-. .. C £ F T i:, L
\CULLY OF GRADUATE STUOiEl
DEAN
by
Gweneth Ann H a rtric k
B .S .N ., U n iv e rs ity o f V ic t o r ia , 1985 M .A ., U n iv e rs ity o f V ic t o r ia , 1989
U T s s e rta tio n Submitted in P a rtia l F u lf illm e n t o f the Requirements f o r the Degree o f
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in In te r d is c ip lin a r y Studies
We accept th is d is s e r ta tio n as conforming to the req u ired standard
Dr. R .y. Peavy, Co-Supepvisor (Department o f Psychological Foundations)
Dr. M.D. H i l l s , Co-Supervisor (School o f Nursing)
Dr. C. A ttrid g e , Departmental/ Member (School o f Nursing)
Dr. D. Knowles, Departmental Member (Department o f Psychological Foundations)
Dr. R. Fergus; & Youth Cat
n,/Depanfm ental Member (School o f C h ild e)
Dr. r is e n . External Examiner ( S e a t t le , Washington) Gweneth Ann H a rtr ic k , 1994
U n iv e rs ity o f V ic t o r ia
A ll r ig h ts reserved. D is s e rta to n may not be reproduced in whole or in p a r t, by photocopying or o th e r means, w ith o u t th e permission o f the au th o r.
r ie o r ly d e s c rib e s th e c o n te n t o f y o u r d is s e r ta tio n . E n te r th e c o r r e s p o n d in g f o u r - d ig it c o d e in th e s p a c e s p r o v id e d .
I 'V L A - f l S t j I L i o l c f Z c . ^ __________________________ E E E E ! U ' M ' I
SUBJECT CODE
O b j e c t C a t e g o r ie s
T H E H U M A N I T I E S A N D S O C I A L S C I E N C E S COMMUNICATIONS AND THE ARTS
Architecture... 0729 A rt History... 0377 O nem a...0900 Dance ...0370 Fine A rts 0357 hfcxTTK^on Science... 0723 Journolism ... 0391 Library Science... C399 Moss Conwnunicatio. *s... 0708 M usic...0413 Speech Communicotion ...0459 Trwotor... .0465 EDUCATION G en era l...0515 Adbrinistration... 0514
A dult and Continuing ... 0 5 16 A gricultural...0517
A r t ... 0273
Bilingual and Multiculturol 0282 Business... 0688
Community College...0275
Curriculum and Instruction 0727 Early Childhood ... 0 5 18 Elenwntory... 0524
Finance... 0277
Guidance and Counseling 0519 Health...0680
H ig h e r... 07.15 History o f ... 0520
Home Economics...0278
Industrial... 0521
Language and Literature... 0279
Momematics...0280 M usic... .0522 Philosophy o f ... 0998 Physical... ... 0523 Psychology...0525 Reeding... 0535 Religious... 0527 Sciences... 0714 Secondory...0533
Social ^le rrce s... 0534
Sociology o f ... 0340
Specie! ... 0529
Teocher Training ... 0530
Technology ...0710
Tests and Mecsurerrrents...0288
Vocational...0 7 47 EANGUAGi LITERATURE AND UNGUISTIG ...0679 Ancient...0289 Linguistics... 0290 M o d e m ...0291 Literature General...0401 Classical...0294 Comparative...0295 M ^ ic v e l... 0297 M o dem ... 0298 A frican...0316 Americon... 0591 Asian ... 0305 Canadian (English)... 0352 Carrodien (French)... 0355 English...0593 G erm anic... 0311 Lotin A m erican... 0 3 - 2 Middle Eostur« ... ... 0315 Rome nee ... 0313
Slavic onci East European 0314 PHILOSOPHY, REUGION AND THEOLOGY Philosophy... 0422 Religion General...0318 Biblical Studies...0321 O e rg y ...0319 History o f ...0320 Philosophy o f ... 0322 Theology... 0469 SOCIAL SOENGS American Studies... 0323 Anthropology Archaeology ...0324 Cultural ...0326 Physicol ... 0327 Business Administration General... 0310 Accounting... 0272 Bonking... 0770 Management... 0454 Marketing...0338 Canadian Studies... 0385 Economics General... 0501 Agricultural... 0503 Commerce-Business... 0505 Finonce... 0508 History... 0509 L a b o r... 0510 Theory ... ...0511 Folklore... 0358 Geography ... 0366 G erontology...0351 History General... 0578 Ancient... ...0579 M edieval...0581 M o d e m ... 0582 B lock... 0328 A fric o n ... 0331
Asia, ^ s tro lio and Oceania 0332 Canadian...0334 European... 0335 Lotin American ...0336 Middle Eastern...0333 United States... 0 3 37 History of Science... 0585 Low... 0398 Political Science G enerol...0615
International Low and Relations...0616 Public Administrotion...06 17 Recreation... 0814 Social W o rk ...0452 Sociology G eneral...0626
Criminology and Penology ... 0627
Demography... 0938
Ethnic and Racial Studies 0631 Individual and Family Studies ... 0628
Industrial and labo r Relations...0629
Public and ^ c ia l W elfare.... 0630
Social Structure and Development... 0700
Theory and Methods...0344
Transportotion... 0709
Urbon and Regional Planning ...0999
Women's Studies... 0453 T H E S C I E N C E S A N D E N G I N E E R I N G BIOLOGICAL SOENOS Agriculture G eneral ... 0473 A gronom y... ...0285
Animal Culture and Nutrition ... 0475
Animal Pathology...0476
Food Science and Technology... 0359
Forest^ ond W ild life ... 0478
Plant C ulture ... 0479 Plant Pathology... 0480 Plant Physiology...0 817 Ronge Management... 0777 Wood Technology ...0746 ... 0306 Anotomy ...0287 BiosloHtHcs... 0308 Botany...0309 C e ll... 0379 Ecology... 0329 Entomology ... 0353 Genetics ... 0369 limnology ... 0793 M icrobiology... 0410 M olecular...0307 Neuroscience... 0317 Oceanography... 0416 Physiology... 0433 Rodiorion...0821 Veterinary Science... 0778 Zoology ... 0472 Biophysics General... 0786 M edical ...0760 EARTH SOENaS Biogeochemistry... 0425 Geochemistry ... 0996 Geodesy... 0370 Geology... 0372 Geophysics...0373 hW ro lo g y... 0388 M inerologr...0 4 1 1 Poleobotony...0345 Poleoecolo^... 0426 Paleontology...0 4 18 P oleozoolo^ ... 0985 Polynology... 0427 Physical G eography... 0368 Physical Oceoncgrophy... 0415
HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Environmental Sciences... 0768 Health Sciences General...0566 Audiolpgy...0300 ChemotKeropy... 0992 Dentistry...0567 Education... 0350 Hospital Management...0769 Human Development...0758 Immunology... 0982
Medicine and Surgery 0564 Mental Health ... 0347
N ursing...0569
Nutrition...0570
Obstetrics and Gynecology .03 80 Occupational Health ona Therapy... 0354 Ophthalrnology... 0381 Pathology... 0571 Pharmacology...0 4 19 Pharmacy...0572 Physical Therapy... 0382 Public Health...0573 Radiology...0574 Recreation... 0575 Speech Pothology... 04 60 Toxicology... 0383 Home Economics... 0386 PHYSICAL SOENCES P ure Sciences Chemistry Generol... 0485 Agricultural... 0749 Anolyticol...0486 Biochemistry... 0487 Inorgonic...0488 N ucfeor...0738 O rganic...0490 Phormoceutical...0 4 9 1 Physicol...0494 Polymer...0495 Rodiotion...0754 Mathematics...0405 Ph^ics Generol... 0605 Acoustics ... 0986 Astronomy and Astrophysics... 0606 Atmospheric Science... 0608 A to m ic... 0748
Electronics and Electricity 0607 Elementory Particles ond High Energy... 0798 Fluioond Plasma... 0759 M olecular...0609 N uclear...0610 O p tics... 0752 Radiation...0756 Solid State...0611 Statistics... 0463 A p p lie d Sciences A l l i e d Mechanics...0346 Computer Science...0984 Engineering G eneral...0537 Aerospace... 0538 Agriculturol... 0539 Automotive... 0540 Biomedical... ,0541 Chemicol...0542 C iv il... 0543
Electronics and Electrical 0544 Heat ond Thermodynomics ...0348
Hydraulic...0545 Industriol ...0546 M a rin e ... 0547 Moteriols Science... 0794 Mechonicol... 0548 Metallurgy...0743 M in in g ... 0551 N uclear...0552 Packaging ... 0549 Petroleum...0765
Sanitory ond M u nicipal 0554 System Science... 0790 Geotechnology...0428 Operations Research... 0796 Plastics Technology...0795 Textile Technology... 0994 PSYCHOLOGY General ... 0621 Behavioral... 0384 C lin ic a l... 0622 Developmental...0620 Experimentol... 0623 Industrial... 0624 Personality... 0625 Physiologicol...0989 Psychobiology...0349 Psychometrics...0632 Sociol ...0451
0
Supervisors: D r. Vance Peavy D r. M arcia H i l ls
ABSTRACT
Recent l i t e r a t u r e has challenged t r a d it io n a l views o f women's development o f s e l f . Many scholars have suggested th a t the tr a d tio n a l concept o f self-as-autonom ous being does not r e f le c t women's exp erien ces. F u rth e r, i t has been suggested th a t f o r women who are mothers th e c o n c e p tu a liza tio n o f self-as-autonom ous is p a r t ic u la r l y questionable. With no o th e r apparent research e x is tin g to illu m in a te the nature and experience o f s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n fo r women who a re mothers, t h is study addressed the question: "What is the experience o f d e fin in g s e l f fo r women who are mothers?". A human c arin g methodology which in te g ra te d elements o f in te r p r e tiv e phenomenology and fe m in is t in q u iry was employed to exp lo re t h is research q u e s tio n . Seven women who were a c tiv e ly engaged in motherhood p a r tic ip a te d in th e study. Data gathering involved two in d iv id u a l in te rv ie w s w ith each o f the p a r tic ip a n ts and concluded w ith the women p a r tic ip a tin g in a focus group where th e p re lim in a ry fin d in g s were discussed. The study reve ale d two in te r r e la t e d aspects in c lu d in g , ( a ) a d e s c rip tio n o f the n a tu re o f s e l f , and (b ) th e ongoing process o f d e fin in g s e l f . The nature o f s e l f consisted of th re e themes. The themes which arose were: (a ) s e lf as a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f p a rts , (b ) s e l f as a r e la tio n a l process, and (c ) s e l f as a syn th esis. The process o f d e fin in g s e l f consisted of th re e phases: la ) n o n -r e fle c tiv e doing, (b ) liv in g in the shadows, and (c ) re c la im in g and discovering s e l f . Each o f these phases were c o n tin u a lly experienced w ith d if f e r e n t ones dominating a t vary in g times and in varying s itu a tio n s . W ithin each o f the phases, a number o f themes were described and illu m in a te d . The study pointed to the
d e f in it io n and t h e i r experience o f h e a lth . :n addressing th e im p lic a tio n s f o r p r a c tic e , th e re fo re , a framework or health promoting p ra c tic e to support women's process o f s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n was developed.
Exami
Dr. R.Vi Peavy, Co-Supervf or (Department o f Psychological Foundations)
D r. M.D. H i l l s , Co-Supervisor (School o f Nursing)
---D r. C. A t/r id g s , ---Departmental Megoer (School o f Nursing)
D r. D. Knowles, Departmental Member (Department o f Psychological Foundations)
D r. R. Fergfusonu departmental Member (School o f C h ild & Youth Care)
Table o f Contents Page A b strac t ... i i Table o f Contents ... iv L is t o f Tables ... v i i Acknowledgements ... v i i i CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ... 1 S ig n ific a n c e o f th e Study ... 5 Purpose o f th e S t u d y ... 7
CHAPTER 2 . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ... 8
The C h a ra c te riz a tio n o f S e lf : Four Contrasting World V ie w s .. 10
Formism: The Form o f Things ... 10
Mechanicism: C ause-E ffect R elatio n sh ip s ... 11
Organicism: M aturation and Growth ... 12
Contextual ism: The H is to r ic a l Nature of Events ... 13
Contextual Theories o f S e lf ... 14
Time, Space and N a rra tiv e ... 15
Theories o f th e D e c e n tra liz e d S e lf ... 18
S e lf as Polyphonic Novel ... 20 The D ia lo g ic a l S e lf ... 22 S e lf as a Process o f V a lu a tio n ... 23 S e lf as a Social Being ... 25 Women's Development o f S e lf ... 28 Developing S e lf: In d iv id u a tio n vs In -R e la to n ... 29 Theories o f Women's S e lf - D e f in it io n ... 31
S e lf - D e f in it io n o f Women Who Are Mothers: Research Considerations ... 38
Conclusions ... 39
CHAPTER 3 . METHODOLOGY ... 40
Research Context ... 40
Research Method ... 41
The Question o f Bracketing ... 46
S e le c tio n o f P a rtic ip a n ts ... 50
E th ic a l Components ... 52
Data C o lle c tio n ... 53
P a rtic ip a n t and Researcher R e latio n sh ip s ... 53
Data Gathering as a D ia lo g ic a l Process ... 54
The P i l o t Study ... 55
In d iv id u a l P a r tic ip a n t In te rv ie w s ... 56
Conversation one: E s tab lish in g rappo rt and open-ended d ia lo g u e ... 57
Conversation two: R e fle c tio n , c l a r i f i c a t i o n , and e la b o r a tio n ... 59
Trustw orthiness o f the Study ... 64
C r e d ib ilit y and F ittin g n e s s ... 64
A u d it a b ilit y ... 66
C o n firm a b ility ... 66
Summary ... 67
CHAPTER 4. PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ... 68
The P a rtic ip a n ts ... 71 L o rrain e ... 71 Mari on ... 72 Lois ... 72 Rachel ... 73 Evelyn ... 73 Anne ... 74 Diana ... 74
The Experience o f D efin in g S e lf fo r Women/Mothers ... 75
The N a tu re o f S e lf ... 75
S e lf as a M u lt i p li c i t y o f Parts ... 75
S e lf as a R e latio n al Process ... 77
S e lf as a S y n th e s is ... ... 79
The Process o f S e lf -D e f in it io n ... 81
N a rra tiv e as Root Metaphor o f S e lf ... 82
D e fin in g S e lf ... 83
N o n -R e fle c tiv e Doing ... 85
I ' v e got i t a l l fig u re d out ... 85
Embracing a s c r ip t ... 88
Approval and re c o g n itio n as a m otivator in l i f e ... 91
A u th e n tic ity vs connection ... 94
Denying p a rts o f s e l f ... 97
Choosing th e s a fe ty o f th e cocoon ... 101
L iv in g in the Shadows ... 103
S ta rtin g to crumble ... 104
Alone on a d esert is la n d ... 107
W hat's the m atter w ith you? ... 110
The fog begins to l i f t ... 112
The volcano erupts ... 113
Clawing my way out o f a desparate p la c e ... 115
Bombing and d ev astatio n ... 116
Reclaim ing and Discovery ... 118
Reconnecting w ith s e l f ... 120
Balancing a u th e n tic ity and connection 122 Learning to lis t e n , t r u s t , and nurture s e l f ... 125
R e a lizin g choice ... 128
S h if t from doing to liv in g ... 129
L e ttin g go o f the cocoon ... 130
Making new connections ... 131
Is th e B u tte r fly a B u tte r fly ? ... 135
M othering: An O pportunity and a R e s tra in t ... 141
S e lf - D e f in it io n and Motherhood: A Complimentary R elatio n sh ip ... 145
CHAPTER 5 . DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS ... 148
Im p lic a tio n s f o r H elping Professionals ... 149
Im p lic a tio n s f o r Women/Mothers' H ealth ... 150
Im p lic a tio n s f o r P ra c tic e ... 153
S e lf - D e f in it io n and Freirean L ib e ra tio n ... 154
A Framework f o r Health Promoting P ra c tic e ... 156
B e lie fs and Assumptions ... 157
The Goal o f Health Promoting P ra c tic e ... 159
Health Promoting P ra c tic e ... 159
Promoting Women's and F a m ilie s ' H e a lth ... 163
Im p lic a tio n s f o r Theory and Research ... 166
L im ita tio n s ... 169
Concluding Remarks ... 170
References ... 172
APPENDIX A: N otice o f Study ... 181
APPENDIX 8: In te '“view Consent F o rm ... 183
L is t o f Tables
Page Table 1. Experiences o f S e lf - d e f in it io n : The Themes ... 139
Acknow!edgements
To Vance Peavy and Marcia H i l l s , my co-sup ervisors, fo r t h e i r g i f t o f resp e ct. T h e ir valuing o f my work, my ideas and my a b i l i t i e s has c o n tin u a lly served to encourage and support my le a rn in g .
To my committee members, Carolyn A ttr id g e , Don Knowles and Roy Ferguson f o r t h e ir w illin g n e s s to engage w ith me as I explored and made meaning o f new ideas and approaches to knowledge. T h e ir questions were in v a lu a b le in evo lving and c la r if y in g my th in k in g .
To L iz Lindsey, M arie Hoskins, E liz a b e th B annister and Laureen S h ie ld s fo r t h e i r g i f t s o f frie n d s h ip and c o l l e g i a l i t y . They have shared ideas and l i t e r a t u r e , read my work, and perhaps most im p o rtan tly have ensured the seriousness o f my work has been balanced w ith d a ily la u g h te r and enjoyment.
To the women who p a rtic ip a te d in my s tu d y. The sharing o f t h e i r liv e s and t h e i r experiences gave me the g i f t o f knowledge and understanding. The tim e spent w ith them was t r u ly a tra n sfo rm in g experience.
And f i n a l l y to my fa m ily . T h e ir presence in my l i f e and t h e i r g i f t s o f love and c a rin g , c o n tin u a lly n u rtu res and supports my own experience o f s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n .
INTRODUCTION
The concept o f ' s e l f is prominent throughout the psychological l it e r a t u r e . The in q u iry in to the nature o f the s e l f as an organizing p r in c ip le in human development and experience has been a fundamental aspect o f p sych o lo g ical, p h ilo s o p h ic a l, and s p ir it u a l in v e s tig a tio n
(Mahoney, 1991; Surrey, 1991).
Wide-ranging d iffe re n c e s e x is t among th e o r is ts in regards to what c o n s titu te s s e lf , assumptions underlying th e nature o f s e lf , and methodologies used f o r studying s e lf . Some o f the d iff e r in g views o f s e lf in clude s e lf as i ll u s i o n , s e l f as o b je c t, th e looking glass s e lf , s e l f as s o c ial persona, s e lf as defensive c e n te r, and s e l f as process (Mahoney, 1991). Markus & Nurius (1986) also t a lk about th e notion o f m u ltip le selves , and contend th a t in a d d itio n to th e s e lf in existence in the present moment th e re a re numerous 'p o s s ib le s e lv e s '— the selves we could become, and the selves we are a fr a id o f becoming.
Although th ere a re numerous th e o rie s concerning s e lf , o v e ra ll s e l f is thought to provide th e v is io n and s tru c tu re o f a person's l i f e . Mahoney (1991) contends the evidence is now s u b s ta n tia l th a t elements o f s e lf pervade a l l human exp erien ce. "The interdependence of selfhood and knowledge processes makes i t possible fo r th e generation and a s s im ila tio n o f info rm ation to be regulated by s e l f - i d e n t i t y p a tte rn s thus f a r s tru c tu re d , and t h is in tu rn makes possib le the continuous ordering o f experience along a u n ita r y and coherent dimension" (Guidano, 1991, p. 9 ) .
This view o f s e l f as being a fundamental determ inate in human experience, has also been discussed in the nursing l it e r a t u r e in r e la tio n to peo ple's experience o f h e a lth . In f a c t , nurse th e o ris ts such as Watson
(1 9 8 8 ), Parse (1 9 9 0 ), and Newman (1986) seem to imply th a t th e processes o f evo lvin g h ea lth and d e fin in g s e lf are not only in te r r e la t e d but a re in some ways synonymous. Watson (1988) fo r example, describes h e a lth as " u n ity and harmony w ith in th e mind, body and soul" ( p . 4 8 ). Watson m aintains t h a t h e a lth is associated w ith th e degree o f congruence between the s e l f as perceived and th e s e lf as experienced. S im ila r ly , Parse (1990) describes h e a lth as a process o f human becoming. In d e s c rib in g the unfolding o f h e a lth . Parse re fe rs to people as c r e a tiv e authors and describes h e a lth f o r the 'c r e a tiv e author- as a personal commitment and choice. Newman (1986) views health as th e process o f tra n s fo rm a tio n to higher le v e ls o f consciousness. Newman m aintains th a t the gaining o f s e l f - knowledge and understanding (e v o lu tio n o f consciousness) provides concomitant gains in freedom. As one gains an understanding o f s e l f , one can work in r e la tio n w ith the p a tte rn o f s e l f . According to Newman, h ealth is th e evo lvin g p a tte rn o f th e whole l i f e , "th e process o f th e e v o lu tio n o f consciousness is also th e process o f h e a lth " (p . 4 3 ).
Newman (1979) describes the goal o f nursing as one o f a s s is tin g people "to u t i l i z e th e power th a t is w ith in them as they evolve toward higher le v e ls o f consciousness" (p . 6 7 ) . According to Newman, people need a p a rtn e r in th e process o f expanding consciousness. Nursing p r a c tic e is th e re fo re focused on "reco g n izin g th e p a tte rn o f th e person in in te ra c tio n w ith th e environment" ( p . 88) (understanding t h a t person's experience) and supporting th e person in making and implementing choices th a t emerge through h is or her increased knowledge and understanding of the p a tte rn o f s e l f . In a s im ila r v e in , Watson (1988) describes th e goal o f nursing as help in g "persons to g ain a h ig h e r degree o f harmony w ith in
th e mind, body, and soul which generates self-kn ow ledge, s e lf-re v e re n c e , s e lf-h e a lin g , and s e lf -c a r e processes w h ile allo w ing in creasin g d i v e r s i t y . . .th e nurse helps in d iv id u a ls fin d meaning in t h e ir e x is te n c e , disharmony, s u ffe rin g , and tu rm o il and promotes s e lf -c o n tr o l, choice, and s e lf-d e te rm in a tio n " ( p . 4 9 ).
From the preceding discussion i t appears t h a t the experience o f s e l f and the experience o f h e a lth can be considered to be in te g r a lly re la te d . For nurses to promote h e a lth requires th a t th ey sim ultaneously promote p e o p le 's gaining o f self-kn ow ledge and expression o f s e lf . For nurses working w ith women who a re mothers, t h is c o n s titu te s a challenging ta s k . Promoting womens' experience o f s e lf req u ires an understanding o f how women experience and d e fin e s e l f . Peck (1986) m aintains th a t a t present th e re is l i t t l e knowledge about how women d e fin e s e lf . W ithin th e developmental l i t e r a t u r e the form ation o f a sense o f s e l f has long been considered as a d if f e r e n t ia t in g process in v o lv in g th e separation o f o n e s e lf from others ( M i l l e r , 1 9 9 1 ). Most developmental theory stresses the importance of in d iv id u a lis t ic s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n . T h e o ris ts stress autonomy, s e lf - r e lia n c e , independence, and s e lf - a c t u a liz a t io n as p a rt of the development of a h e a lth y , mature s e lf (S u rre y , 1991). Recently, however, sev eral w rite rs have suggested i.hat t h is t r a d it io n a l notion o f s e lf does not f i t womens' experience ( M i l l e r , 1991 ; Rabuzzi, 1988; G illig a n , 1982; H e ilb ru n , 1988). These w rite r s argue th a t in co n trast to th e i n d iv id u a lis t ic concept o f s e l f , a woman's s e l f is developed and defined in - r e l a t io n w ith o th e rs . This conception o f s e l f - i n - r e la t i o n involves th e re c o g n itio n th a t f o r women th e s e lf is organized and developed in th e
co n tex t o f im portant re la tio n s h ip s and th a t th e prim ary experience o f s e l f i s r e la tio n a l (Surrey, 1991).
In p a r tic u la r , Rabuzzi (1988) asserts t h is r e la tio n a l experience o f s e lf i s e s p e c ia lly tru e fo r women who are mothers. By d e f in it io n the term mother is r e la tio n a l— w ith o u t a c h ild a woman cannot lo g ic a lly be c a lle d mother. There is not a m otherself w ithout a r e la t io n . In discussing m o th erself Rabuzzi (1 9 8 8 ) ass erts th a t motherselfhood is in f a c t a paradox. Motherselfhood c o n tra d ic ts our i n t u i t i v e notion o f selfhood as e x is tin g w ith in a s in g le being. Rather, in m o th e rs e lf th e re is a dual consciousness— instead o f my needs i t is our needs— a f a r d if f e r e n t o r ie n ta tio n . Chodorow (1974) suggests th a t t h is r e la tio n a l way of being makes th e establishm ent and maintenance of a sense o f s e l f a d i f f i c u l t psychological issue f o r Western women.
A kind o f g u ilt t h a t Western women express seems to grow out o f and to r e f le c t la c k o f adequate s e lf /o t h e r d is tin c tio n s and a sense o f inescapable embeddedness in re la tio n s h ip s to others . . . t h i s happens in the most f a m ilia r in s ta n c e , in a sense of d iffu s e r e s p o n s ib ility f o r everything connected to the w e lfa re o f her fa m ily and the happiness and success o f her c h ild re n
(Chodorow, 1974, p . 5 8 ).
S im ila r ly , Oakley (1981 ) m aintains th a t a m ajor exp ectatio n o f a good mother which e x is ts in western so c ie ty is at jg a tio n o f s e l f . This id ea o f re la tio n s h ip versus s e l f is supported by Davies & Welch (1986) who i r s t i g a t e d how women experienced and made sense o f t h e i r s itu a tio n s during the period o f in te n s iv e mothering when t h e i r c h ild re n were o f preschool age. These w r it e r s concluded "the problem f o r mothers, as we see
i t , is in the fu s io n between r e s p o n s ib ility and s e l f - s a c r if ic e , a fusion created out o f c u rre n t fa m ily s tru c tu re s and c u rre n t b e lie fs about c h ild r e n 's n e e d s .— I t is in s p e c ific s itu a tio n s where they a re making c r i t i c a l l i f e choices, th a t t h e i r choices are in flu e n c e d , not by attending to themselves as in d iv id u a ls w ith r ig h ts , but by a tte n d in g to th e network o f re la tio n s h ip s in which they are caught up" (Davies & Welch, 1986, p . 4 2 2 ). Along a s im ila r v e in , Lemkau & Landau (1986) describe what they term th e s e lf le s s syndrome which they id e n t if ie d through t h e i r c lin ic a l experience w ith women. "While t h e i r symptoms are d iv e rs e , women w ith the s e lfle s s syndrome have in common a set o f entrenched id e o lo g ic a l b e lie fs p re s c rib in g s e lf-d e n ia l and a s t r iv in g f o r s a tis fa c tio n through v ic a rio u s means" (Lemkau & Landau, 1986). The l i t e r a t u r e suggests then, th a t th ere is o fte n a confusing fusion fo r women who are mothers, a fu sio n between resp: s i b i l i t y and s e l f - s a c r if ic e , and between s e lf as autonomous and s e lf as a m other-i n - r e la t i o n .
S ig n ific a n c e o f the Study
The preceding discussion in d ic a te s th a t womens' d e f in it io n and expression o f s e l f appears to p la y a fundamental p a rt in t h e ir h e a lth and in t h e i r o v e ra ll l i f e experience. For women who a re mothers, the experience o f d e fin in g s e lf presents a perp lexin g challenge when considered in l i g h t o f c u rre n t views o f development and selfh o o d . Scholars such as M il le r (1 9 9 1 ), G illig a n (1 9 8 2 ), and Belenky e t a l , (1986) have o ffe re d a lt e r n a t iv e ways o f th in k in g about womens' experience o f developing s e l f , however to my knowledge th e re is no research or l i t e r a t u r e which illu m in a te s th e in te rp la y between s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n and
motherhood. Does the e d ic t f o r s e l f - s a c r if ic e and abnegation o f s e l f in fa c t hinder a woman's process o f d e fin in g her s e l f and thereby her health? What I s th e experience o f d e fin in g s e l f fo r women who are mothers?
Answering these questions is c r i t i c a l i f helping p ro fe s s io n a ls are to promote h e a lth w ith in women and w ith in fa m ilie s . Labonte (1989) a lle g e s h e a lth e s s e n tia lly e x is ts in the "dynamic moments o f our s o c ia l r e la tio n s " . In a s im ila r vein , Gerson, A lp o rt and Richardson (1990) p o in t out th a t the w e ll-b e in g and s e lf-e s te e m o f parents and c h ild re n are p o s it iv e ly c o rre la te d — th a t an increase in the w e ll-b e in g and s e lf-e s te e m o f one w i l l a f f e c t th e o th er. I f a woman's h ealth is promoted, i t is l i k e l y her fa m ily 's o v e ra ll h e a lth w il l also be promoted. P o in tin g to th e p iv o ta l ro le women p la y in f a m ilie s . Walker (1989) m aintains th a t "everyday and u ltim a te r e s p o n s ib ility fo r m arriage, housework and parenthood u s u a lly remains w ith women" ( p . 8 7 0 ). Walker fu th e r contends th a t in general a c e n tra l component in motharwork is m aintaining th e o v e ra ll s t a b i l i t y o f th e fa m ily . I f a woman does not fe e l s ta b le (and h e a lth y ) in her s e l f i t would seem u n lik e ly th a t she would be able to provide t h is o v e ra ll s t a b i l i t y fo r her fa m ily . Regardless then, o f whether helping p ro fessio n a ls a re promoting h e a lth in women or promoting h e a lth in fa m ilie s i t seems im portant they have an understanding o f women/mothers' experience of s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n . Having an awareness and understanding o f women/mothers' experience o f s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n could enhance helping p ro fe s s io n a ls ' a b i l i t y to promote h e a lth in women who are mothers and in fami l i e s .
Purpose o f the Study
The purpose o f t h is study is to exp lo re and describe the experience o f s e lf - d e f in it io n f o r women who are mothers. S p e c ific a lly , t h is study w i l l address the q u e stio n : What is the exp erien ce o f d e fin in g s e l f fo r women who are mothers? I t is envisioned th a t the knowledge gained through exp lo rin g t h is question w i l l enhance mothers' and fa m ilie s ' awareness and understanding of women/mother's experience o f s e lf - d e f in it io n . As Parse (1990) describes t h is increased awareness and knowledge o f s e l f w i l l promote th e u n foldin g o f health and personal choice. In a d d itio n , i t is a n tic ip a te d the knowledge gleaned w ill serve to s e n s itiz e h e a lth care p ro fe s s io n a ls to th e p o s s ib ilit ie s in h e re n t w ith in women/mothers' experience o f d e fin in g a s e lf . With t h is s e n s it iv it y they may be b e tte r a b le to support th e process of s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n and to promote the unfoldin g o f h e a lth w ith in women and t h e ir fa m ilie s .
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
"For s e l f is a sea boundless and measureless" - K a h lil Gibran
The idea o f a person as a unique l i f e process began to flo u r is h during th e Renaissance (Mahoney, 1991). Out o f th e Renaissance emerged two general approaches to human existence c h a r a c te r is tic o f the Western mind. These two approaches included Enlightenment and Romanticism. The S c ie n t i f i c Revolution and Enlightenment stressed r a t io n a li t y , e m p iric a l science, and a s c e p tic a l secularism (T a y lo r, 1 93 9). For en lig h ten ed th in k e rs r e a l it y was u ltim a te ly located on a plane co n sis tin g o f o b je c ts whose actions and re a c tio n s were governed by s ta b le laws (Polkinghorne, 1 98 8). Descartes, considered the founder o f Enlightenment (Hermans & Kempen, 1993), emphasized the dualism o f mind and body. For Descartes body was o f th e m aterial w orld and was viewed m e c h a n is tic a lly and fu n c tio n a l 1 y (T a y lo r, 1989: Tarnas, 1 99 1). This d is s o c ia tio n between mind and body is commonly described as C artesian (Hermans & Kempen, 19 9 3 ). Descartes' e th ic c a lle d fo r disengagement from world and body and th e assumption o f an instrum ental stance towards them (T a y lo r, 1 9 8 9 ). I t was thought th a t by a b s tra c tin g o b je c tiv e tim e and space from the o r ig in a l human experience o f th e w o rld , i t was p o s s ib le to obtain a more accurate d e p ictio n o f th e world as i t r e a lly was (Polkinghorne, 1988). T a y lo r (1989) describes how th e s e l f of disengagement and ra tio n a l c o n tro l has become a f a m il ia r modern fig u re . Developed to it s f u l l e s t through Locke and th e Enlightenment th in k e rs he in s p ire d , t h is punctual s e l f "has become one way
o f con struing ourselves, which we fin d haro to shake o f f" (T a y lo r, 1989, p. 1 6 0 ).
In c o n tra s t t o Cartesianism . Romanticism the second approach, tended to express the aspects o f human experience suppressed by "the Enlightenm ent's o v e rrid in g s p i r i t o f ra tio n a lis m " (Tarnas, 1991, p . 367). Associated w ith Rousseau (who was subsequently follow ed by Goethe, S c h ille r , and Herder) t h is side o f western s e n s ib ilit y f u l l y emerged in the la te eig h teen th and e a r ly n in eteen th cen tu ries (Tarnas, 1991). In c o n tra s t to Enlightenment th in k e r s , the Romantics viewed th e world as a u n ita ry organism as opposed to an a to m is tic machine, venerated in s p ira tio n ra th e r than reason, and "a ffirm e d the in e x h a u s tib le drama o f human l i f e ra th e r than th e calm p r e d ic t a b ilit y o f s t a t ic a b s tra c tio n s " (Tarnas, 1991, p. 3 6 7 ). The Romantic th in k e rs b e lie v e d in the m u l t i p li c i t y o f r e a l it i e s and in th e uniqueness o f each o b je c t, event and exp erien ce.
Both o f these approaches, C a rtes ian and Romanticism, continue to in flu e n c e the Western w o rld 's view o f s e l f . As T aylo r (1989) describes,
these two b ig and many-sided c u ltu r a l tra n s fo rm a tio n s , the Enlightenment and Romanticism w ith i t s accompanying expressive conception o f (woman/man) have made us what we a re ...W h a t I mean is ra th e r th a t our c u ltu r a l l i f e , our s e lf-c o n c e p tio n s , our moral outlooks s t i l l operate in the wake of these g reat events (p. 3 9 3 ).
According to T a y lo r, a l l fa m ilie s o f modern views o f s e l f , draw on these f r o n t ie r s in d iff e r e n t ways and combinations in c re a tin g t h e i r world view and th eo ry o f s e l f .
This chapter w i l l begin by p ro v id in g an overview o f th e predominant world views th a t in s p ire th e o rie s o f s e l f . In f lu e n t ia l th e o rie s o f a d u lt development o f s e l f w il l then be examined w ith p a r tic u la r a tte n tio n given to co n tex tu a l th e o rie s o f s e lf . Follow ing t h is review o f a d u lt development o f s e l f , recent work and th e o rie s in th e area o f womens' development o f s e l f w i l l be considered.
The C h a ra c te riz a tio n o f S e lf : Four C o ntrasting World Views
In co n sid ering the predominant world views or th e o rie s o f s e l f which e x is t to d ay. Pepper (1942) provides a schema which y ie ld s c l a r i t y regarding th e guiding perceptions and th in k in g underlying each. Pepper b elieved th a t metaphors, lik e s p o tlig h ts , guide perceptions and th in k in g and thus c re a te and r e s t r i c t world view s. R e fle c tin g on th e h is to ry o f mankind. Pepper id e n t if ie d four metaphors which he b e lieved r e fle c te d th e predominant s c i e n t i f i c world view s. Sarbin (1986) uses th ese four metaphors which in clude formism, mechanicism, o rgan icism , and contextual ism, as o rg an izers fo r th e e x is tin g views o f s e l f . This typology is somewhat o f a s im p lific a tio n in regards to e x is tin g th e o r ie s , however i t does c h a ra c te riz e some o f the c e n tra l d iffe re n c e s between th e varying approaches to understanding s e lf .
Formism: The Form o f Things
According to th e world view c h a ra c te riz e d by formism, o b je c ts can be c la s s if ie d on the basis o f t h e ir p erceived forms (S a rb in , 1 9 8 6 ). Hermans & Kempen (1993) id e n t if y p e rs o n a lity t r a i t th e o rie s in which people are c la s s if ie d and compared according to psychological t r a i t s such as in te llig e n c e , aggression, a n x ie ty , shyness and so on as f a m il ia r examples o f psychological th e o rie s o f s e l f which evolve out o f formism.
Another example presented by Hermans & Kempen is th e use o f d ia g n o s tic categ o ries such as th e ones presented by the American P s y c h ia tric Association in the D ia g n o s tic and S t a t is t i c a l Manual o f Mental Disorders (DSM). These examples aim a t revealin g how peo ple's p e rs o n a lity or ch a ra cter has been formed and the in d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s th a t e x is t, using general c h a ra c te r is tic s or t r a i t s . A c e n tra l c r itic is m of t h is world view o f s e l f is th a t i t r e s t r ic t s in d iv id u a lity o f a person's p a r tic u la r s , in th a t the in d iv id u a l can not be more than a combination o f general t r a i t categ o ries (Hermans & Kempen, 1993). Hermans & Kempen argue th a t as long as th e d e s c rip tio n i s confined to t r a i t c a te g o rie s nothing w i l l be discerned about the p a r t ic u la r events o f a person's h is to ry or about the personal meaning o f a t r a i t to the person.
Mechanicism; Cause-Effect R e latio n sh ip s
Mechanism is considered to be the dominant world view in Western c i v i l i z a t i o n w ith th e machine being i t s ro o t metaphor (S arb in , 1986; Hermans & Kempen, 1 9 9 3 ). The mechanist world view sees events in nature
(and s e lf ) as r e s u ltin g from extern al s tim u la tio n . A mechanistic model o f development c h a r a c t e r is t ic a lly focuses on the ro le o f events as antecedents to vario u s response outcomes. Mechanicism regards a person as re a c tiv e to e xtern a l s tim u la tio n . Sarbin (1986 ) id e n t if ie s behaviorism and ra d ic a l empiricism as movements which ex e m p lify t h is world view. Hermans & Kempen (1993) in c lu d e th e problem so lvin g model in th is category and m aintain th a t the problem w ith mechanistic models is th a t they preclude the p o s s ib ilit y th a t the same event as an antecedent fa c to r may have q u a lit a t iv e ly d if f e r e n t meanings fo r d i f f e r e n t people. These w r ite r s provide the example o f Dohrenwend's model o f s tre s s responses, in which
th e death o f a s ig n ific a n t o th e r is defined as a s tre s s o r. For some people th e death o f a s ig n if ic a n t other may have the meaning o f a r e l i e f o f te n s io n , a consolation, or so f o r t h . The m echanistic view o f development as antecedent response f a i l s to a llo w f o r t h is in d iv id u a l v a r ia tio n .
Organicism: M aturation and Growth
The th ir d world view i s th e Organismic view , which has th e root metaphor o f an organism as opposed to a machine o r a set o f forms (S a rb in , 1 9 8 6 ). In th is world view , the components o f th e organism are seen as p a r ts o f an organized whole. The cause of change is te le o lo g ic a l in nature in th a t th e re is a g o a l-g iv in g u n ity and d ir e c tio n to the organized process o f development. Organicism is associated in philosophy w ith Hegel, and examples o f psychological th e o rie s in c lu d e Maslow's s e l f - a c tu a liz a tio n , Roger's personal growth, and developmental th e o rie s which depend upon the notion o f stages or tasks o f m a tu ra tio n . T h e o ris ts whose work r e fle c ts the organism ic view include Erikson, Havighhurst, Levinson, P ia g e t, and Kohlberg (S a rb in , 1986; Hermans & Kempen, 1 99 3). Organismic th e o rie s d i f f e r from th e o rie s derived from the m echanistic world view in t h a t they are governed by f in a l causation as opposed to e f f i c i e n t cau sation and they d e s c rib e q u a lit a t iv e changes in c o n tra s t to q u a n tit a tiv e changes (Hermans & Kempen, 199 3). A c r itic is m o f th e organism ic th e o rie s is t h a t they t y p ic a lly presume the existen ce o f a f ix e d sequence o f developmental stages o r tasks , w ith one era o r stage le a d in g in v a ria b ly to a n o th e r. In a d d itio n , many sch olars question th e u n d e rly in g ten et th a t th e same processes a re in vo lved in the same order and in th e same way fo r a l l people (Hermans & Kempen, 1993; M il le r , 1991; S u rre y , 1991 ; G illig a n , 1 9 9 1 ).
Contextualismr The H is to r ic a l Nature o f Events
The fo u rth world view is co n tex tu a l ism in which the c e n tra l element is th e h is t o r ic a l event th a t can only be understood when i t is located in the context o f tim e and space (Hermans & Kempen, 1993). H is to ry in th is sense does not n ec essa rily mean an event in the past, but ra th e r h is to ry is viewed as an attem pt to re -p re s e n t events. Sarbin (1986) describes the imagery o f th e h is to r ic a l event metaphor as th a t o f an ongoing te x tu re of m u ltip ly ela b o ra te d events, each being influenced by c o lla t e r a l episodes, and by m u ltip le actors who engage in a c tio n s . There is a constant change
in the p a tte rn s o f s itu a tio n s and in p o s itio n s occupied by a c to rs (Hermans & Kempen). In h e re n t w ith in c o n tex tu a l ism is constant change, w ith the in te g ra tio n o f co n d itio n s, events and actors a lte rin g the context fo r fu tu re events. Contextual ism views any event in the co n tex t o f other events, and presupposes a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f events in which the past, p resen t, and fu tu re form a coherent and interconnected t o t a l i t y . Contextual ism is re fle c te d h i s t o r i c a l l y in the work o f scholars such as W illia m James, John Dewey, and George Mead, and more c u r r e n tly by t h e o r is ts such as Guidano, Hermans, and Gergen.
In summary, th e four ro o t metaphors which r e f le c t the predominant s c i e n t i f i c world views are formism, mechanism, organicism , and contextual ism. Formism c la s s if ie s o b je c ts (in c lu d in g people) by general t r a i t s , types or c h a ra c te ris tic s in an a h is to ric a l manner. Mechanicism places events in jntecedent-consequent re la tio n s h ip s , where th e antecedent fu n ctio n s as th e cause. Organism, which has t r a d it io n a lly been th e most in f lu e n t ia l metaphor fo r developmental psychology (H a r te r , 1983) presupposes a p re d ic ta b le sequence o f developmental stages or tasks.
Contextual ism is s e n s itiv e to th e p a r tic u la r s o f tim e and space and h ig h lig h ts an event or experience in the context o f other events.
In co n sid ering womens' experience o f d e fin in g s e lf , many scholars have emphasized th e importance o f a model which w i l l adequately capture th e com plexity o f womens' l i f e circumstances (Belenky, e t a l , 1986; C arlsen, 1988; Josselson, 1987; M i l l e r , 1991; Peck, 1986; S u rrey, 1991). In a d d itio n , Carlson (1988) contends th a t we need a developmental model to show how c u ltu r e has shaped men and women in d iff e r in g ways. Along th is l in e , c o n s tr u c tiv is t psychologists have argued th a t con text is an e s s e n tia l element in th e development o f s e lf and one th a t is not considered in e x is tin g developmental l i t e r a t u r e (Kegan, 1982; Mahoney, 1991). Mahoney (1991) emphasizes t h a t th e meaning o f s e l f v a rie s with c u ltu re s , ages, and id e o lo g ie s . Although in Western c u ltu re s the view o f s e lf is o fte n as a s e lf-c o n ta in e d or body-bound e n t it y , research suggests th a t c u ltu r a l experiences and g e n d e r-ro le stereo typ in g o fte n e x e r t a s ig n ific a n t in flu e n c e on the development o f s e l f . With these c o n sid eratio n s in mind I have chosen con textual ism as th e ro o t metaphor th a t w i l l guide th e e x p lo ra tio n s in t h is stu d y. I b e lie v e th e th e o r e tic a l p ersp ectives th a t have evolved out o f th e world view o f c o n tex tu a l ism address th e above concerns. In review ing th e lit e r a t u r e , I have, th e re fo re focused on th e o rie s which I perceive as e v o lv in g out o f th e world view o f contextual ism, w ith p a r tic u la r emphasis on ones re le v a n t to womens' development.
Contextual Theories o f S e lf
Throughout th e 1950s th e d is c ip lin e o f psychology turned almost e x c lu s iv e ly to th e p ra c tic e o f behaviorism (Polkinghorne, 1 9 8 8 ). During
t h is reign o f behaviorism , most a tte n tio n w ith in psychology was given to "behaviors and p u b lic ly accessib le data" (Polkinghorne, 1988, p . 101). By th e 197C's however, many o f the shortcomings o f th is approach were apparent and th e d is c ip lin e o f psychology began to open i t s e l f to the in v e s tig a tio n o f c o g n itiv e processes and human experience (Polkinghorne, 1988; Mahoney, 1991; H a rte r , 1986; Schlenker, 198 5). This renewed in te re s t in human experience le d to a resurgence o f in te r e s t in the study of s e l f . A la rg e m a jo rity o f t h is in te r e s t (and the subsequent in q u iry in to s e lf ) has evolved out o f th e w orld view of contextual ism.
As described e a r l i e r , the contextual view o f s e l f places emphasis on th e notion o f th e h is t o r ic a l event. Concepts which are in te g ra l aspects o f th e contextual view in c lu d e the concepts o f tim e , space, and n a r r a tiv e . Since an understanding o f these concepts is e s s e n tia l to understanding the th e o rie s o f s e l f which evo lve out o f contextual ism, p rio r to discussing s p e c ific th e o rie s I w i l l provide a b r i e f exp lan atio n o f these concepts and th e re la tio n s h ip between them. Following t h is exp lan atio n I w il l examine th e work o f p re v a le n t scholars in the con textu al view o f s e lf . For discussion purposes, th e examination o f t h is work w ill be organized according to th e concepts o f th e d e c e n tra lize d s e l f , s e lf as polyphonic n ovel, the d ia lo g ic a l s e l f , s e l f as a process o f v a lu a tio n , and s e l f as s o c ia l being.
Time. Space and N a rra tiv e
Polkinghorne (1988) describes n a rra tiv e as th e primary form by which human experience is made m eaningful. According to Polkinghorne (1988) n a r r a tiv e is one o f th e forms o f expressiveness through which l i f e events a re jo in e d in to coh erent, meaningful, and u n ifie d themes. The events
w ith in the n a r r a tiv e are marked according to d if f e r e n t segments o f tim e . This te m p o ra lity o f human experience is punctuated not only according to one's own l i f e , but also according to one's place w ith in the longer time spans o f h is to ry and social e v o lu tio n (Polkinghorne, 1988). " N a rra tiv e is the mode of meaning co n stru ctio n t h a t d is p la y s these various experiences o f tim e" (Polkinghorne, 1988, p. 1 2 6 ).
For Ricouer (1 9 8 4 \8 6 ) tim e became m ortal as i t was a r t ic u la t e d through n a r r a tiv e . N a rra tiv e tim e is not analogous to the t r a d it io n a l view o f tim e which represents tim e as a succession o f "nows". R ather, as Polkinghorne (1988) describes, n a r r a tiv e corresponds w ith A u gustin e's suggestion (which was la t e r accepted by Heidegger) t h a t the present i s not a s in g u la r notion but ra th e r a th re e fo ld one. Present includes "a present about th e f u tu r e — e x p e c ta tio n ; a present about th e past— memory; and a present about the p rese n t— a tte n tio n " (Polkinghorne, 1998, p. 1 2 9 ). In n a r r a tiv e , tim e is a m u ltip le s tru c tu re of th e th re e fo ld present ( C r it e s , 1986; Polkinghorne, 1988).
An e s s e n tia l fe a tu re o f any n a r r a tiv e is emplotment. Through emplotment events a re constructed and interconnected in such a way th a t meaningful s tru c tu re s are developed (Hermans & Kempen, 1993). In c o n tra s t to c h ro n icles where events a re c h ro n o lo g ic a lly ordered, n a rra tiv e s have many ways o f combining events and t h e ir r e la tio n s , and i t is in the combination o f events th a t n a rra tiv e s m anifest t h e i r coherence (Polkinghorne, 1 9 8 8 ). "A s to ry is made out o f events, to th e e x te n t th a t p lo t makes events in to a s to ry " (P o lkinghorne, 1988, p. 1 3 1 ).
The employment o f n a r r a tiv e as root metaphor o f s e lf is founded in the work o f W illia m James. James (c ite d in Hermans & Kempen, 1993)
id e n t if ie d the terms I and Me as the two main components of s e l f . The I was equal to th e se lf-a s -k n o w e r and was seen as continuously organ izing and in te rp re tin g experience in a s u b je c tiv e manner. For James, the Me was th e em pirical s e l f th a t describes a l l th a t the person can c a ll h is or her own, inclu d in g body, c lo th e s , house, fa m ily , re p u ta tio n and so fo r th . A fe a tu re th a t d is tin g u is h e d James from Descartes was th e in clu sio n of th e body as p a rt o f the s e l f . The I can never be d issolved from the Me, and consequently, th e I cannot be thought o f as sep arate from the body. Another e s s e n tia l aspect o f James' theory was th e view o f s e lf as extended toward th e environment.
B u ildin g on James' work, Sarbin (1986) tra n s la te d the I-M e d is tin c tio n in to a n a r r a tiv e framework. Sarbin contends the I stands f o r th e au th o r, and th e Me f o r th e a c to r or n a r r a tiv e fig u r e . With the s e lf as author, the I can im a g in a tiv e ly construct a s to ry in which the Me is th e a c to r. Polkinghorne (1988) describes the approach to th e s e lf as n a rra tiv e or s to ry , as s h if tin g from focusing on one's id e n t it y as an underlying substance o f sameness (What am I? ) to focusing on the process o f a c tu a liz in g what is p o t e n t ia lly possible in o n e's l i f e (Who am I ? ) . In a N a rra tiv e framework, th e experience o f s e l f is organized along the temporal dimension in th e same manner th a t the events o f a n a rra tiv e are organized by th e p lo t in to a u n ifie d s to ry (P olkinghorne, 1988).
The s e lf is th a t temporal order o f human e x isten ce whose story begins w ith b i r t h , has as i t s middle the episodes o f a life s p a n , and ends w ith death. I t is th e p lo t th a t gathers together these events in to a coherent and meaningful u n ity , and thereby gives co n text and s ig n ific a n c e to th e c o n trib u tio n
t h a t th e in d iv id u a l episodes make toward th e o v e ra ll c o n fig u ra tio n t h a t is th e person. (Polkinghorne, 1988, p. 1 5 2 ).
The s e l f as n a r r a tiv e p e rs p e c tiv e views con text as an e s s e n tia l aspect o f s e l f . As Polkinghorne describes, th e p lo t o f a normal s e l f is bound by the events and environment in which a person liv e s and expresses him or her s e l f , as w e ll as the im agin ative p o s s ib il it ie s . One does not simply a c t out a p lo t b u t, r a th e r , the s e l f - p l o t gathers in to s ig n ific a n c e a l l o f the events, a c c id e n ts , org an ic or s o c ia l given s, and unintended consequences as w ell as personal m otivation (P olkinghorne, 1 9 8 8 ). Because the p lo t is context bound, and because contexts are always changing, new p lo ts or changes in e x is tin g p lo ts w ith in the n a r r a tiv e c o n tin u a lly emerge
(Hermans & Kempen, 1 9 9 3 ).
The concepts o f tim e , space, and n a r r a tiv e are th e b u ild in g blocks o f most th e o rie s w ith in th e contextual world view . The th e o rie s th a t I w i l l d es crib e w ith in the con textual world view o f s e l f evolve out o f and in te g r a te these ideas. For discussion purposes, the exam ination of these th e o rie s w il l be organized according to the concepts o f the d e c e n tra liz e d s e l f , s e l f as polyphonic novel, the d ia lo g ic a l s e l f , s e l f as a process o f v a lu a tio n , and s e lf as s o c ia l being.
Theories o f The D e c e n tra lize d S e lf
Hermans & Kempen (1993) m ain tain th a t a n a r r a tiv e approach to s e l f r e s u lts in th e d e c e n tra liz a tio n o f th e s e lf . Whereas Descartes supposed a h ig h ly c e n tra liz e d ego in f u l l c o n tro l o f i t s own thoughts, recent t h e o r is ts w ith in the co n tex tu a l world view conceive o f s e l f as fu n ctio n in g as a m u l t i p li c i t y o f voices (B a k h tin , 1984; Hermans, R ijk s , & Kempen,
1993; Markus & Wurf, 1987; M a rtin d a le , 1980; McAdams, 1985b). The n a r r a tiv e s e l f is a d e c e n tra lize d m u l t i p li c i t y o f d iv e rg e n t and even opposed ch aracters t h a t are re la te d to one another in a d ia lo g ic a l way (Hermans, R ijk s & Kempen, 1993).
T h is view o f a complex, m u ltifa c e te d s e l f is in keeping w ith the views o f th e American pragm atists in c lu d in g John Dewey, John P ie rc e , W illia m James, and George Mead. C urrent authors who tra n s c rib e to t h is view in clu d e Gergen (1972) who proposes th a t the s e lf is a c o lle c tio n of masks each o f which a re tie d to a p a r t ic u la r set o f s o c ial circum stances. S im ila r ly , Markus & Nurius (1986) describe th e presence o f possib le selves th a t a re d i f f e r e n t i a l l y a c tiv a te d by th e s o c ia l s itu a tio n and determine the n atu re o f th e working s e lf-c o n c e p t. "Possible selves are represented in th e same way as th e here-and-now s e l f (im a g in a i, semantic) and can be viewed as c o g n itiv e bridges between th e present and fu tu re , s p e c ify in g how in d iv id u a ls may change from how they are not to what they w i l l become" (Markus & N u rius, 1986, p. 9 6 1 ). These w rite r s argue th a t th e in te rn a l e x isten ce o f these p o ssib le selves e x p lain s th e frequent lack o f agreement between in d iv id u a ls ' s e lf-p e rc e p tio n s and how they are viewed by o th e rs , since these p o s sib le selves a re only known to o n e s e lf.
C o inciding w ith Gergen and Markus & N u rius, M air (1977) describes the notio n o f s e l f as a community o f s e lv e s . M air suggests th a t people in co rp o rate any number o f se lv e s , some o f which p e r s is t and others which may be t r a n s it o r y .
McAdams (1985) conceived th e s e l f as composed o f a number o f imagoes, id e a liz e d and p e rs o n ifie d images o f s e l f th a t fu n ctio n as main ch aracters in an a d u lt 's l i f e s to r y . For McAdams th e s tru c tu re o f id e n t it y is a s to ry
complete w ith s e ttin g , scenes, c h a ra c te rs , p lo t , and re c u rre n t themes. I d e n t it y form ation is th e process o f co n s tru c tin g a s e lf-d e fin in g s to ry . The main characters in th e s to ry are imagoes. McAdams' imago is s im ila r to Jung's archetype, and in te r e s tin g ly data from th e study o f 50 men and women a t m id life pro vid e support f o r Jung's notion th a t archetypes (or imagoes) are o fte n arranged in the s e l f as a p a ir o f opposites and th a t th e in te g r a tio n o f these opposites is a h allm a rk o f m a tu rity in s e l f development.
Sampson (1985) provides an in te r e s tin g discussion o f d e c e n tra liz e d personhood in clu d in g th e notion o f d e c e n tra liz e d governance o f s e l f . Using the analogy o f the d e c e n tra lize d governance o f nonstate communities, Sampson argues th a t in the d e c e n tra liz e d s e l f each person's many aspects are not fragmented and distanced from one another or h ie r a r c h ic a lly ordered on b e h a lf o f a r u lin g c e n te r, but remain in f u l l interconnectedness and communication. Sampson emphasizes, however, th a t order ra th e r than chaos emerges only when th e re is an expanded interconnectedness among elements t h a t need not be h ie r a r c h ic a lly ruled once they become aware o f t h e i r in te r r e la tio n s h ip s .
S e lf as Polyphonic Novel
The d e c e n tra liz a tio n o f s e lf is fu r th e r expanded by M ik h a il Bakhtin (1 9 2 9 /1 9 8 4 ). B a k h tin 's book "Problems o f Dostoevsky's Po etics" provides a s ig n ific a n t c o n trib u tio n to understanding th e nature o f the d e c e n tra liz e d s e l f (Hermans & Kempen, 1993). Bakhtin described Dostoevsky's c re a tio n of a polyphonic n o v e l.T h e c e n tra l c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f th e polyphonic novel is th a t i t is composed o f a number o f independent and unmerged voices and consciousnesses, ch a ra cters not illu m in a te d by a s in g le a u th o ria l
consciousness or merged in th e u n ity o f a s in g le event. Rather, Dostoevsky's c h a ra c te rs embody independent and m utually opposing view poin ts, a l l o f which are engaged in d ia lo g ic a l re la tio n s h ip s . In th e polyphonic novel th e re is not one s in g le a u th o r, but several authors or th in k e rs , each having h is /h e r own voice and t e l l i n g h is /h e r own s to ry .
For Bakhtin th e idea o f dialogue opens th e p o s s ib ilit y to c h a ra c te rize th e in n er world o f a person as an in te rp erso n al r e la tio n s h ip . As Hermans & Kempen (1993 ) describe "by transform ing an inner thought o f a p a r tic u la r c h a ra c te r in to an u tte ra n c e , d ia lo g ic a l r e la tio n s spontaneously occur between t h is u tteran ce and th e u tteran ce o f imaginai others" (p . 4 1 ).
Hermans & Kempen (1993) m aintain th a t th e metaphor of the polyphonic novel expands on the n a r r a tiv e conception o f I as author and Me as a c to r by going one step f a r t h e r than S a rb in 's notion o f the s e lf -n a r r a tiv e as a s in g le author. The conception o f the s e l f as a polyphonic novel perm its the person to l i v e in a m u lt ip lic it y o f worlds w ith each world having i t s own author t e l l i n g a s to ry r e la t iv e ly independent o f the authors o f the other worlds (Hermans & Kempen, 1993).
In the polyphonic tra n s la tio n o f the s e l f th e re is not an overarching I o rg an izin g the c o n s titu e n ts o f the Me. In stead , th e s p a tia l c h a ra c te r o f the polyphonic novel leads to the supposition o f a d e c e n tra lize d m u l t i p li c i t y o f I p o s itio n s th a t fu n c tio n l i k e r e la t iv e ly independent authors, t e l l i n g t h e ir s to r ie s about t h e i r resp ective Me's as a c to rs . The I moves, in an im aginai space, from th e one to the other
