Organizational culture, organizational citizenship behavior and human values

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Organizational Culture, Organizational Citizenship Behavior and

Human Values

Master thesis

Business Studies – Strategy Track

June 23, 2014 Final version

Authored by: Liza Willemijn van As Student number: 10565167

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the process of writing this thesis. They provided valuable feedback and suggestions that contributed to this final version. I would like to thank Jill for the good cooperation and Iris, Fleur, and Karlijn for their suggestions and moral support. I would also like to thank my friends and family for their help with collecting the data. Finally, I would like to thank my father, brother, sister and especially my mother, for their moral support and believing in me during my entire study.

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Abstract

The purpose of this thesis is to extend the current research on behavioral strategy. An important form of contribution employees make to the organization is called organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). Therefore, managers should try to encourage this behavior. In this study, the influence of different organizational culture types on OCB will be investigated. The Competing Values Framework of Cameron & Quinn (2011) is used to categorize four different organizational culture types: clan culture, adhocracy culture, market culture, and hierarchical culture, which are expected to have different influences on OCB. Furthermore, the moderating effect of individual differences regarding human values is investigated using the value theory of Schwartz (1994). Data is collected through an online survey. As expected by the literature, the results showed that organizational culture indeed influences employees’ OCB. Clan and adhocracy culture positively influence OCB, and market culture negatively influence OCB. No significant support has been found that hierarchical culture negatively influence OCB. Furthermore, the results of this thesis showed no support for the moderation effect of human values on the relationship between organizational culture and OCB.

Key words: Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) , Organizational culture, Competing

Values Framework, Clan culture, Adhocracy culture, Market culture, Hierarchical culture, Human values, Social value orientation (SVO), Self-transcendence, Self-enhancement, Openness to change.

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1 Introduction

Over the past decades, the importance of human capital within organizations has been more and more acknowledged (Coff, 1997). Organizations consist of individuals and can’t survive without their employees (Felin & Foss, 2005). In order for an organization to create value, its employees should be motivated to leverage the organizations’ resources (Bridoux, Coeurderoy, & Durand, 2011). Therefore, to maintain and increase organizational performance, employees and their underlying natures, choices, heterogeneity, expectations, and motivations should be considered (Felin & Foss, 2005).

An important form of contribution that employees make to the organization is called organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). OCB has been defined by Organ (1997) as: “A contribution to the maintenance and enhancement of the social and psychological context that supports task performance” (p.91). OCB has a positive effect on various organizational and individual outcomes, and it enhances organizational effectiveness (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000; Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, & Blume, 2009). Therefore, OCB is very important for an organization and managers should try to encourage this behavior (Podsakoff et al., 2009).

Task characteristics, individual characteristics, and leadership behaviors have been well established as antecedents of OCB in the literature (Podsakoff et al., 2000). However, the effects of organizational characteristics, such as the effect of organizational culture on organizational citizenship behavior, is still unclear. Firms differ regarding their organizational culture and organizational culture can influence or guide behavior of employees (Ravasi & Schultz, 2006; Schein, 1985). Only some dimensions of organizational culture have been researched in relation with OCB. In this study, the influence of different types of organizational culture on OCB will be investigated. The Competing Values Framework of

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Cameron & Quinn (2011) is used to categorize four different organizational culture types, that are expected to have different influences on OCB.

The strategy field has recently started paying attention to the fact that there are individual differences, which can influence the contribution of employees to organizations’ performance (Fehr & Gintis, 2007; Felin & Foss, 2005), in particular with regard to personality and human values (Bridoux et al., 2011). In this study individual differences regarding human values are considered. Differences in human values have been studied in relation to OCB (Arthaud-Day, Rode, & Turnley, 2012; Moorman & Blakely, 1995; Rioux & Penner, 2001). Furthermore, research has shown that different personalities will lead to different preferences for organizational culture and differences in human values will lead to different preferences in social relations (Bridoux & Stoelhorst, 2013; Judge & Cable, 1997). It is therefore reasonable to expect that, human values have a moderating effect on the relationship between organizational culture and OCB. This moderating effect has not been investigated in the literature and will be investigated in this study in order to make a contribution to the literature.

Thus, this research investigates the relationship between organizational culture and OCB, and the moderating effect of human values on this relationship. This is investigated by using an online survey. Investigating what type of culture motivates employees to perform OCB is essential. It can help managers creating a culture where OCB is stimulated and this may increase organizational performance. Furthermore, this research contributes to a better understanding of individual differences, the fit between human values and the organizational culture, and the effect on employees’ OCB.

This thesis is structured as follows. In the next chapter a literature review is given of OCB, organizational culture, and human values. Thereafter, the research question is specified,

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followed by the theoretical framework and hypothesis. Then, the research design and the results are presented. Finally, the discussion and conclusion of this study are given.

2 Literature Review

This chapter describes the current state of the literature of the different concepts used in this research. First, the literature of the concept Organizational Citizenship Behavior is explained and reviewed, followed by the concept organizational culture and human values.

2.1 Organizational citizenship behavior

2.1.1 What is OCB?

The contribution of employees to the organization as a whole can be referred to as individual job performance, which is more than just completing task requirements (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). More importantly, it incorporates organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). Originally, OCB has been defined by Organ (1988) as: “individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization”(p. 4). This definition of Organ received some criticism (Organ, 1997). First of all it has been criticized, because the definition describes OCB as discretionary, or OCB is seen as an extra role behavior. However, managers and employees find it difficult to recognize distinction between in-role and citizenship behavior (Podsakoff et al., 2000). Secondly, the original definition describes that OCB is not recognized by the formal reward system. This is criticized, because OCB is indirectly rewarded and sometimes seen as in-role behavior (Organ, 1997; Podsakoff et al., 2000). This means OCB is sometimes rewarded by the formal reward system (Organ, 1997; Podsakoff et al., 2000).

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Organ (1997) recognizes the limitations of his first definition and describes that OCB is more in line with the construct, contextual performance, defined by Borman & Motowidlo (1993) as: “behaviors that do not support the technical core itself so much as they support the broader organizational, social, and psychological environment in which the technical core must function” (p. 73). Therefore, Organ (1997) redefined his definition of organizational citizenship behavior as: “a contribution to the maintenance and enhancement of the social and psychological context that supports task performance” (p.91). In this thesis the last definition of OCB is used, because the boundaries are better defined. Although this definition is used, it is important to keep in mind the first definition. Especially, because by discretionary Organ means that OCB is a personal choice (Organ, 1988). So, OCB is not obligated, but it is an employee’s choice to perform by this behavior within an organization.

2.1.2 Outcomes of OCB

OCB is important, because it has a positive effect on various individual and organizational outcomes (Podsakoff et al., 2000; Podsakoff et al., 2009). On individual level, Lefkowitz (2000) argues that managers like employees more who perform OCB. Furthermore, OCB has been found to have a positive effect on the rating of employees’ performance by managers and the reward managers allocate to employees (Podsakoff et al., 2009). For example, employees who engage more in OCB have been found to receive more promotion (Allen, 2006). Moreover, OCB has been found to be negatively related to employee turnover and absenteeism (Mossholder, Settoon, & Henagan, 2005; Podsakoff et al., 2009). On the organizational level, OCB has been showed to have a positive effect on customer satisfaction (Podsakoff et al., 2009; Walz & Niehoff, 2000). Furthermore, OCB has a positive effect on various organizational effectiveness measures such as: profitability, efficiency, and productivity (Koys, 2001; Podsakoff et al., 2009; Walz & Niehoff, 2000).

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Motivating and encouraging employees in OCB is very important and can enhance organizational effectiveness (Podsakoff et al., 2009). OCB not only increases the organizations performance, it also has positive influences on the individual level. This is why the organization should stimulate such behavior. Thus, the question is how employees can be driven and encouraged to engage in OCB.

2.1.3 The antecedents of OCB

Many studies have been done on the antecedents of OCB, and four major categories of antecedents have been identified (Podsakoff et al., 2000). First, task characteristics are related to OCB. Among which, autonomy, task identity, task significance, feedback, and routinization have been found to have a significant effect on OCB (Chen & Chiu, 2009; Podsakoff et al., 2000; Van Dyne, Graham, & Dienesch, 1994). Secondly, leadership behavior is important in explaining OCB. For example, forms of transformational and transactional leadership have a direct and positive effect on OCB (Podsakoff et al., 2000). Thirdly, individual characteristics such as employee satisfaction, commitment, and perception of fairness have shown to have a significant effect on OCB (Organ & Ryan, 1995; Van Dyne et al., 1994). In particular, personality traits, such as agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to change, and extraversion, have been researched and found to have an effect on OCB (Chiaburu, Oh, Berry, Li, & Gardner, 2011; Ilies, Fulmer, Spitzmuller, & Johnson, 2009). So, the literature suggests that employees are encouraged and driven by task, leadership, and individual characteristics to perform OCB.

In contrast to the first three categories, the effects of organizational characteristics on OCB have not yet been researched extendedly. The influence of organizational characteristics on OCB appears to have a somewhat mixed outcome (Podsakoff et al., 2000). For example, group cohesion and organizational support positively relate to OCB, while organizational formalization, organizational inflexibility, staff support, and spatial distance from the leader

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are not consistently related to OCB (Podsakoff et al., 2000). Thus, organizational characteristics should be further investigated in relation to OCB.

According to Somech & Drach-Zahavy (2004), OCB is a context related phenomenon, which indicates that organizations differ in the way OCB is performed by their employees. George and Jones (1997) argued that organizational context can influence spontaneous behavior. For instance, organizational structure, culture, policies, and reward systems. Some of these contexts have been researched empirically in relation to OCB. Organizational structure has been researched in relation to OCB. DeGroot and Brownlee (2006) found that when the amount of structure decreases, the presence of OCB increases. So, organic structural departments lead to higher OCB than mechanic structural departments. However, surprisingly they could not find highly significant effects on OCB. A reason for this could be that they researched the mediating relationship of OCB between structure and department effectiveness. However, in a mechanic structure other factors could be more important for effectiveness than OCB (DeGroot & Brownlee, 2006). In line with these findings Raub (2008) found a negative relationship between centralized organizational structure and employees OCB. Somech and Drach-Zahavy (2004) researched the relation between organizational learning and OCB. They found that the structure of organizational learning positively affects OCB. The structure of organizational learning establishes organizational decentralization and flexibility (Somech & Drach‐Zahavy, 2004).

Another dimension of organizational context that is empirically researched is culture. Somech and Drach-Zahavy (2004) found that the learning values embed in organizational culture have a positive effect on OCB. This is related to the findings of Jo and Joo (2011), who showed that a learning organizational culture is significantly associated with OCB. Besides organizational culture, some authors have researched the occurrence of OCB in relation to the national culture (Kwantes, Karam, Kuo, & Towson, 2008; Paine & Organ,

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2000). They argue that OCB differs across countries. Besides, Paine and Organ (2000) suggested that cultural dimensions, such as individualism-collectivism, and power distance, influence OCB. For example, the cultural dimension collectivism is positively related to OCB, and individualism is negatively related to OCB (Somech & Ron, 2007).

While earlier research suggested a relationship between organizational characteristics (e.g. structure, culture) and the occurrence of OCB (George & Jones, 1997; Paine & Organ, 2000; Somech & Drach‐Zahavy, 2004), the effects of organizational culture on these behaviors have not yet been explored extensively. In the literature, only a few dimensions of organizational culture are related to OCB. That is why further research is needed on more dimensions and different cultures in relation to OCB. Therefore, the present study will further investigate the influence of organizational culture on the participation of employees in OCB. This can assist managers to motivate their employees in OCB by designing the culture of an organization in a specific way.

2.2 Organization culture

2.2.1 What is organizational culture ?

Organizational culture is a very broad and comprehensive concept and it covers an ambiguous, complex, wide set of factors (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). It has been defined in many ways. Organizational culture is defined by Schein (1985) as “a set of values, beliefs, and assumptions that are shared by members of the organization” (p.11). Denison (1996) adds to this definition that “organizational culture refers to the deep structure of an organization”. In this study, a more recent definition of Ravasi and Schultz (2006) will be used, because this definition also incorporates the effects an organizational culture can have. Ravasi and Schultz (2006) defined organizational culture as “a set of shared mental assumptions that guide interpretation and action in organizations by defining appropriate

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behavior for various situations”(p.437). So, according to this definition there is a relationship between organizational culture and the behavior of organizational members. In other words, organizational culture can influence or guide behavior of employees (Ravasi & Schultz, 2006; Schein, 1985).

2.2.2 Competing Values Framework

In the present research, the Competing Value Framework (CVF) of Cameron and Quinn (2011) is used in order to categorize different organizational culture types. CVF was originally developed through research on organizational effectiveness (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Other organizational characteristics are also included within the different culture types of the CVF, such as organizational design, organizational structure, organizational quality, effectiveness, and leadership (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). This framework is used, because it has been found to have empirical validity, it integrates many dimensions of culture found in the literature and the CVF is a widely used framework in current literature (Cameron & Quinn, 2011).

The CVF rests on two dimensions. The first dimension is flexibility versus stability, which differentiates flexibility, discretion, and dynamism from stability, order, and control. The second dimension is the orientation, which differentiates internal-oriented, integration, and unity from external-oriented, differentiation, and rivalry. These two dimensions form four dominant organizational culture types; clan, adhocracy, market, and hierarchy culture (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). In Figure 1 the four cultures of the CVF are displayed.

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Figure 1. Competing Values Framework (Cameron & Quinn, 2011) Clan culture

The clan culture, also called group culture, has a flexible structure and an internal focus (Cameron & Quinn, 2011; Hartnell, Ou, & Kinicki, 2011). A clan organization has similarities with a family-type organization and collaboration is very important (Cameron & Quinn, 2011; Hartnell et al., 2011). In this culture there is a concern for human relations and therefore, core values are: belonging, trust, and participation (Denison & Spreitzer, 1991). The typical behavior associated with this culture is teamwork, participation, involvement, and open communication (Cameron & Quinn, 2011; Hartnell et al., 2011). This culture type is predicted to have a positive relationship with employee satisfaction, commitment, and loyalty (Hartnell et al., 2011).

Adhocracy culture

An adhocracy culture, also called developmental culture, has a flexible organizational structure and there is an external focus (Cameron & Quinn, 2011; Hartnell et al., 2011). It is called adhocracy, because ad hoc implies something temporary, specialized, and dynamic (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Adhocracy culture is a dynamic, entrepreneurial, and creative workplace (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). The behaviors associated with this culture are risk

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taking, creativity, and adaptability (Hartnell et al., 2011). The effectiveness outcome and goal of this culture type is innovation, development of new markets, and resource acquisition (Denison & Spreitzer, 1991; Hartnell et al., 2011).

Market culture

In a market culture, also called rational culture, there is an external focus, the organizational structure is stable, and it has a lot of control mechanisms (Cameron & Quinn, 2011; Hartnell et al., 2011). In this type of culture, an organization functions as a market itself and its main goal is to compete (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). It emphasizes productivity, performance, goal fulfillment, and achievement (Denison & Spreitzer, 1991). Behaviors associated with this culture are planning, task focus, centralized decision making, and articulation of clear goals (Hartnell et al., 2011).

Hierarchical culture

A hierarchical culture has an organizational structure which is driven by control mechanisms and stability. The focus in such organizations is internal (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). This culture type is based on Max Weber’s work and the attributes of bureaucracy; rules, specialization, hierarchy, separate ownership, meritocracy, impersonality, and accountability (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). The core assumptions are that stability, control, and predictability will lead to efficiency and secondly, formal rules and policies will keep the organization together (Cameron & Quinn, 2011; Hartnell et al., 2011).

2.2.3 Organizational culture and OCB

The culture types of Competing Values Framework (CVF) are significantly related to organizational effectiveness (Hartnell et al., 2011). In particular, Hartnell et al. (2011) found that a clan culture has a significant stronger positive relationship with employee attitudes, such as job satisfaction and commitment, than a market culture or an adhocracy culture. Lund (2003) found that job satisfaction is negative related to a market culture and a hierarchical

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culture, and that it is positive related to a clan culture and an adhocracy culture. This indicates that employees have a different attitude in different culture types. Furthermore, the different culture types all stimulate different behaviors or, in other words: different organizational cultures have different effects on employee behavior. This is in line with the research mentioned earlier that suggests a relationship between organizational culture and the occurrence of OCB (George & Jones, 1997; Paine & Organ, 2000; Somech & Drach‐Zahavy, 2004). Therefore, it can be expected that different organizational cultures, as captured with the CVF instrument, will also differ in the degree to which organizational citizenship behavior occur among employees. That is why the present study will investigate whether the four distinguished culture types of the CVF have different effects on OCB.

Furthermore, the strategy field has recently started paying attention to the fact that there are individual differences, which can influence the contribution of employees to organizations’ performance (Fehr & Gintis, 2007; Felin & Foss, 2005), in particular with regard to personality and human values (Bridoux et al., 2011). Individual differences should thus be incorporated in the study of the relationship between organizational culture and OCB. More specifically, on the basis of the previous research on human values, which will be presented in the next section, it is expected that human values have a moderating effect on the relationship between organizational culture and OCB. In other words, this study aims to examine whether some individual characteristics either strengthen or weaken the effect of organizational culture on OCB.

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2.3 Individual differences in human values

2.3.1 Human values

Individuals differ in their human values. A value according to Schwartz (1994) is a “(1) belief (2) pertaining to desirable end states or modes of conduct, that (3) transcends specific situations, (4) guides selection or evaluation of behavior, people, and events, and (5) is ordered by importance relative to other values to form a system of value priorities“ (p.20). Values give insights in the underlying motivation why people behave in a certain way (Schwartz, 1994). So, values have an effect on behavior, for example cooperative behavior and OCB (Arthaud-Day et al., 2012; De Cremer & Van Vugt, 1999).

The human values that are mostly used within the literature are part of the social value orientation. Social value orientation is an individual preferences in patterns of distribution of resources and/or outcome for oneself and others (McClintock, 1972; Messick & McClintock, 1968). Meanly, individuals can be classified as self-regarding (pro-self, individualistic) or reciprocators (pro-social, collectivisms). Self-regarding individuals are motivated by their own outcome and will behave so as to maximize their own outcome (Fehr & Gintis, 2007). Reciprocators are motivated by the outcome of the self, others, and the equality and/or fairness of the outcome distribution and will behave accordingly (De Cremer & Van Lange, 2001).

In this thesis the value theory of Schwartz (1994) is used to capture individual differences in human values. Schwartz identified ten values that are shared by people from different cultures and countries. The ten values are power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security (Schwartz, 1994). Table 1 gives the definition of the values and their related value type.

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Table 1. Definition values and value type (Schwartz, 1994)

Value Definition value (Schwartz, 1994)(p.22) Value type

Power “Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources.”

Self-enhancement Achievement “Personal success through demonstrating competence according to

social standards.”

Hedonism “Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself. “

Openness to change Stimulation “Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.”

Self-direction “independent through action-choosing, creating, exploring.”

Universalism “Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the

welfare of all people and for nature.” Self-transcendence Benevolence Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom

one is in frequent personal contact.”

Tradition “Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture or religion provide.”

Conservation Conformity “Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or

harm others and violate social expectations or norms.”

Security “Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationship, and self. “

The ten lower-level values are classified in four higher-level value types: self-transcendence, self-enhancement, openness to change, and conservation, see Table 1. transcendence’ and self-enhancement are values from the social value orientation. Self-transcendence is related to reciprocity, and consists of values emphasizing acceptance of others as equal, and concern for others’ welfare. The opposite is self-enhancement, which is related to being self-regarding, and consists of values emphasizing pursuit of one’s own relative success, and dominance over others (Schwartz, 1994). Values from the value type openness to change emphasizes own independent thought, action, and values favoring change. The opposite, conservation, emphasizes protection of stability, submissive self-restriction, and preservation of traditional practices (Schwartz, 1994).

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2.3.2 Human values, OCB and organizational culture

Individual personality differences have already been researched in relation to OCB. Research has found that different individual personality traits influence organizational citizenship behavior (Chiaburu et al., 2011; Ilies et al., 2009). For example, personality traits of the big five (e.g. agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion, and openness to experience) are shown to be positively related to OCB (Chiaburu et al., 2011; Ilies et al., 2009). Differences in human values have also been studied in relation to OCB (Arthaud-Day et al., 2012; Moorman & Blakely, 1995; Rioux & Penner, 2001). Moorman and Blakely (1995) found that collectivism (self-transcendence) positively relates to performance of OCB. Arthaud-Day et al. (2012) found that the values benevolence, conformity, achievement, and self-direction positively predicted OCB.

In addition, different personalities will lead to different preferences for organizational culture (Gardner, Reithel, Cogliser, Walumbwa, & Foley, 2012; Judge & Cable, 1997). In particular, Bridoux and Stoelhorst (2013) argue in a theoretical piece that individuals prefer a particular type of social relationships as a function of their own social value orientation. The culture types of Cameron and Quinn (2011) are related to the relationships Bridoux and Stoelhorst (2013) use, because they have similar characteristics. Employees who score high on self-transcendence prefer equality matching relationships (Bridoux & Stoelhorst, 2013), which is a type of relationships that can be related to the clan culture. Employees high on self-enhancement prefer market-pricing relationships (Bridoux & Stoelhorst, 2013), which is a type of relationships that can be related to the market culture. Finally, employees with high value power will have a preference for authority ranking relationships (Bridoux & Stoelhorst, 2013), which can be related to a hierarchical culture. Therefore there can be concluded that, individuals with different value orientation have different preferences for organizational culture.

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On the basis of the empirical findings that individual value orientation influences OCB, and the theoretical arguments that human values influence preferences for different types of organizational culture, it is expected in this study that human values influences the relationship between organizational culture and OCB. However, this moderating effect of human values on the relationship between organization culture and OCB has not yet been researched. Therefore, this thesis will make a contribution to the literature by investigating this moderating effect.

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2.4 Research gap and research question

The literature review shows that although much research has been done on the antecedents of OCB, the impact of organizational culture types has not yet been researched extensively. Furthermore, research is needed on how individual differences and organizational culture interact to affect OCB. Therefore, this thesis investigates the relationship between different organizational cultures and OCB and the moderating effect of different human values on this relationship.

This thesis defines the following research questions:

1. Is organizational culture related to individual organizational citizenship behavior? 2. Do individual human values moderate the relationship between organizational

culture and OCB?

Answering these questions will help managers to better understand and respond to individual differences in preferences for organizational culture and its impact on individuals’ motivation to perform OCB. It helps an organization influence organizational effectiveness by changing the culture in such a way that it has a positive influence on OCB. Furthermore, by knowing what the effects of individual differences are, a manager can use this knowledge in the hiring procedure. The manager can decide to hire employees with the human values that matches the organizational culture and, therefore, increase OCB and increase organizational effectiveness.

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3 Theoretical framework

This chapter contains the theoretical framework of this research. First, the relationship between the independent variable, four different culture types, the dependendent variable, and OCB is explored. Subsequently, the moderating effect of human values is explored and the related hyphoteses are developed. In Figure 2 the conceptual model is given and the relationships between the variables are presented.

Figure 2: Conceptual model

3.1 Culture types and OCB

3.1.1 Clan culture and OCB

It seems reasonable to expect that, clan culture has a positive relationship with organizational citizenship behavior. A flexible and decentralized structure has been found to be positively related to OCB in various literature (DeGroot & Brownlee, 2006; Raub, 2008; Somech & Drach‐Zahavy, 2004). The clan culture has a flexible structure and can be seen as an organic organization. Therefore, the clan culture will stimulate OCB (Cameron & Quinn, 2011).

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Furthermore, employee satisfaction and commitment have been found to be antecedents of OCB and positively influence OCB (Organ & Ryan, 1995; Van Dyne et al., 1994). Typical behavior associated with clan culture is collaboration, teamwork, involvement, and participation (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Within a clan culture there is an internal orientation and it is positively related to employee satisfaction and commitment, and therefore motivates OCB (Hartnell et al., 2011). A clan culture can also be seen as a collectivism culture, because collectivism characterizes a tight social framework and people will subordinate their interests to the goals of their group (Paine & Organ, 2000; Somech & Ron, 2007). Behavior within a collectivism culture includes cooperation, group welfare, and harmony which are related to the clan culture (Somech & Ron, 2007). Collectivism has been found to have a positive relationship with OCB (Moorman & Blakely, 1995; Somech & Ron, 2007). Within the clan culture it is stimulated to promote the welfare of the group. OCB contributes to this welfare of the group, and therefore a clan culture stimulates this behavior (Somech & Ron, 2007). These various arguments lead to my expectation that a clan culture positively influences employee organizational citizenship behavior.

Hypothesis 1A: The more clan-oriented an organizational culture is, the higher the level of organizational citizenship behavior

3.1.2 Adhocracy culture and OCB

An adhocracy culture is a very dynamic, creative, and entrepreneurial culture (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Organizations with an adhocracy culture have a flexible, organic organizational structure (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). An organizational structure which is flexible and organic are positively related to OCB (DeGroot & Brownlee, 2006; Raub, 2008; Somech & Drach‐Zahavy, 2004). In an adhocracy organization creativity and adaptability is encouraged (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). It is estimated that this adhocracy culture also encourages individual initiative, which is a form of OCB (Podsakoff et al., 2000). Leaders in

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this culture type tend to be idealistic, entrepreneurial, and able to develop a vision for the future (Denison, 1990). Articulating a vision by leaders has been found to be positively related to OCB (Podsakoff et al., 2000). Furthermore, job satisfaction has also been found to be an antecedent of OCB (Organ & Ryan, 1995; Van Dyne et al., 1994). An adhocracy culture is positively related to job satisfaction, and therefore will stimulate OCB (Lund, 2003). Jo and Joo (2011) found that a learning organizational culture is significantly associated with OCB. An organization with an adhocracy culture is related to a learning culture, where organizational learning is emphasized and teamwork, collaboration, creativity, and knowledge processes are important (Jo & Joo, 2011). Because of these various studies, I expect that adhocracy culture positively relates to OCB.

Hypothesis 1B: The more adhocracy-oriented an organizational culture is, the higher the level of organizational citizenship behavior

3.1.3 Market culture and OCB

It seems reasonable that market culture negatively relates to OCB, because the structure of an organization with a market-oriented culture is stable and has a lot of control mechanisms (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Raub (2008) found that centralization and stable structure have a negative effect on OCB. Market culture is oriented toward the external environment and there is a result-oriented workplace where competitiveness and productivity are core values (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). A market culture can be seen as an individualistic culture, where the belief is that clear goals and contingent reward motivates employees to perform, there is a loosely knit of social framework, and people are expected to take care of themselves (Hartnell et al., 2011; Paine & Organ, 2000). Individualism is negatively related to OCB (Moorman & Blakely, 1995; Somech & Ron, 2007). Furthermore, market culture is negatively related to job satisfaction, and therefore will negatively affect OCB (Lund, 2003). In such a culture where leaders are hard driven, tough, and demanding (Cameron & Quinn,

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2011), I anticipate employees will not do something extra for their organization and therefore I expect that market culture negatively relates to OCB.

Hypothesis 1C: The more market-oriented an organizational culture is, the lower the level of organizational citizenship behavior

3.1.4 Hierarchical culture and OCB

An hierarchical culture has a very formulized structure with a lot of control mechanisms and the decision making is centralized (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Raub (2008) found that centralization has a negative effect on OCB, so hierarchical culture will have a negative effect on OCB. Furthermore, in a hierarchical culture motivational factors include security, rules, regulations, standardized procedure, and policies (Cameron & Quinn, 2011; Denison, 1990). Employees in a hierarchical culture follow rules and behave according to those rules and procedures. OCB is not formulated in those rules and procedures, but is a personal choice and is extra role behavior (Organ, 1988). Therefore, I do not expect hierarchical culture to stimulate this behavior. Besides in a hierarchical culture there is high power distance (PD). The definition of PD in the GLOBE project is “the degree to which members of an organization of society expect and agree that power should be shared unequally”(p. 1040) (Euwema, Wendt, & Van Emmerik, 2007). Euwema et al. (2007) state that employees in a high PD culture act within their formal role, because employees are less encouraged to take initiative, are less independent and are expected to be obedient. Therefore, OCB might be inhibited in such culture (Euwema et al., 2007). Based on these arguments, I expect hierarchical culture to have a negative effect on OCB.

Hypothesis 1D: The more hierarchical-oriented an organizational culture is, the lower the level of organizational citizenship behavior

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3.2 Human values as a moderator

Based on the literature, I expect that individuals with different values have different preferences for organizational culture, which can influence the relationship between organizational culture and OCB. In this chapter this relationship is analyzed, arguments are given about the different preferences for the four different cultures and the effect on the relationship between culture and OCB. The related hypotheses are given. First, the relationship between clan culture, human values and OCB is given, followed by the other culture types.

3.2.1 Clan culture, human value and OCB

I expect that people with the human value type, self-transcendence, prefer the clan culture and therefore in a clan culture those employees will be more motivated to perform OCB. A clan culture is a family type culture and typical characteristics of such a culture are employee involvement, teamwork, and cohesion (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Self-transcendence value type consists of values emphasizing acceptance of others as equal, and concern for others’ welfare (Schwartz, 1994). In a clan culture employee development and creating an empowering environment for employees with mutual trust is important, so concern for others is important (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Therefore, people high on self-transcendence will prefer a clan culture. Bridoux and Stoelhorst (2013) make similar argumentations and state that people high on self-transcendence will prefer equality matching relationships which can be related to clan culture.

Furthermore, Gardner et al. (2012) studied the relationship between five factor model personality traits and the four organizational types of Cameron and Quinn (2011). They found that the more agreeable a person, the greater the fit with the clan culture is (Gardner et al., 2012). Agreeableness according to Gardner et al. (2012) refers to “the propensity of an individual to defer to others; it encompasses the traits associated with being likable, courteous,

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adaptable, cooperative, cheerful, warm, and tolerant”. Agreeableness has found to be positively correlated with the value benevolence, which is a value of the self-transcendence value type (Roccas, Sagiv, Schwartz, & Knafo, 2002). You could therefore argue that people high on self-transcendence match the clan culture and they will prefer the clan culture. This and this is why within such a culture, they will perform more OCB.

People high on self-transcendence are sensitive for social norms, because they care about others (Schwartz, 1994). When they work in a clan-oriented culture, the social norm is to promote the welfare of the group, OCB contributes to this welfare of the group and therefore people high on self-transcendence within a clan culture will perform more OCB. Based on the mentioned arguments, I expect that people with high value for self-transcendence will prefer the clan culture and this will strengthen the positive relationship between clan culture and OCB.

Hypothesis 2A: The positive relationship between clan culture and OCB is moderated by self-transcendence. This relationship is stronger for higher values of self-self-transcendence.

3.2.2 Adhocracy culture, Human value and OCB

An adhocracy culture is very dynamic and in such a culture change is important (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Behavior, which is stimulated in this culture, is being creative, risk-taking, and adapt to new situations. The goal of the organization is to be innovative and to develop new markets (Denison, 1990; Hartnell et al., 2011). I expect that people high on the value type openness to change prefer an adhocracy culture. The openness to change value type consists of the values hedonism, stimulation, and self-direction (Schwartz, 1994). Stimulation and self-direction are values which include creating, exploring, and challenges in life (Schwartz, 1994). These values fit the adhocracy culture, because this culture tries to foster entrepreneurship, creativity, and activity on the cutting edge (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). So exploring and creating is very important in such culture and employees are being challenged.

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Gardner et al. (2012) found that people high on the personality trait openness, perceive a better fit with an adhocracy culture. Openness:“ involves a person’s range of interests and fascination with novelty”(Gardner et al., 2012). This personality trait has found to be positively correlated with the values self-direction and stimulation, which belongs to the value type openness to change (Roccas et al., 2002).

Therefore, I expect that people with high value for openness to change will prefer an adhocracy culture and this strengthens the positive relationship between adhocracy culture and OCB. In other words, people high on openness to change will perform a high level of OCB within a adhocracy culture, because they prefer this culture.

Hypothesis 2B: The positive relationship between adhocracy culture and OCB is moderated by openness to change. This relationship is stronger for higher values of openness to change.

3.2.3 Market culture, Human value and OCB

Within a market culture the main goal is to compete, and the focus is to conduct transactions and get competitive advantage (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). The market culture operates through economic mechanisms, competitive dynamics, and monetary incentives (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). According to Bridoux and Stoelhorst (2013), people high on self-enhancement will prefer market-pricing relationships, which can be related to the market culture. They will prefer this type of culture, because people high on self-enhancement will be motivated by profit-making and material acquisitiveness (Bridoux & Stoelhorst, 2013). Self-enhancement value type consists of the values power, achievement, and emphasizing own success. Those values fit a result-oriented workplace in the market culture, where winning is emphasized (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Therefore, I expect people with high value for self-enhancement to prefer a market-oriented culture and this will weaken the negative relationship between market culture and OCB. So, people high on self-enhancement will perform more OCB within a market culture.

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Hypothesis 2C: The negative relationship between market culture and OCB is moderated by self-enhancement. This relationship is weaker for higher values of self-enhancement.

3.2.4 Hierarchical culture , Human value and OCB

An hierarchical culture is based on attributes of bureaucracy and there are many control mechanisms (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Authority, standardized rules, procedures, clear line of decision-making, and control are valued as the key to success (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Bridoux and Stoelhorst (2013) state that people with value power will prefer authority-ranking relationships which can be related to the hierarchical culture. Power is a value, which belongs to the self-enhancement value type (Schwartz, 1994). Power is the willingness to control, and dominate people, and resources, and to get a social status and prestige (Schwartz, 1994). I expect people with high value of self-enhancement to prefer a hierarchical culture, because within a hierarchy they can get this power.

Furthermore, Gardner et al. (2012) found that people with the personality trait conscientiousness and people who are less open, fit the hierarchical culture. Because people highly conscientious tend to be: “responsible, dependable, organized, persevering, and willing to achieve”(Gardner et al., 2012). The personality trait ‘conscientious’ is positively related to the value achievement (Roccas et al., 2002), which is in turn a value of the self-enhancement value type. Therefore, I expect people high on self-self-enhancement to prefer the hierarchical culture and this weakens the relationship between hierarchical culture and OCB. People high on self-enhancement are expected to perform high level of OCB within a hierarchical culture.

Hypothesis 2d:The negative relationship between hierarchical culture and OCB is moderated by self-enhancement. This relationship is weaker for higher values of self-enhancement.

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4 Research Design

In this chapter the research design is described and the research method is justified. First, the chosen research method is explained, followed by a description of the sample and data collection method. The last section explains the operationalization of the variables with examples.

4.1 Research Method

In this thesis a quantitative method is used and the data is collected with a survey. In Appendix A the full questionnaire is given. Using a survey is a structured and affordable way of collecting data from a population (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). The survey is developed using an online survey tool, Qualtrics, and consists of standardized questions which allows data collection of a large amount of people (Saunders et al., 2009). The survey is developed and the data is collected together with Jill Jongen. She has similar variables within her research so by collecting data together we could approach more people. This has an advantage, because the more respondents, the more reliable the results are (Saunders et al., 2009). Before launching the survey, a pilot test is done and some spelling errors are eliminated.

4.2 Sample

The sample is drawn from people who have a job in the Netherlands. The survey is sent by email and social media, for instance Facebook and LinkedIn. The confidentiality was ensured. We sent the survey to our own network, approximately 500 people, and then we asked our network to send the survey to other people to get as many respondents as possible. This is called snow-ball sampling and convenience sampling (Saunders et al., 2009). The data was collected in a time period of 2 weeks, at the beginning of April 2014. In total 497 people started the survey of which 285 completed the whole survey. Out of these respondents 13 cases were deleted, because they indicated that they work in an organization with one to five

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employees. Those cases were deleted, because in such a small organization it is impossible to accurately identify the current organizational culture (independent variable). This leaves a dataset of 272 respondents.

4.3 Operationalization of variables

The survey was used to measure the variables: OCB, organizational culture, individual human values, and several control variables. Furthermore, questions for the variables satisfaction, commitment, and trust were also included for Jill’s study. In previous studies, scales have been developed to measure those variables. In the next sections the used scales will be explained. In appendix A the full survey is presented.

4.3.1 Dependent variable

The dependent variable in this study is Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB). OCB is measured using the measurement scale developed by Podsakoff et al. (1990), and Van Dyne and LePine (1998). The scale of Posakoff et al. (1990) is used to measure the dimension conscientiousness, that consists of five items and uses a seven-point Likert scales ranging from (1) “Strongly Disagree” to (7) “Strongly Agree”. Conscientiousness is defined by Podsakoff et al.(1990) as: “Discretionary behaviors on the part of the employee that go well beyond the minimum role requirements of the organization, in the areas of attendance, obeying rules and regulations, taking breaks, and so forth”(p.115). An example of an item is “I do not take extra breaks”. The scale of Van Dyne and LePine (1998) is used to measure the dimension helping (7 items). Helping is defined by Van Dyne and LePine (1998) as: “promotive behavior that emphasizes small acts of consideration. Helping is cooperative behavior that is noncontroversial. It is directly and obviously affiliative; it builds and preserves relationships; and it emphasizes interpersonal harmony” (p.109). An example of an item for the dimension helping is “I help others in this group learn”. Furthermore, the scale of Van Dyne and LePine (1998) is used to measure the dimension voice (6 items). Voice is

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defined by Van Dyne and LePine (1998) as: “promotive behavior that emphasizes expression of constructive challenge intended to improve rather than merely criticize. Voice is making innovative suggestions for change and recommending modifications to standard procedures even when others disagree”(p.109). An example of an item for the dimension voice is:” I develop and make recommendations concerning issues that affect this organization.”

4.3.2 Independent variable

The independent variable in this study is organizational culture. Organizational culture is measured using the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI), this scale is widely used and designed to identify the current culture of an organization (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). The OCAI consists of six items, with in each item four different options (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). The respondents are asked to divide 100 points among the four options, according to the extent each option is similar to the respondent’s organization (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). The option that is most similar gets the most points and vice versa. An example is given in figure 3 for the item organizational leadership.

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4.3.3 Moderating variable

Human values is measured using Schwartz’s value survey (Schwartz, 1994). Schwartz (1994) identified four higher order values of which three will be measured in the survey using the underlying values: Self-transcendence (benevolence and universalism), Self-enhancement (power, achievement and hedonism), and Openness to change (hedonism, stimulation and self-direction). The Portrait value Questionnaire (PVQ) is used to measure the values. The PVQ consists of 40 items of which 27 are used in our survey (Schwartz, 1994). A short description of a person is given and the respondent had to indicate to what extent he or she is similar to this person. The questions are scored with a six point Likert scale ranging from (1) looks not a lot like me to (6) looks a lot like me. An example of an item for the value power is: “It is important to him to be in charge and tell others what to do. He wants people to do what he says.”

4.3.4 Control variables

Several control variables are added in the survey to get some background information on the respondents and because they could have an effect on the independent, moderating, or dependent variables. The control variables are: age, gender, highest finished education level, sector the employee works in, tenure, and amount of employees working in the organization. Age is a control variable in this study, because based on previous research age has an influence on behavior. For instance, younger people tend to behave more self-interested and older people more other interested (Van Lange, De Bruin, Otten, & Joireman, 1997). Gender is a control variable, because research found that men and women differ in their behavior. For instance, men are more likely to be high on self-enhancement and women are more likely to be high on self-transcendence (Van Lange et al., 1997). Furthermore, women are expected to be more helping than men and women are expected to perform OCB more frequently than men (Allen, 2006; Farrell & Finkelstein, 2007). Level of education is included as a control

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variable, because this can also affect behavior. Tenure is included as a control variable, because it is expected that someone who is working longer in an organization also performs more OCB (Ng & Feldman, 2010). The control variable sector is included, because it could have an effect on OCB and it is also interesting to see if sector is related to the different culture types. For instance, the banking and insurance sectors might be related with market culture or hierarchical culture. Last, the control variable number of employees in the organization is included, because this could also have a relationship with the culture types and it is included to eliminate cases with less than 6 employees. In the appendix the questions are given in the full survey.

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5 Results

In this chapter the results of the statistical analyses are reported, which are computed with the computer program SPSS. The first section gives the reliability analyses of the variables. In the second part of this chapter, the description of the sample and data is given. Subsequently, the correlation among all the variables of this study is reported. In the fourth section, the normality is checked and after that the first hypotheses are tested followed by, the moderating effect using linear regression within SPSS. Finally, some additional results are given.

5.1 Reliability analyses

As mentioned in the research design chapter, existing scales are used in the survey to measure the different variables. In order to ensure that the different items of each scale measure the intended concept, the internal consistency of the scale is checked using Chronbach’s alpha. When the Chronbach’s alpha value is higher than 0.7, the items have a good internal consistence and the scale is reliable (Field, 2013).

The reliability of all scales is checked. The Chronbach’s alpha for the four organizational culture types are: 0.83 for clan culture, 0.76 for adhocracy culture, 0.87 for market culture, and 0.81 for hierarchical culture. So the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) is reliable and can be used to measure the different culture types. Furthermore, the internal consistency of the separate OCB dimensions and all items of OCB together are computed. The related Chronbach’s alpha are: 0.85 for OCB dimension helping, 0.83 for OCB dimension voice, 0.68 for OCB dimension conscientiousness, and Chronbach’s alpha of 0.88 for OCB in total. This means that the items pertaining to OCB conscientiousness do not meet the general rule of Chronbach’s alpha higher than 0.7. However, I decided not to delete items because, the Cronbach’s alpha does not increase when item is deleted and the overall value of OCB total is reliable. Furthermore, the human values can also be considered as reliable. With a chronbach’s alpha of 0.89 for self-enhancement,

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0.79 for self-transcendence and 0.73 for openness to change. So, all scales used seem to be reliable and can be used to test the hypotheses.

5.2 Descriptive statistics

The data has a sample size of 272 respondents who all work in an organization with more than 5 employees. Of the respondents, 137 are male (50.4%) and 135 are female (49.6%). The age range is between 21 and 67 years old with an average age of 37,99 years. The education level of the respondents is high, 83.1 % (N=226) indicated that they finished applied University or University (HBO or WO). The years of employment ranged from 1 to 12 years with an average of 3.68 years.

The majority of the respondents, 45.2 % works in a big organization of more than 250 employees, 22.4 % works in a medium sized organization of 51 to 250 employees, 23.9 % in an organization with 11 to 50 employees, and 8.5 % works in a small organization with 6 to 10 employees. The respondents who indicated to work in an organization with less than 6 employees have been removed. Most of the respondents (34.2 %) indicated to work in the sector category ‘other’, which means that the sector that they work in was not provided as an answer, this is a limitation of this study. 42 respondents indicated to work in the sector banking- and insurance (15.4 %), followed by the construction sector (14.0%) and the health- and wellbeing sector (11.0 %). In table 2 the descriptive of the sample are presented.

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Table 2: Sample descriptive (N=272)

Variable Level N %

Gender Male 137 50.4

Female 135 49.6

Education level Primary school 0 0

High school (lbo, mavo, vmbo, mbo-1,

first 3 years of havo or vwo) 8 2.9

High school (havo, vwo, mbo-2,3,4) 29 10.7 Applied University and University (hbo,

wo) 226 83.1

Other 9 3.3

Sector Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 0 0

Industry 14 5.1

Construction 38 14.0

Logistics 9 3.3

ICT 9 3.3

Banking and insurance 42 15.4

Education 20 7.4

Government 12 4.4

Health- and wellbeing 30 11.0

Culture, sport and recreation 5 1.8

Other 93 34.2

Nr. Employees in organization

1 to 5 employees (this group was deleted

from the sample) - -

6 to 10 employees 23 8.5

more than 250 employees 123 45.2

Variable Min-Max M SD

Age 21-67 years 37.99 11.95

Tenure 1-12 years 3.68 2.20

In table 3 descriptive of the dependent, independent, and moderating variable are given. The independent variable organizational culture, exists of four culture types. The clan culture has the highest mean of 28.31 (SD=13.28), followed by the market culture with a mean of 25.24 (SD=15.53), the adhocracy culture with a mean of 24.14 (SD=9.97) and the hierarchical culture with a mean of 22.33 (SD=12.18). Although the mean of clan culture is slightly more than the rest of the cultures, there is a lot of deviation between the cultures so there is variation between the organizational cultures indicated by the respondents. Furthermore, the

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dependent variable OCB has a mean of 5.64 (SD=.64) and ranges from 2.83 and 7. For the moderating variable human values, self-transcendence has the highest mean of 4.29 (SD=.60) ranging from 1.7 and 5.7 followed by self-enhancement with a mean of 4.02 (SD=.78) ranging from 1.86 and 5.86 and openness to change with a mean of 4.56 (SD=.52) ranging from 3.0 and 5.80.

Table 3: Descriptive variables

Variable Min-Max M SD OCB 2.83-7.00 5.64 .64 Organizational culture Clan culture .00-68.33 28.31 13.28 Adhocracy culture .00-56.67 24.14 9.97 Market culture .00-100.00 25.24 15.53 Hierarchical culture .00-80.00 22.33 12.18 Human values Self-transcendence 1.70 – 5.70 4.29 .60

Self-enhancement 1.86 – 5.86 4.02 .78 Openness to change 3.00-5.80 4.56 .52

5.3 Correlation

In this section the correlation is checked of all the variables. Before the correlation analyses, the categorical variables: gender, education level, number of employees, and sector are transformed into dummy variables. The dummy variables became respectively for gender: 0 = male , 1= female. For education level one dummy variable is made for applied University and University, because most respondents indicate to have this education level. The dummy variable is: 1 = Applied university or university (HBO, WO), 0= other education. For the number of employees in the organization, 3 dummy variables have been made: 1 = 6 to 50 employees (small organization), 0=other amount; 1=51 to 250 employees (medium sized organization), 0=other amount; and 1=more than 250 employees (large sized organization), 0=other amount. For the variable sector, 4 dummy variables are made. Dummy variables are made of the sectors of which more than 10 % of the respondents indicated to work in. So the four dummy variables are: 1= Construction, 0=other sector; 1= Banking and insurance,

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0=other sector; 1=Health and wellbeing, 0=other sector; and 1= Other, 0=Construction, Banking and insurance or Health and wellbeing.

The correlation is checked, using the Pearson correlation coefficients and their significance. In table 4 the correlation matrix is presented, which shows the correlation between all variables used in this research. In the matrix a ** indicates a significant coefficient at 0.01-level tailed) and * indicates a significant coefficient at the 0.05-level (2-tailed). In this table the mean and standard deviation are also presented.

The third column in the matrix shows the correlation between the dependent variable OCB and the other variables. As expected OCB is positively correlated with the independent variables, clan culture (r=.187, p= >.01) and adhocracy culture (r=.135, p=>.05). Furthermore, OCB is negatively correlated with the independent variable market culture (r = -.189, p=>.01) and hierarchical culture (r= -.074, p= <.05). Although, the correlation between hierarchical culture and OCB is not significant. These results indicate that the more clan-oriented or adhocracy-oriented an organizational culture is, the higher the level of OCB. The more market-oriented an organizational culture is the lower the level of OCB.

OCB has a positive significant relationship with tenure (r=.144,p = >.05) and surprisingly a significant relationship with gender ( r= -.132, p = >.05). This means that men have indicated a higher level of OCB than women ( M men=5.725 M women= 5.557), while based on the literature women are found to perform more OCB than men (Allen, 2006; Farrell & Finkelstein, 2007). Besides, OCB has a positive significant relationship with the sector construction (r=.187, p=>.01). This means that within the sector construction respondents indicated to perform more OCB than in other sectors. A reason for this could be that construction businesses are often family businesses and within family businesses OCB is probably high. Furthermore, OCB positively correlates with self-transcendence (r.015, p =

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<.05) and with self-enhancement (r=.069, p = <.05) and OCB negatively correlates with openness to change (r= -.033, p = <.05), although all not significant.

Besides, OCB positively correlates with age, academic education, small organization (6-50 employees), and the sector banking and insurance. OCB is negatively correlated with medium and large sized organization and the sector healthcare and wellbeing. However, the correlation coefficients of these variables are not significant.

As expected, the different culture types mostly have a significant negative relationship with each other, except for clan and adhocracy culture which have a positive correlation, although, not significant. Besides, there is a positive correlation between clan culture and small organization (r=.161, p= >.01) and negative correlation between clan culture and large organization (r=-.169, p = >.01). This is expected, because in a small organization a clan-oriented culture is more likely. Also a negative correlation between adhocracy culture and a large organization is found (r=-.168, p= >.01). Furthermore, a negative correlation between hierarchical culture and small sized organization (r= -.132, p= >.05) and medium sized organization (r=-.140, p= >.05) is found and a positive correlation is found between hierarchical culture and large sized organization (r= .242, p=>.01). So as expected, large sized organizations are found to be more hierarchical. Furthermore, there is a positive correlation between age and clan-oriented culture (r=.141, p= >.05) and a negative correlation between age and market-oriented culture (r=-.146 p= >.05). The older the respondents the more they indicated to work in a clan-oriented culture and younger people indicated more to work in a market-oriented culture.

Furthermore, a positive correlation between the sector healthcare and wellbeing and clan culture is found (r=.183, p= >.01) and a negative significant correlation is found between the sector construction and adhocracy culture (r=-.134, p= >.05) and between the sector banking and insurance and adhocracy culture (r=-.143, p= >.05) . Besides the market culture

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has a positive correlation with banking and insurance (r=.201 , p = >.01) and a negative correlation with the sector healthcare and wellbeing (r=-.147, p= >.01).

Moreover, there is a positive correlation between self-transcendence and clan culture (r=.216, p=.000) and negative correlation between self-enhancement and clan culture (r=-.200, p =.001) and between openness to change and clan culture (r=-0.27, p= <.05). A negative correlation has been found between adhocracy culture and self-transcendence (r=-.101, p= < .05) and a positive correlation between adhocracy culture and self-enhancement (r=.060 , p= <.05) and also between adhocracy culture and openness to change (r=.082, p= <.05). As expected, a significant negative relationship has been found between self-transcendence and market-oriented culture (r=-.120, p= >.05). Also openness to change and market culture have a negative relationship (r=-.009 p= <.05 ) and self-enhancement and market culture have a positive correlation (r=.116 , p= <.05). Although not significant, hierarchical culture has a positive correlation with self-transcendence ( r=.001 , p= <.05) and with self-enhancement (r=.022, p= <.05) and a negative correlation with openness to change (r=-.072 , p= <.05).

The value types all negatively correlate with each other. Self-transcendence correlates negatively with self-enhancement (r=-.753, p= >.01), which is expected because they are the opposite. Openness to change also has a negative relationship with self-transcendence (r=-.426 ,p= >.01) and self-enhancement (r=-.237, p= >.01). Furthermore, self-transcendence has a positive correlation with gender (r=.170, p= >.01), this means that women are more transcendent than men (M men= 4.18, M women= 4.38) . On the other hand, self-enhancement has a negative correlation with gender (r= -.154, p= >.05), which means that men are more self-enhanced than women (M men=4.09 , M women= 3.95). Openness to change also negatively correlates with gender (r=-.027, p= <.05), although not significantly. Besides gender, age also significantly correlates with transcendence and

Organizational culture, organizational citizenship behavior and human values