-based MF training on forms of attention that are part of the orienting network,
including the study by Ricarte et al. (2015; see p. 15). Ricarte et al. (2015) measured the influence of the MBI training on focused attention, which is described as the ability to direct and interchange the focus of attention from one idea to another. The results of the test showed no significant difference in scores between the experimental and passive control group before and after the intervention. These results suggest that the MBI program does not improve focused attention. Furthermore, Ricarte et al. (2015) mentioned that perhaps a longer training period is needed to produce a significant effect on the ability of pupils to focus attention.
Besides sustained attention, the ANT, which was used by Baijal et al. (2011) also measured attentional orienting. The scores on the ANT showed no significant group differences for orienting, which suggests that CMT does not improve the orienting ability. Two explanations are given for this result by Baijal et al. (2011). The first explanation is that the participants were too young. The second explanation is that attentional orienting is not
promoted by transcendental meditation, which is slightly different from most mindfulness meditations (see p. 16).
A study that contradicts the outcomes of Ricarte et al. (2015) and Baijal et al. (2011) is the study of Napoli et al. (2005; see p. 9) and the study of Tarrasch (2018; see p. 15). Napoli et al. (2005) measured the influence of the AAP on selective attention, which is the ability to select a certain stimulus. The mean difference in pre- and post-test scores of the experiment was significantly greater than the difference in pre- and post-test scores of the passive control group (p < .001). These results suggest that the AAP improves selective attention.
Tarrasch (2018; see p. 15) also measured the influence of a mindfulness workshop on selective attention. The results showed that both groups improved significantly in selective attention from pre- to post measure, whereby the MF group improved significantly more in some tasks than the passive control group. These results suggest that the mindfulness workshop improves the selective attention of pupils.
The outcomes of the studies that used standardised tests as a measure for attention show contradictory results. These differences in outcomes could be explained by the
differences in measuring instruments, MF training or the research design. In addition, due to these differences, it is difficult to compare the studies properly and to draw clear conclusions.
Alternative Measures of AC
Besides teacher reports and standardised tests, there are also other measurements to measure attentional control. In this section, two studies that used alternative ways to measure AC will be discussed. Britton et al. (2014) used self-reports to measure AC by pupils. In total, 101 pupils between eleven and twelve years old of a secondary school in the U.S. participated in this research. The participants were randomly assigned to an Asian history (n = 52) course in which mindfulness meditation was included (the intervention group) or an African history course (n = 49) without mindfulness meditation (the active control group). The Asian history course started every day with a silent meditation exercise of three to twelve minutes. These meditation exercises consisted of bringing one’s attention to the breath or to bodily sensations and to labelling emotions and thoughts. Pupils were instructed to reflect on the meditation exercise in a practice journal. After the meditation exercise, the pupils were taught about Asian history. The active control group received an African history course, taught by the same teacher that gave the Asian history course. Both courses were taught every school day during a period of six weeks. Pupils’ experience of the meditation exercises was assessed through the practice journals of the pupils. In these journals, 82% of the pupils reported feeling more
concentrated, focused, or reported that they experienced less distraction after at least one meditation exercise. A self-report survey was used to measure attentional problems in both groups. The results revealed that both groups’ attention problems decreased significantly (p < .001). However, the groups did not differ in the scope of their improvements. These results suggest that the meditation exercises that were included in the Asian history course did not improve the AC of the pupils in comparison to the African history group. Britton et al. (2014) give several explanations for these results. The first explanation is that both courses improve AC because both courses involved new, non-didactic classroom activities. This suggest that not only mindfulness meditation, but also other engaging, experiential activities may cause beneficial outcomes for the AC of pupils. Second, because the teachers who taught the
meditation group also instructed the control group, the benefits of all participants could be due to a shared exposure to a teacher trained in mindfulness. The third explanation is that with only three response options, the questionnaire used was not sensitive enough to change.
Finally, Wilson and Dixon (2010) used video observations to measure sustained attention by pupils. For this study, a classroom with twelve pupils with a mean age of eight years old of a private elementary school in the U.S. was observed. The intervention consisted of five Mindfulness exercises including a breathing exercise, a mindful eating exercise, a noticing-self exercise and two silent games over a duration of five days. The researchers observed to what extent the pupils were engaged in the classroom activities: five times before the intervention period over a duration of two weeks, five times in the intervention period right after the mediation exercises and two times after the intervention period over a duration of two weeks. The results of this study showed that the average AC of the pupils increased during the intervention period and decreased after the intervention period. These findings suggest that mindfulness exercises increase sustained attention of students right after doing mindfulness exercises.
Interim conclusion
Mixed results were found regarding the study’s that measured the effect of
mindfulness training on attention by pupils. The studies that used teacher reports to measure the influence of MF trainings on the AC of pupils showed positive results, whereas studies that used standardised test showed more ambiguous results. This difference could be explained by the fact that teacher reports might be sensitive for bias and social desirability, resulting in a more positive outcome than it actually should be. However, this explanation cannot simply be assumed to be true because studying the influence of MF on attention with
the use of standardised tests has not been done very often. In addition, it is difficult to compare the results of the studies that used standardised test with each other because they differ in the type of attention that is investigated, the MF training that is offered, the measuring instruments that are used and the research design that is chosen. The ambiguous outcomes of the studies that used standardised tests makes it difficult to give a clear answer to the question: ‘What are the effects of a school-based mindfulness training on the AC of pupils?’ Even though the first research results appear to be reasonably positive, more research using standardised tests to measure the effect of mindfulness training on attention is needed.
Chapter 2: The effects of School-based Mindfulness Programs on Executive Functions Various cross-sectional studies showed a positive association between dispositional levels of mindfulness and the proficiency of the EFs among pupils. The dispositional level of mindfulness concerns the overall awareness and attention someone has to their thoughts and feelings in the present moment (Brown & Ryan, 2003). The Cross-sectional study of Shin, et al. (2016) investigated the association between dispositional levels of mindfulness and the proficiency of the EFs among 210 seventh grade middle school students in the U.S.. Shin, et al. (2016) found that the dispositional level of MF was positively associated with EFs (p < .001). A similar cross-sectional study was done by Riggs, Black, and Ritt-Olson (2015). Riggs et al. (2015) investigated the associations between dispositional levels of mindfulness and EFs among 152 middle school pupils between the twelve and fourteen years old in the U.S. The results of this research showed an overall significant association between mindfulness and EFs (p < .002). Oberle, Schonert-Reichl, Lawlor and Thomson, (2011) investigated the association between inhibitory control and dispositional levels of mindfulness among 99 pupils between nine and eleven years old of four different primary schools located in Canada. The results showed that a higher level of dispositional mindfulness predicated a greater accuracy on the inhibitory control task. Dispositional levels of mindfulness seem to correlate positively with EFs or pupils. This correlation could indicate a causal effect. However, experimental studies are needed to determine this causal effect. Therefore, in this chapter experimental studies will be discussed that have investigated the effects of school-based MF trainings on the EFs of students.
By discussing research on the influence of school-based MF training on the EFs of pupils, this chapter will provide an answer to the question: ‘What are the effects of a school- based mindfulness training on the EFs of pupils?’ In the first part of this chapter, the studies that have used the BRIEF will be discussed. The BRIEF is a commonly used measuring
instrument to measure executive functions and assesses eight clinical scales of EF processes: Initiate, Working Memory, Plan/Organize, Organization of Materials, Monitor, Inhibit, Shift (cognitive flexibility), Emotional Control. The BRIEF gives both a separate score on these scales and an overall score. The BRIEF questionnaire can be filled in by the pupil himself or the teacher or parent of the pupil can complete the BRIEF questionnaire about a pupil. However, a disadvantage of the BRIEF questionnaire is that it is sensitive to bias and social desirability, for the same reasons as why the behavioural ratings with regard to measuring attention were sensitive to bias and social desirability (see p. 12 of this thesis). The second part of this chapter will therefore discuss studies that have used standardised tests to measure EFs. However, not all EFs have been investigated with standardised test with respect to MF training in a school context. Therefore, the second part of this chapter will only focus on the three most commonly cited EF processes: inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility (shift) and working memory. An overview of the studies that will be discussed in this chapter can be found in Table 2.
Executive Functions Measured by the BRIEF
Flook et al. (2010) investigated the influence of the Mindfulness Awareness Practices (MAPs) on EFs among 64 elementary school children between seven and nine years old in the U.S. For this study a randomized control design was used (n = 32, control n = 32). The MAPs program was taught for 30 minutes, twice per week, over the course of 8 weeks. The program consisted of several meditation exercises to promote the awareness of self, others and the environment. It is not clear by whom this training was given. The passive control group did not receive any intervention. To measure EFs all the eight scales of the BRIEF were filled in by the parents and teachers of the participants before and after the intervention. The results showed no significant difference between the groups with regard to the overall scores on either teacher or parent report from pre- to post-test. However, an overall interaction effect between baseline EFs score and group membership (treatment vs. control) on post-test EFs was found (p < .006). These findings suggest that mindfulness in a general education setting is particularly beneficial for children with EF difficulties. Analysis of the individual subscales the teacher reports found an interaction effect for the following EFs: shift, initiate, monitor, plan/organize. The EFs for which this interaction effect was found on the parent reports were: Shift, initiate, monitor, working memory and emotional control. What is striking about these results is that the interaction effect was found on both shift, initiate and monitor, which are central skills in practicing meditation exercises; first bringing the attention to the breath
(initiate), second watching your thought wonder away (monitor) and third brining the attention back to the breath (shift). These results suggest that some EFs are better trained by performing MF exercises than others. However, for three of the eight EFs an interaction effect was found by the teacher reports or the parents reports. This may be because teachers and parents might have a different view of the same child, which can influence the scores on the BRIEF.
Desmond and Hanich (2010) tried to replicate the study of Flook et al. (2010) by evaluating the effectiveness of the MAPs on the EFs among 40 pupils between eleven and twelve years old, in an urban, low income, public middle school in the U.S. Desmond and Hanich (2010) also used a randomized control design (MAPS n = 15, control n = 25). The MAPs program was given for 25-45 minutes, once a week, across a ten-week period by two experienced MAP trainers. The eight subscales of the BRIEF were filled in by the main teacher of the participants at baseline and follow up. The results showed no significant main effect of group nor a significant main effect of time. In addition, no interaction effect was found regarding the baseline EFs scores and the group membership. Only a significant interaction effect was found between the baseline EFs scores and group membership for the difference in shift scores (p < .05). These results indicate that only children with a low executive control in the treatment group showed greater improvement in their ability to shift than children with a low executive control in the passive control group.
In comparison with Flook et al. (2010) the study of Desmond and Hanich (2010) had a smaller sample size and only used teacher reports instead of teacher and parent reports. this makes the study of Desmond and Hanich (2010) less reliable and valid than the study of Flook et al (2010). However, both studies highlight the impact of MF on the ability to shift (cognitive flexibility).
In general, the cross-sectional studies discussed above indicate a positive association between the level of MF and EFs, which might be indicating a causal relationship between these two variables. The experimental study of Flook et al. (2010) found that mindfulness training in a general education setting is particularly beneficial for the EFs of children with EFs difficulties. The results of Flook et al. (2010) were, with the exception of the ability of cognitive flexibility, not supported by the research results of Desmond and Hanich (2010). Nevertheless, the research results of Flook et al (2010) are more convincing because of its larger sample size and stronger research design.
Inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and working memory.
Another way to measure EFs is through the use of standardised tests. In this section the studies that used standardised tests to assess the influence of a school-based MF training on EFs will be discussed. Because there are so many different executive functions, only the three most commonly researched EF processes will be discussed in this section. The three most commonly cited EFs processes are inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and working memory (Davidson, Amso, Anderson, & Diamond, 2006).
An experimental study that examined the influence of MF training on inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility is conducted by the earlier discussed study of Wimmer, Bellingrath and Stockhausen (2016; see p. 14 of this thesis). For inhibitory control Wimmer et al. (2016) found a marginally significant interaction effect of time with group (p < 0.12). For this outcome it is important to mention that in the study of Wimmer et al. (2016) the
significance level was set at p ≤ 0.1., because of the sample size and the pilot character of the study. Despite the fact that in the study of Wimmer et al. (2016) this result is seen as
marginally significant, in this literature review this result is not considered significant.
For measuring cognitive flexibility Wimmer et al. (2016) used a computerized test and another standardised test. The two measures did not reflect a specific effect of the mindfulness training. In both groups the cognitive flexibility of the pupils increased comparably, which may be an effect of schooling. These results suggest that the MI training has no effect on the inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility of pupils. The lack of finding improvements regarding cognitive flexibility according to Wimmer et al. (2016) might be caused by the fact that all students scored high on the tests used for measuring cognitive flexibly. Therefore, no group differences may have been found, due to this ceiling effect. Another explanation given by Wimmer et al. (2016) is that the training was not intense enough to affect cognitive flexibility.
Schonert-Reichl et al. (2015) examined the effects of a social and emotional learning (SEL) program involving mindfulness on inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and working memory among 99 pupils between nine and eleven years old of four different primary schools located in a suburban, middle-class community near a large Western-Canadian city. For this study a randomized control trial was used in which the experimental group received the Mind- Up program and the active control group a regular SEL program. These programs were given once a week, with each class lasting approximately 40-50 minutes for twelve weeks long. The Mind-Up program is a mindfulness-based education SEL program with every day
mindfulness practices in the program. These mindfulness practices were performed for 3 minutes three times a day. The program includes classes that promote EFs and self-regulation, social–emotional understanding and a positive mood. The regular SEL program included a common set of expectations for the development of pupils along four categories: (1)
contributing to classroom and school community (2) solving problems in peaceful ways (3) valuing diversity and defending human rights and (4) practicing democratic rights and
responsibilities. To measure inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and working memory two computerized tests were used that assessed all three core EFs. No significant group difference was found at the baseline. After the intervention the experimental group scored significantly higher on both tests (p < .05) while the active control group did not. These results suggest that the Mind-Up training improves the inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and working memory of elementary school pupils.
The study of Ricarte et al. (2015), which is discussed earlier (see p. 15), also examined the influence of the MBI program on the working memory of pupils. Two tests were used to measure working memory. However, no significant results were found regarding the influence of the MBI program on the working memory of the pupils. The explanation given by Ricarte et al. (2015) for not improving working memory through the MBI program is that the duration of the intervention was too short. In addition, according to Ricarte et al. (2015) it could also be the case that the effects of MBI program does not work in a school setting.
Another study that investigated the effects of a school-based MF training on working memory is done by Quach, Jastrowski Mano, and Alexander (2016). In total, 186 pupils between twelve and seventeen years old from a junior high school in a low-income
neighbourhood in the U.S. participated in this study. For this study a randomized controlled trial compared mindfulness meditation (n = 61) - the experimental group - to hatha yoga (n = 68) – the active control group - and a waitlist control group (n = 57). Both intervention groups (mindfulness meditation and hatha yoga) met twice a week for four weeks. Each session lasted 45 minutes. The mindfulness meditation was given by two professional mindfulness trainers and consisted of breathing techniques, formal meditation, and discussions.
Participants were also encouraged to practice meditation daily for fifteen to thirty minutes using a CD of mediation audio recordings and report their experience in a logbook. Two professional hatha yoga trainers facilitated the hatha yoga to the active control group. Each hatha yoga session consisted of breathing techniques, yoga poses, and discussions.
Participants were encouraged to practice the hatha yoga daily for fifteen to thirty minutes using a DVD containing yoga lessons and report their experience in a logbook. Before and
after the intervention period, the working memory of all the participants was measured using a computerized test. The mindfulness mediation group showed a significant improvement from pre to post intervention in working memory (p = .001), whereas participants in the waitlist control group and the hatha yoga group did not (waitlist control: p= .46, hatha yoga: p = .11). These results suggest that mindfulness meditation improves working memory by pupils and is more effective in improving working memory than hatha yoga, despite the similarities
between the two interventions.
In addition to the explanations given for the results of Ricarte et al. (2015),
explanations for the difference in outcomes between the studies of Quach et al. (2016) and Ricarte et al. (2015) might be the difference in interventions, measurements or mean age of the samples the studies used. In the study of Ricarte et al. (2015), it was mentioned that the
limited duration of the training (six weeks) could explain why the cognitive flexibility of the pupils was not improved. However, Quach et al. (2016) implemented a MF training that lasted shorter (four weeks) and did find a significant improvement with respect to the cognitive flexibility of the pupils. The difference in outcome between these studies might be explained by the intensity of the training, which was higher by the intervention of Quach et al. (2016).
Based on the studies discussed above it is difficult to conclude that school-based MF training leads to a better inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and working memory by pupils due to the lack of studies done on these cognitive abilities and because the sometimes contradictory and inconclusive results of the already existing investigations.
Interim conclusion
Overall the cross-sectional studies that are discussed in this chapter indicate that there is a positive association between school-based MF training and the ability of multiple EFs of pupils, which could be an indication of a causal relationship between school-based MF trainings and the promotion of EFs. Experimental studies using a questionnaire to measure EFs found that the MF training only improved EFs by children with a low executive control at baseline. Researchers that used standardised tests to measure EFs found a positive effect of school-based MF training on the three core EFs, even by students with an average to high executive control. This difference could be explained by the fact that standardised tests, especially computerized tests that take reaction time as outcome variables, measure more subtle differences than questionnaires. However, not all studies found positive results for all EFs. In addition, the different types of EFs and the little research that has been done into the relationships between school-based MF training and EFs makes it difficult to draw a general conclusion with regard to the question: ‘What are the effects of a school-based mindfulness training on the EFs of pupils?’. Even though the first research results appear to be reasonably positive, more research is needed to really be able to establish this effect.
Conclusion and Discussion
Despite the fact that mindfulness (MF) training is increasingly implemented in schools, little research has been done on the effects of school-based MF training on school performance. However, an increasing amount of research is being conducted into the effects of school-based MF training on the cognitive functioning of students. For example,
neuroscientific studies showed that during the performance of Mindfulness meditation certain areas in the brain that are responsible for the performance of attentional control (AC) and executive functions (EFs) are activated. Therefore, it is expected that MF training improves AC and EFs, which are two important predictors for pupil’s school performance. A positive effect of school-based MF training on AC and EFs could therefore be an important indication that school-based MF training promotes school performance. For this reason, the existing literature on the effect of school-based MF training on the AC and/or EFs of pupils was reviewed in this thesis to answer the question: “What are the effects of school-based MF trainings on the AC and EFs of pupils?”.
Studies that have investigated this relationship showed reasonably positive but ambiguous results. With respect to the effect of MF on AC, inconclusive results were found:
The studies that investigated the influence of MF on AC using teacher reports to measure AC, all found positive results. However, the studies that used standardised test to measure different forms of AC found ambiguous results. When it comes to the effect of MF on EFs no clear conclusions can be drawn either: Cross-sectional studies that investigated the association between dispositional levels of mindfulness and EFs generally found positive correlations. Yet, experimental studies that examined the influence of MF on executive functions found inconsistent results.
Alternative explanations and future research
There are multiple possible explanations for the contradictory results of the studies discussed in this literature review. This section will discuss these possible explanations and, based on this discussion, recommendations for further research will be made. One of these possible explanations is that studies that examined the influence of a school-based MF training on AC and EFs differ in many aspects. This is partly due to the fact that attentional control and executive functions are comprehensive concepts that respectively consist of different forms of attention and multiple executive functions. Therefore, the studies discussed often differed in the investigated forms of attention or EFs, which may lead to different outcomes. For AC neuroscientific studies showed that the orienting network and the alerting network are activated while practicing mindfulness (Malinowski, 2013). For this reason, it is recommended for follow-up research to investigate orienting attention and altering attention as done by Baijal et al. (2011). To investigate the effect of MF on executive functions, it is advisable to start by investigating the effects of MF on EFs who may logically be trained by MF meditation. For example, initiation (which is needed by bringing the attention to the breath) monitoring (which is needed by watching the thoughts wonder away) and shifting (which is needed by bringing the attention back to the breath) are EFs which could logically be trained by MF training.
In addition, the studies used different measuring instruments to measure the multiple forms of attention and executive functions, which can also lead to different results. Therefore, it is of great importance to not exclusively rely on questionnaires, but to triangulate findings with qualitative data and behavioural measures. Furthermore, the studies discussed
implemented a wide variety of different MF trainings. The differences in these trainings might also have caused ambiguous results. It is therefore advisable for follow-up research to
measure the dispositional level or MF in the students before and after the intervention in order to see if and to what extent a particular intervention was effective in improving mindfulness in
students.
Future research could also benefit from larger randomised studies, because the studies carried out have often used a quasi-experimental design with small to moderately large samples, which can be a threat to the internal validity of the study. What was also striking about the research designs of the discussed studies was that only a few studies made use of an active control group and follow-up measures. Moreover, the studies that used only a passive control group often did not mention what the pupils did during the time that the experimental group was practicing mindfulness. Therefore, it is difficult to determine what the working element of the MF training was in these studies. If the students in the passive control group continued with their regular school work, an extra break might as well be as effective as the MF training. More research using both a passive and active control group is needed to determine whether mindfulness meditation is the working element in the MF trainings. In addition, more research using (longer) follow-up measures are needed to see if and for how long the benefits of the MF training are lasting.
For the studies where no effect of the MF training was found, several explanations were mentioned by the researchers for finding this result. A frequently mentioned explanation was that the duration of the MF training was not long enough to establish a positive effect. In the book of Segal, Williams and Teasdale (2013) it is explained that being mindful is a skill that must be trained. A short MF training could therefore be a logical explanation for the lack of impact on the cognitive functions of pupils. However, in the studies that are discussed in this thesis there seems to be no relation between the duration of the MF training and finding a positive significant result for improving AC or EFs. For example, Ricarte et al. (2015)
implemented a MF training in which the pupils received seven and a half hours of training and found a positive effect on sustained attention, whereas Wimmer et al. (2016) implemented a MF training in which the pupils received forty-five hours of training and found no
significant effect for sustained attention. However, this does not necessarily mean that the duration of the intervention has no effect on the research results, but it does indicate that not finding an effect cannot only be attributed to the duration of the MF training. It is therefore important for follow-up research that it is investigated how long and intensive an MF training must be to be effective.
Another aspect in which the studies discussed in this thesis differ, is whether the MF training was given by a professional MF trainer or not. The use of trained MF teachers cannot only improve the quality of how the training is given, research of Jennings and Greenberg (2009) and Roeser, Skinner, Beers and Jennings (2012) also showed that school teachers who
were trained in MF delivered more desired outcomes in students behaviour, than teachers who were not trained in MF. Hence, the extent to which the intervention teacher is trained in MF may influence the effects of the MF training for the students. However, based on the existing literature it is difficult to establish whether the differences in outcome are caused by the experience of the MF trainer, or by other differences. Additionally, the degree of
professionalism of the MF trainer was not always described in the study. What did stand out was that some studies showed a positive effect while the MF training was given by a non- trained MF teacher. This does not mean that a trained MF teacher cannot have an extra
positive effect, but it does show that the use of a trained MF teacher is not always necessary to achieve a positive effect with the MF training. Because research has shown that a professional MF trainer could make an extra positive contribution to the effectiveness of the training, though, it is advisable for follow-up research to guide the MF training by a professional MF teacher.
Implementing Mindfulness training in schools
More research should be done to determine the effects of school-based MF trainings on the AC and EFs of pupils. However, this does not mean that MF trainings should not be implemented in schools. School boards and teacher could still choose to implement a MF training because the first studies into the effects of school-based MF trainings on the AC and EFs of pupils do show reasonably positive results, and it can in any case be said that MF training does not harm the AC and EF’ s of pupils. In addition, there are other reasons to implement MF in schools such as promoting the emotional wellbeing and stress reduction by pupils (Zenner, Herrnleben-Kurz, & Walach, 2014). MF training could also promote the school performance of pupils in other ways. For example, the study of of López-González, Amutio and Herrero-Fernández (2018) showed that mindfulness habits predicted academic performance, which was mediated by classroom climate. So even though it’s not yet clear if the AC and EFs of Mull’s students are promoted by the MF training that she is given, Mull and her students may profit of the MF training in other ways.
Literature
Baijal, S., Jha, A. P., Kiyonaga, A., Singh, R., & Srinivasan, N. (2011). The Influence of Concentrative Meditation Training on the Development of Attention Networks during Early Adolescence . Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 153.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00153
Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Jones, L. L. (2009). Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates. Developmental Review, 29(3), 180–200.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.05.002
Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.
Learning and Individual Differences, 21(4), 327–336.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., ... & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical psychology:
Science and practice, 11(3), 230-241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bph077
Britton, W. B., Lepp, N. E., Niles, H. F., Rocha, T., Fisher, N. E., Gold, J. S. (2014). A Randomized Controlled Pilot Trial of Classroom-Based Mindfulness Meditation Compared to an Active Control Condition in 6(th) Grade Children. Journal of School
Psychology, 52(3), 263-278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2014.03.002
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822- 848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
Conners, C. K., Sitarenios, G., Parker, J. D. A., & Epstein, J. N. (1998). The Revised Conners’ Parent Rating Scale (CPRS-R): Factor Structure, Reliability, and Criterion Validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(4), 257–268.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022602400621
Corbett, M. L. (2011). The effect of a mindfulness meditation intervention on attention, affect,
anxiety, mindfulness, and salivary cortisol in school aged children. Florida: Atlantic
University.
Crescentini, C., Capurso, V., Furlan, S., & Fabbro, F. (2016). Mindfulness-Oriented
