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Demanding peace from a distance
A study of the diaspora politics of members of the Colombian
community in London during the Colombian peace process
by Nadine Lodder
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!
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Supervisor: dr. D. Laws
Second reader: dr. M. Dekker
Student number: 10004239
Word count: 32,470 words
Acknowledgements..
! I!would!first!like!to!thank!the!welcoming!Colombian!community!in!London.!Without!them! opening!up!to!me!about!a!topic!that!is!so!close!to!their!heart,!this!research!could!not!have! been!possible.!They!made!sure!to!inform!me!about!and!take!me!along!to!the!range!of! Colombian!events!taking!place!in!London!in!the!time!I!was!there!and!put!me!in!touch!with!as! many!people!as!they!could!think!of!within!their!personal!networks.!I!would!also!like!to!thank! them!for!inviting!me!to!join!them!to!a!concert!of!Totó!La!Momposina!in!London,!one!of! Colombia's!most!famed!singers,!which!is!an!experience!that!I!will!not!soon!forget.! Furthermore,!I!am!also!indebted!to!those!who!I!was!able!to!interview!via!Skype.!! ! I!would!also!like!to!thank!my!supervisor!dr.!David!Laws!of!the!department!of!Political!Science! at!the!University!of!Amsterdam!for!his!inspiring!advice!and!for!always!being!there!for!me! when!I!did!not!know!how!to!proceed.!! ! I!would!further!like!to!acknowledge!the!second!reader!of!this!thesis!dr.!Martijn!Dekker!of!the! department!of!Political!Science!at!the!University!of!Amsterdam.!I!am!grateful!for!his! comments!on!this!thesis.!!.
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Table.of.contents..
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Acknowledgements..
1..Introduction.
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3.2..Theoretical.Framework.. .
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6. 2.1.The.Colombian.'diaspora'?... . . . . . . 6. 2.2.The.role.of.diasporas.in.conflict. . . . . . 7. 2.3.Transnational.political.practices. . . . . . 9. 2.3.1%Factors%influencing%transnational%political%engagement% % % % 10% 2.3.2%Mobilization%of%diasporas% % % % % % % 11% 2.4.A.reluctant.diaspora. . . . . . . . 13. 2.5.Social.movement.theory... . . . . . . 15. 2.6.Collective.identity,.framing.and.personal.biographies.. . . . 18. 2.6.1%Collective%identity% % % % % % % % 18% 2.6.2%Framing% % % % % % % % % 21% 2.6.3%Personal%biographies%% % % % % % % 22% 2.7.Theoretical.relevance... . . . . . . 23.3..Methodology..
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26. 3.1.Operationalization.. . . . . . . . 26. 3.1.1%Types%of%engagement%% % % % % % % 27% 3.1.2%Motivations%to%engage%% % % % % % % 27% 3.1.3%Influence%of%engagement%%% % % % % % % 27% 3.2.Methods.. . . . . . . . . 28. 3.3.Case.. . . . . . . . . 29. 3.4.Reflection.on.research.. . . . . . . 31. 3.5.Bias. . . . . . . . . . 32. 3.6.Ethical.implications. . . . . . . . 32.4..The.story:.Engaging.in.a.peace.process.from.a.distance...
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34. 4.1.Announcement.of.the.negotiations. . . . . . 34. 4.2.Rodeemos.el.Diálogo.and.the.Foro.Internacional.de.Víctimas. . . 35. 4.3.Progressing.negotiations. . . . . . . 39. 4.4.Truth,.Memory.and.Reconciliation.Commission.of.Women.of.the.Diaspora.. 40. 4.5.Campaigning.for.the.peace.agreement. . . . . . 42.4.7.Paz.a.la.Calle.and.visit.of.President.Santos. . . . . 47.
5..Understanding.why.and.the.effects..
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51. 5.1.Political.process.. . . . . . . . 51. 5.2.The.contribution.of.resources.. . . . . . . 54. 5.3.Framing.. . . . . . . . . 56. 5.3.1%Information%% % % % % % % % 57% 5.3.2%Exclusion%of%groups%abroad% % % % % % % 59% 5.3.3%Support!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 60! 5.4.Collective.identity.. . . . . . . . 61. 5.4.1%Creating%a%collective%identity%% % % % % % % 62% 5.4.2%The%role%of%shared%values%and%beliefs% % % % % % 65% 5.4.3%The%creation%of%a%bubble%% % % % % % % 67% 5.5.Influence.. . . . . . . . . 69.6..Conclusion...
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74. . 6.1.Implications. . . . . . . . . 76. . 6.2.Limitations.and.further.research.. . . . . . 77.Bibliography. .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1..Introduction..
! . Como%mujeres%de%la%diaspora% el%dolor%no%nos%define,%nos%une,% nos%alienta,%nos%hace%fuertes%y%decididas.% Las%lagrimas%derramadas%en%este%exilio,% las%hemos%vuelto%a%recoger%para% irrigar%nuestra%esperanza.% % % As%women%of%the%diaspora% the%pain%does%not%define%us,%it%unites%us,% it%encourages%us,%it%makes%us%strong%and%determined.% The%tears%shed%in%this%exile,% we%have%collected%again%to% irrigate%our%hope.% ! T!Amparo!Restrepo,!London,!2016!! % ! ! Amparo!Restrepo,!the!author!of!this!poem,!is!a!Colombian!woman!who!fled!to!London!many! years!ago.!In!this!poem!she!acknowledges!the!pain!that!Colombian!women!living!abroad!in! exile!have!experienced,!whilst!highlighting!how!they!will!not!let!this!define!them!and!how! they!utilize!these!painful!experiences!for!the!better!to!fight!for!their!hopes!for!their!country.!! ! She!is!part!of!the!Truth,!Memory!and!Reconciliation!Commission!of!Colombian! Women!in!the!Diaspora!in!London.!This!commission!collects!testimonies!of!Colombian! women!living!in!London!that!are!victims!of!the!conflict!in!Colombia!and!helps!them!to!step! out!of!this!role.!In!November!2016!the!women!of!this!commission!met!Colombian!President! Juan!Manuel!Santos!during!his!official!state!visit!to!the!United!Kingdom.!They!were!all! dressed!in!white,!as!a!symbol!for!peace,!carrying!white!Colombian!flowers!(Conciliation! Resources!n.d.a;!Conciliation!Resources!2016a).!This!poem!featured!on!a!banner!that!they! had!brought!with!them!to!this!event.!Only!a!day!earlier,!making!their!voices!and!statement! heard,!they!had!stood!by!Buckingham!Palace!shouting!'Acuerdo!Ya!',!agreement!now,!at!the! top!of!their!lungs!as!the!President!rode!by!surrounded!by!horse!guards!in!a!golden!carriage! with!Queen!Elizabeth.! ! Only!four!weeks!before!this!encounter,!on!the!2nd!of!October,!the!world!had!turned! to!observe!Colombia!where,!after!several!years!of!negotiations!between!the!Colombian! government!led!by!President!Santos!and!the!Fuerzas%Armadas%Revolucionarias%de%Colombia% (FARC),%the!Colombian!people!voted!on!the!negotiated!agreement!that!was!signed!between!the!parties!earlier!on!in!September!of!that!year.!In!this!referendum!the!'no'!vote!won!with! 50.2!percent!of!the!vote.!The!negotiators!were!sent!back!to!the!table!and!subsequently!on! November!30th!the!Colombian!congress!ratified!a!new!agreement!(Brodzinsky!2016a;!BBC! 2016;!Partlow!&!Miroff!2016).!The!signing!of!this!hardTwon!peace!agreement!and!its! advancing!implementation!ended!a!fiftyTyear!war.!! ! During!the!war!numerous!Colombian!nationals!escaped!the!country!to!various! corners!of!the!world.!Whereas!some!of!these!were!refugees,!others!sought!economic! opportunities!outside!of!the!struggling!nation!(Bermúdez!2010:!79).!Currently!this!amounts! to!almost!5!million!Colombians!living!abroad.!The!countries!that!have!the!largest!groups!of! Colombians!abroad!are!the!United!States,!Spain!and!Venezuela!(Ministerio!de!Relaciones! Exteriores!de!Colombia!2013:!6).!Together!those!living!abroad!form!the!Colombian!diaspora.!! ! Since!the!beginning!of!the!Millennium!the!role!of!diasporas!in!conflicts!taking!place! in!their!'homelands'!has!been!reTdebated!in!academia.!Whereas!diasporas!were! characterized!as!spoilers!for!peace!negotiations!before,!increased!attention!is!now!also! being!paid!to!their!possible!positive!contributions!(e.g.!Zunzer!2004).!Given!the!multitude!of! ways!in!which!diasporas!can!play!a!role!in!homeland!conflict,!they!form!an!interesting!object! of!study!for!the!field!of!conflict!resolution.!In!line!with!this,!the!Colombian!diaspora!in! amongst!other!countries!the!United!States,!Spain,!and!the!UK,!and!its!involvement!in!the! conflict!and!homeland!politics!has!been!studied!(e.g.!Bermúdez!2011;!Bouvier!2007;! Guarnizo!et!al.!2003).!What!these!studies!show!is!that!the!Colombian!diaspora!was!reluctant! to!involve!itself!with!issues!taking!place!in!Colombia!or!that!only!a!minority!with!a!history!of! political!activism!in!Colombia!was!involved!(Bouvier!2007:!137;!Guarnizo!et!al.!2003:!1232;! Bermúdez!2011:!136).!!Anastasia!Bermúdez,!however,!in!a!later!study!on!the!Colombian! diaspora!in!Spain!and!the!UK!(2016),!has!argued!that!even!though!involvement!in!formal! politics!might!be!limited!(201),!more!informal!and!civic!forms!of!engagement!must!be!taken! into!account!(203T!204).!This!type!of!engagement!cannot!simply!be!neglected!and!thus! requires!the!study!of!more!informal!types!of!engagement!of!the!diaspora!with!Colombia!too.!!! ! In!2012!the!peace!talks!with!the!FARC!were!initiated!(BBC!2015).!These!negotiations,! present!an!interesting!turn!of!events.!As!Bermúdez!argues:!'Contexts%in%home%and%host% countries%matter%(2016:!220)'.!Over!the!years!initiatives!came!up!or!were!dissolved! depending!on!the!situation!in!Colombia.!Her!initial!study!showed!that!during!the!peace! process,!Colombian!diaspora!civil!society!engagement!in!peace!work!has!been!reinvigorated! (idem:!220T221).!The!peace!process!thus!forms!an!interesting!event!to!assess!both!the! formal!and!informal!engagement!of!the!Colombian!diaspora!with!the!conflict!in!Colombia!
and!to!gain!an!understanding!of!how!this!group!went!from!inactive!to!active.!To!do!this,!this! study!focuses!on!members!of!the!Colombian!diaspora!living!in!London.!Whereas!Bermúdez! has!made!an!initial!first!step!in!identifying!some!ways!in!which!the!Colombian!diaspora!in! London!engaged!in!the!peace!process!around!halfway!through!the!process,!this!study!dives! deeper!into!understanding!how!they!became!active.!The!topic!of!this!study!is!thus!the! diaspora!politics!related!to!the!peace!process!of!members!of!the!Colombian!diaspora!in! London.!The!research!question!that!is!answered!is:!How%did%members%of%the%Colombian% diaspora%in%London%become%politically%active,%both%in%a%formal%and%informal%manner,%as%the% domestic%peace%negotiations%between%the%Colombian%government%and%the%Farc%became% transnationalized?%! ! This!research!dives!into!the!story!of!a!subgroup!within!the!Colombian!community!in! London!of!around!100!people.!It!follows!the!personal!trajectories!of!these!members!of!the! diaspora!in!setting!up!and!taking!part!in!initiatives!related!to!the!peace!process!and!shows! how!these!converge!around!the!time!of!the!referendum!in!October!2016.!Their!story!is!not! exemplary!for!the!wider!community!in!London.!The!characterization!of!the!Colombian! diaspora!as!reluctant!to!engage!with!issues!taking!place!in!Colombia,!at!least!in!the!sense!of! formal!politics,!seems!to!be!confirmed!in!that!less!than!one!in!five!of!those!eligible!to!vote! for!the!referendum!on!the!final!peace!agreement!in!London!headed!to!the!polling!station! (Registraduría!Nacional!Del!Estado!Civil!2016).!Yet!their!story!is!interesting,!not!because!of! the!amount!of!people!involved,!but!because!it!provides!insight!into!how!people!within!a! group!that!has!always!been!characterized!as!reluctant!become!active.!!
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2..Theoretical.Framework..
% ! This!research!dives!into!the!engagement,!the!diaspora!politics,!of!members!of!the! Colombian!diaspora!in!London!in!the!Colombian!peace!process.!In!this!chapter,!the! theoretical!framework!of!this!study!will!be!presented.!Firstly,!it!will!start!of!with!a!discussion! of!the!concept!of!diaspora!and!the!inherent!tension!herein.!Secondly,!it!will!be!explained! why!studying!diasporas!is!important!for!the!study!of!conflict!resolution!and!governance!by! looking!into!earlier!work!on!the!role!of!diasporas!in!homeland!conflict,!as!well!as!particularly! into!the!field!of!transnational!politics.!This!will,!thirdly,!be!followed!by!a!short!review!of! earlier!research!on!the!Colombian!diaspora.!Fourthly,!it!will!be!shown!how!different! approaches!of!social!movement!theory!can!be!utilized!in!assessing!the!mobilization!of!this! subgroup.!Fifthly!and!lastly,!theory!on!the!effects!of!social!movement!participation!will!be! examined.!!! ! 2.1.The.Colombian.'diaspora'?... The!concept!of!diaspora%needs!to!be!unpacked!and!the!choice!for!the!use!hereof!in!this! research!explained,!given!the!criticism!it!has!received!in!recent!years,!as!well!as!its!frequent! use!in!relation!to!the!concept!of!transnationalism.!In!studying!diasporas!it!is!important!to! acknowledge!their!internal!complexity.!. ! In!this!research,!a!diaspora!is!defined!using!a!broad!definition!as:!'social%groups%that% (i)%settle%and%establish%themselves%in%another%country%and%(ii)%are%internally%heterogeneous.% Different%parts%of%the%same%diaspora%can%and%do%have%different%interests,%defined%among% other%things%by%class,%gender,%generation,%occupation%or%religion.%Diasporas%are%rarely% constituted%by%a%single%factor%other%than%the%broadest%of%connections%to%a%specific%homeland% (Smith!2007:!5)'.!In!this!definition!there!is!thus!an!acknowledgement!of!the!internal! complexity!and!heterogeneity!of!a!diaspora.!! ! !In!earlier!discussions!a!diaspora!was!specifically!linked!to!a!conceptual!'homeland'! (Brubaker!2004:!2).!Over!time!the!concept!has!come!to!include!a!diversity!of!migrant!groups,! including!those!that!engage!continuously!in!homeland!politics,!labor!migrants!that!maintain! emotional!and!social!ties,!and!has!even!in!some!cases!been!applied!to!assimilated!groups! that!have!lost!the!connection!to!the!homeland!entirely!(idem:!2T3).!In!2004,!Rogers!Brubaker! critically!argued!that!it!has!been!extended!to!include!'any%and%every%nameable%population% category%that%is%to%some%extent%dispersed%in%space%(idem:!3)'.!He!distinguished!three! remaining!core!elements!of!a!diaspora:!dispersion,!homeland!orientation!as!a!source!of!values,!identity!and!loyalty,!and!boundary!maintenance!(idem:!5T!6).!The!element!of! dispersion!can!also!be!found!in!the!first!point!of!the!definition!of!diasporas!above.!Yet!it! differs!on!the!points!of!homeland!orientation!as!a!source!of!values,!identity!and!loyalty,!and! boundary!maintenance.!Namely,!with!regard!to!homeland!orientation,!the!definition! acknowledges!how!complex!diasporas!can!be!and!that!this!connection!does!not!have!to! necessarily!be!so!strong:!'Diasporas%are%rarely%constituted%by%a%single%factor%other%than%the% broadest%connections%to%a%specific%homeland!(Smith!2007:!5)'.!Further,!the!latter!point!of! boundary!maintenance,!which!entails!holding!this!community!characterized!by!solidarity! and!social!relationships!together,!is!countered!by!the!literature!on!transnationalism!that!it!is! often!linked!to!diasporas!(Brubaker!2004:!6).!There!is!tension!between!the!idea!of!diasporas! maintaining!a!distinctive!community!and!the!realization!that!diasporas!assimilate!into!their! host!countries.! ! With!regard!to!transnationalism,!however,!as!Thomas!Faist!(2010)!states:!'...% transnational%communities%encompass%diasporas,%but%not%all%transnational%communities%are% diasporas!(21)'.!The!most!relevant!distinction!between!the!concepts!of!transnationalism!and! diaspora!that!Faist!identifies!out!of!several!is!that!even!though!both!focus!on!crossTborder! processes,!diasporas!are!often!used!to!denote!religious!or!national!groups!living!outside!an! (imagined)!homeland.!Transnationalism,!on!the!other!hand,!focuses!on!all!sorts!of!social! formations!that!have!ties!across!countries!(Faist!2010:!9,!21).!! ! Based!on!the!findings!of!earlier!research!on!Colombian!migrant!groups!one!can! question!the!existence!of!a!Colombian!'diaspora',!as!a!distinctive!community!based!on! solidarity!and!a!collective!identity.!As!will!be!detailed!further!on!in!this!theoretical! framework,!it!is!a!fragmented!community!characterized!by!divisions!and!cleavages!(Bouvier! 2007:!137;!Bermúdez!2011:!137;!Bermúdez!Torres!2006:!19).!The!newer!conceptualizations! of!diasporas,!however,!acknowledge!this!heterogeneity!of!interests!and!the!process!of! assimilation!in!host!countries.!In!the!end!the!Colombian!community!is!indeed!a!transnational! community,!but!one!that!is!defined!by!its!ties!to!a!homeland,!and!therefore!in!this!research! it!is!conceptualized!as!a!diaspora.!! ! 2.2.The.role.of.diasporas.in.conflict! This!study!on!the!Colombian!community!in!London!and!its!engagement!with!the!peace! process!fits!within!the!wider!research!of!the!role!of!diasporas!in!homeland!conflict.! Researching!diasporas!is!relevant!to!the!study!of!conflict!resolution!in!that!diasporas!can! engage!with!and!have!an!influence!on!conflict!in!their!homeland!in!a!multitude!of!ways.!
They!can!play!roles!in!exacerbating,!maintaining,!or!resolving!conflict.!The!process!of! globalization!has!only!boosted!this!impact!from!abroad!in!conflict!by!increasingly!facilitating! the!creation!of!diasporas,!as!well!as!the!influence!that!they!can!have.!Through!changes!in!for! instance!technology,!communication,!and!modes!of!transport,!it!is!easier!for!diasporas!to! build!and!maintain!relations!with!their!homeland!(Bercovitch!2007:!19T20).!Globalization! specifically!nurtures!their!role!as!political!agents.!They!can!now!act!without!interference!of! the!state!that!they!reside!in,!as!well!as!that!events!in!their!homeland!can!now!be! experienced!as!closer!than!ever!(idem:!20).!!! ! Since!the!start!of!the!Millennium!scholars!have!researched!the!more!constructive! role!that!diasporas!can!have!in!conflict!in!their!homeland,!without!discrediting!the!negative! effect!that!they!can!also!have!(Cochrane!et!al.!2009:!684).!Yet,!in!acknowledging!the!internal! complexity!of!diasporas,!they!must!also!not!be!perceived!as!static!wholes.!A!diaspora!is! diverse!and!individuals!and!organizations!can!therefore!play!contradictory!roles!(Smith!2007:! 10),!through!having!different!values,!identities!and!loyalties!linked!to!the!homeland.!To! understand!the!different!ways!in!which!diasporas!engage!in!conflict,!it!is!useful!to!categorize! the!actions!they!can!undertake!following!Jacob!Bercovitch's!(2007)!example!of!distinguishing! economic,!social!and!political!activities!(33T!36).!These!include!both!formal!and!informal! activities.!! % The!first!activities!that!usually!come!to!mind!when!discussing!transnational! involvement!in!conflict!are!economic!ones.!Diasporas!can!engage!in!conflict!from!afar! through!remittances!that!can!help!in!sustaining!livelihoods!and!basic!needs!during!conflict!in! the!homeland!and!provide!economic!support!during!the!postTconflict!phase!(Brinkerhoff! 2011:!126;!Bercovitch!2007:!34).!In!addition,!business!members!of!the!diaspora!can!aid!in! developing!the!private!sector!in!warTtorn!societies!(Turner!2008:!181).!Yet!remittances!may! also!be!used!to!support!insurgent!groups,!thereby!contributing!to!the!conflict!(Brinkerhoff! 2011:!126).!! ! The!second!category!of!activities!that!diasporas!can!engage!in!in!conflict!is!social! ones.!Relevant!for!this!is!the!concept!of!social!remittances.!These!are!defined!by!Peggy! Levitt!(1998)!as:!'...!the%ideas,%behaviors,%identities,%and%social%capital%that%flow%from% receivingTto%sendingTcountry%communities%(927)'.!These!social!remittances!circulate! continuously.!Thus!migrants!bring!new!ideas!and!practices!back!to!the!homeland!and!then! these!are!transformed!again!and!reTremitted!back!to!the!migrants!(Levitt!&!LambaTNieves! 2011:!3).!The!social!activities!that!diasporas!can!undertake!in!conflict,!and!also!in!the!postT conflict!phase,!are!thus!introducing!other!norms!and!practices!within!the!conflict.!Social!
remittances!can,!however,!also!affect!the!conflict!negatively!when!ideas!and!practices!of! migrants!support!insurgent!groups.!Diasporas!can!further!promote!the!setting!up!of!justice,! truth!and!reconciliation!initiatives!and!they!can!provide!knowledge!on!cultural!norms!of! their!homeland!abroad!(Koinova!&!Karabegović!2017:!216;!Bercovitch!2007:!26;!32;!35).% Lastly,!they!can!also!partake!by!providing!human!capital!for!reconstruction!and! development.!Diaspora!members!can!return!to!the!homeland!for!a!period!of!time!to!take!on! roles!in!government!and!development!programs!(Brinkerhoff!2011:!129T!130).!! % ! The!third!and!last!category!of!activities!is!political!ones.!Members!of!a!diaspora!can! engage!in!political!activities!related!to!the!conflict!in!a!multitude!of!ways.!First!of!all,!they! can!shift!their!political!support!to!parties!that!are!seeking!peace!(Bercovitch!2007:!32).!Other! examples!include!influencing!international!public!opinion,!building!political!support!for! initiatives!working!on!issues!such!as!human!rights,!and!lobbying!for!foreign!assistance!and! advocating!for!peace!(Brinkerhoff!2011:!131,!132).!Yet!these!activities!can!also!exacerbate! the!conflict!when!stances!are!lobbied!for!that!do!not!aim!for!conflict!resolution!(idem:!132).! Lastly,!many!social!remittances,!which!were!discussed!before,!can!be!political.!This!is!when! the!ideas,!values,!norms!and!practices!that!are!remitted!have!an!impact!on!the!political! sphere!(Boccagni!et!al.!2016:!447,!451).!! ! These!political!activities!that!members!of!diasporas!can!undertake!in!relation!to!the! homeland!conflict!are!part!of!a!wider!range!of!transnational!political!practices!that!they!can! engage!in.!Whereas!participants!can,!as!detailed,!also!take!part!in!economic!and!social! activities,!the!focus!in!this!research!will!be!on!transnational!political!activities!given!that!the! focus!is!on!engagement!during!the!negotiations!of!a!peace!agreement.!These!will!be! discussed!in!the!next!section.!! ! 2.3.Transnational.political.practices.. The!boundaries!of!politics!are!changing!in!that!migrants!can!to!some!degree!continue!to! participate!in!their!homeland!whilst!they!are!increasingly!gaining!rights!to!participate!in!their! hostland!(Boccagni!et!al.!2016:!445).!As!was!detailed!before,!diasporas!can!engage!in! transnational!politics!to!influence!conflict!in!their!homeland,!thereby!making!the!study!of! transnational!political!practices!relevant!for!research!on!conflict!resolution.!Transnational! political!practices!are!defined!as:!'...!various%forms%of%direct%crossTborder%participation%in%the% politics%of%their%country%of%origin%by%both%migrants%and%refugees%(such%as%voting%and%other% support%to%political%parties,%participating%in%debates%in%the%press),%as%well%as%their%indirect% participation%via%the%political%institutions%of%the%host%country%(or%international%organizations)%
(ØstergaardTNielsen!2003:!762)'.!This!thus!includes!a!combination!of!informal!and!formal! political!activities.!! ! Within!transnational!politics!there!is!a!range!of!types!of!politics!that!diasporas!can! engage!in.!Eva!ØstergaardTNielsen!(2003)!has!classified!them!into!five!categories:!immigrant,! homeland,!emigrant,!diaspora!and!translocal!politics.!Immigrant!politics!refers!to!actions! undertaken!to!better!the!situation!of!migrants!in!their!host!countries.!Homeland!politics! entails!activities!undertaken!with!regard!to!the!domestic!or!foreign!policy!of!the!homeland.! This!turns!into!emigrant!politics!when!the!influence!is!on!policies!related!to!migrants'!legal,! economic!and!political!status!in!the!homeland.!Diaspora!politics!also!refers!to!activities! undertaken!in!the!homeland.!It!differs!from!homeland!politics!in!that!members!of!diasporas! are!excluded!from!direct!participation.!With!the!increasing!rights!of!diasporas,!however,! there!is!increasing!overlap!between!the!two.!The!last!type!is!translocal!politics,!which!refers! to!initiatives!that!link!to!local!communities!in!the!homeland!(ØstergaardTNielsen!2003:!762T! 763).!In!this!study,!diaspora!politics!is!central,!although!given!that!the!Colombian!state!offers! its!citizens!specific!rights,!as!will!be!explained!later,!this!overlaps!with!homeland!politics.!In! this!case!it!is!about!members!of!a!diaspora!trying!to!influence!the!content!of!a!peace! agreement!and!the!acceptance!of!it.!Diaspora!politics!also!overlaps!with!emigrant!politics! here!in!that!the!peace!agreement!will!have!an!influence!on!the!position!of!some!of!the! members!of!the!community,!specifically!the!victims!of!the!armed!conflict!that!fled!from! Colombia!throughout!the!decades.!! 2.3.1%Factors%influencing%transnational%political%engagement%! In!this!field!of!transnational!politics,!several!scholars!have!looked!into!the!factors!that! influence!transnational!political!engagement.!Why!do!some!migrants!engage!in!this?!These! studies!give!a!fragmented!picture!with!a!myriad!of!factors,!given!that!there!is!no!overarching! theory.!On!the!one!hand!individual!factors!have!proven!to!influence!this,!such!as:!gender,! age,!human!capital!and!social!capital!(Guarnizo!et!al.!2003:!1238).!An!example!hereof!is!that! higher!education,!completing!high!school!and!college,!leads!to!the!increase!of!the!likelihood! of!engagement!in!political!transnational!activities!(idem:!1229).!! ! Other!scholars!have!pointed!to!the!role!of!context!in!shaping!political!behavior.! Laura!Morales!and!Katia!Pilati!(2013)!and!Eva!ØstergaardTNielsen!(2003)!point!to!the!range! of!studies!that!have!been!conducted!with!regard!to!the!role!of!the!sending!state.!This! includes!the!influence!on!political!transnational!engagement!when!migrants!have!to!flee! political!turmoil.!It!also!includes!stateTbuilding!policies!that!try!to!involve!migrants!through! dual!citizenship!and!voting!rights!to!attract!resources!from!them,!as!well!as!strategic!
diasporaTbuilding!strategies!(Morales!and!Pilati!2013:!83).!Colombia!can!be!categorized,!for! example,!as!a!transnational%state!that!grants!members!of!its!diaspora!citizenship!and!thus! treats!them!as!'longTterm'!and!'longTdistance'!members!of!its!country!(Boccagni!et!al.!2016:! 446).!From!above!the!Colombian!government!has!significantly!increased!the!position!of! Colombian!emigrants,!providing!them!with!dual!citizenship!since!1991,!allowing!them!to! vote!and!even!creating!the!position!of!a!diaspora!representative!(Bouvier!2007:!143;! Bermúdez!2010:!81).!Additionally,!Morales!and!Pilati!argue!that!the!political,!institutional! and!organizational!contexts!of!the!host!countries,!the!contextual!aspects!of!the!receiving! country,!must!be!taken!to!account!as!well!(idem:!84).!ØstergaardTNielsen!concurs!with!them! when,!in!speaking!about!the!mobilizing!role!of!countries!of!origin,!she!warns!that:!'Not%only% are%such%efforts%often%reactive%rather%than%proactive,%but%the%extent%to%which%this%falls%on% fertile%ground%also%related%to%the%societal%and%politicalTinstitutional%context%in%the%receiving% country!(2003:!767)'.!She!thus!also!points!to!how!the!efforts!of!the!sending!state!can!be! reactive!to!the!actions!of!migrants!abroad!rather!than!proactive.!! ! ØstergaardTNielsen's!research!further!shows!the!complexity!and!ambiguity!of!these! factors!that!influence!transnational!political!practices.!With!regard!to!classically!identified! factors!such!as!mode!of!migration!and!length!of!stay,!she!states:!'Transnational%ties%cut% through%these%factors%and%make%migrants%as%engaged%in%homeland%politics%as%refugees,% settled%migrants%as%active%as%newly%arrived,%and%wellTintegrated%migrants%as%active%as%those% with%a%weaker%foothold%in%the%new%country%of%settlement!(idem:!768).'!Overall,!research!on! factors!influencing!transnational!political!engagement!thus!seems!to!be!inconclusive!in!that! a!myriad!of!factors!are!identified!in!playing!a!role.!! ! 2.3.2%Mobilization%of%diasporas!. As!part!of!this!growing!trend!of!researching!factors!that!influence!transnational!political! practices!of!migrants,!studies!on!diaspora!engagement!have!turned!to!look!at!the!process!of! mobilization!of!the!diaspora!to!begin!with.!Several!scholars!have!taken!on!a!constructivist! approach!in!this,!which!perceives!diasporas!as!being!created!instead!of!naturally!coming!into! being!because!of!migration!(e.g.!Adamson!2008,!Sökefeld!2006,!Lyons!&!Mandaville!2010).! Terrence!Lyons!and!Peter!Mandaville!(2010)!argue!for:!'...%the%utility%of%a%definition%of% diaspora%that%emphasizes%the%ways%such%groups%are%generated!out!of!politicsT%that%is,% diasporas%as%political%effect%rather%than%a%social%given%(125,!emphasis!in!original!text).!This! counters!the!essentialist!view!on!diasporas!as!'preTpolitical,%"natural"%entities%(Adamson! 2008:!4)',%'emerging%simply%out%of%boundaryTcrossing%processes%such%as%migration,%exile%and%
dispersal!(idem:!5)'.!This!points!to!an!interaction!between!diasporas!and!politics!that!goes! both!ways,!not!only!can!diasporas!engage!in!transnational!political!practices!but!politics,!in! their!view,!creates!diasporas.!! ! Accordingly,!several!studies!have!been!carried!out!to!assess!the!factors!that! influence!this!political!mobilization!using!social!movement!theory.!The!question!herein!is!of! course!what!triggers!this!mobilization?!As!Lyons!and!Mandaville!argue:!'EthnoTnational% identities%and%a%general%sense%of%"being%from%the%same%place"%are%not%sufficient%to%explain% how%diasporas%shape%local%political%goals%(2010:!138).%Additionally,%mobilization!does!not! necessarily!take!place!directly!after!migration,!but!can!also!take!place!many!years!later! (Sökefeld!2006:!267).%Adamson!and!Lyons!and!Mandaville!turn!to!diasporic!or!political! entrepreneurs!to!explain!this.!These!entrepreneurs!perceive!diasporas!as!valuable!resources! to!attain!political!outcomes!(Lyons!&!Mandaville!2010:!125).!Fiona!Adamson!(2008)!speaks! of:!'!...%the%strategic%social%construction%of%transnational%identity%communities%through% processes%of%framing%and%political%mobilization%by%diasporic%entrepreneurs%(11T!12).%The! entrepreneur!has!to!deploy!identity!categories!and!frames!that!create!these!communities! (Adamson!2008:!11T12,!14).!Adamson!argues!that!with!regard!to!diasporas,!this!has!often! been!achieved!by!using!the!political!ideology!of!nationalism!(idem:!15).!Lyons!and! Mandaville!have!identified!several!actors!who!could!do!this.!This!includes!leaders!located!in! host!states,!homeland!governments!and!host!states.!Yet!it!can!also!be!opposition!parties! and!insurgent!groups,!as!well!as!other!groups!advocating!for!human!rights!(Lyons!&! Mandaville!2010:!133).!Perhaps!not!so!surprisingly,!these!entrepreneurs!thus!overlap!with! the!actors!identified!in!influencing!engagement!in!the!wider!literature!on!transnational! political!engagement.!In!the!case!of!the!Colombian!community!in!London!one!can!thus! wonder!if!there!were!diasporic!entrepreneurs!that!played!a!role!in!mobilizing!this!group?!! ! Martin!Sökefeld!(2006)!also!deals!with!this!same!question!of!why!and!how!diasporas! are!mobilized!using!framing!and!mobilizing!structures!and!practices!(269T!271),!but!looks!at! this!more!deeply.!He!raises!interesting!questions!related!to,!for!example,!the!events!and! developments!that!trigger!this!imagined!community.!How!are!these!events!and! developments!framed!in!a!way!that!diasporas!perceive!a!need!to!respond!to!them!(Sökefeld! 2006:!272)?!Furthermore,!he!points!to!the!need!to!assess!the!dynamics!of!mobilization!and! the!resistance!against!these!processes!(idem:!272).!He!argues!that!the:!'...discursive% emphasis%of%the%unity%of%community%is%not%a%reflection%of%social%and%political%unity%but%rather% conceals%complex%social%and%political%dynamics%of%differences%and%disputes%within%the% community!(idem:!279)'!
! Following!this!discussion,!an!interesting!question!in!the!case!of!the!Colombian! diaspora,!particularly!given!its!characterization!as!reluctant!to!engage!with!issues!taking! place!in!Colombia,!is!thus!to!look!into!this!process!of!mobilization.!How!and!why!did!this! subgroup!within!the!Colombian!diaspora!in!London!come!to!engage!with!the!peace!process! taking!place!in!Colombia?!In!this!research!social!movement!theory!will!be!utilized!to!gain!an! understanding!of!the!social!mobilization!of!this!subgroup.!Yet!before!turning!to!a!discussion! of!social!movement!theory,!first!earlier!research!on!the!transnational!political!engagement! of!the!Colombian!diaspora!will!be!reviewed.! ! 2.4.A.reluctant.diaspora.. In!the!earlier!few!studies!undertaken!on!the!Colombian!diaspora!and!its!transnational! engagement,!the!overall!diaspora!has!been!characterized!as!being!reluctant!to!engage!with! issues!taking!place!in!Colombia.!Studies!carried!out!before!the!start!of!the!last!peace!accord! negotiations!illuminate!this!and!point!out!three!reasons!for!this.!!. ! Firstly,!involvement!depends!highly!on!personal!circumstances.!For!instance,! Colombians!who!were!involved!in!political!activism!before!they!migrated!and!had!to!leave! the!country!for!political!reasons!have!a!much!higher!rate!of!involvement!(Bermúdez!Torres! 2006:!17;!Bermúdez!2011:!136).!Those!who!migrated!for!economic!reasons,!in!turn,!have! much!lower!rates!(Bermúdez!Torres!2006:!18).!Also,!Colombian!migrants!simply!want!to! leave!the!conflict!behind,!the!conflict!is!not!a!defining!element!for!those!in!the!diaspora! (Bouvier!2007:!139T!140).!An!additional!important!factor!is!time:!how!long!migrants!have! lived!in!the!receiving!country.!Those!who!have!only!recently!arrived!are!more!preoccupied! with!their!own!survival!than!with!engaging!in!transnational!politics!(Bermúdez!Torres!2006:! 18).!Further,!time!also!plays!a!role!for!the!organizations!that!were!set!up!by!migrants.!Over! time!these!organizations!have!increasingly!come!to!focus!on!issues!for!migrants!in!the! receiving!country,!thereby!making!a!shift!from!diaspora!politics!to!migrant!politics! (Bermúdez!2011:!132T!133).!. ! Secondly,!the!low!rate!of!involvement!also!links!to!the!makeup!of!the!diaspora! communities.!Many!of!these!communities!have!reproduced!the!divisions!in!Colombia! (Bermúdez!Torres!2006:!19).!They!lack!a!shared!sense!of!identity!because!the!diaspora!is! marked!by!cleavages!in!class,!regionalism,!generation,!education,!ideology,!ethnicity,!gender! and!a!range!of!other!factors.!This!makes!it!hard!to!create!inclusive!and!representative! Colombian!organizations!(Bouvier!2007:!137;!Bermúdez!2011:!137).!Further,!the! engagement!of!Colombian!nationals!in!drug!trafficking!has!led!to!stigma,!distrust!in!the!
community,!it!affects!the!effectiveness!of!advocacy,!and!diminishes!the!credibility!of! Colombian!migrant!groups!in!policyTmaking!circles!(Bouvier!2007:!140).! ! Thirdly,!the!nature!of!the!conflict!and!the!political!situation!at!home!affected!the! involvement!of!the!diaspora.!The!complex!nature!of!the!conflict!diminished!the!possibility! for!the!diaspora!to!agree!on!a!plan!for!action.!Additionally,!with!Colombia!being!a! democracy!with!executive,!legislative!and!judiciary!institutions,!as!well!as!a!range!of! institutional!and!bureaucratic!sites!that!deal!with!different!aspects!of!the!conflict,!channels! for!international!pressure!were!hard!to!define!(idem:!139).!Lastly,!there!seems!to!be!political! apathy!and!a!lack!of!trust!in!the!Colombian!institutions!on!the!part!of!the!diaspora!(idem:! 140).!! ! Anastasia!Bermúdez!reiterates!these!points!in!her!latest!research!on!the!Colombian! diaspora!in!Europe!(2016).!She!specifically!mentions!that!the!involvement!of!only!a!minority! and!the!mistrust!and!fragmentation!in!the!diaspora!hamper!initiatives!(idem:!224).!On!a! brighter!note,!however,!she!states!that:!'Although%migrant%involvement%in%formal%politics% might%be%limited,%this%is%not%necessarily%the%case%with%other%more%informal%or%civic%forms%of% engagement%in%relation%to%both%the%home%and%host%countries%(Bermúdez!2016:!201)'.!She! argues!that!the!human!rights!and!peace!work!of!Colombian!migrants!has!not!been!given! much!scholarly!attention!for!two!reasons.!On!the!one!hand!Colombian!emigration!has!been! mainly!characterized!as!economic,!and!not!specifically!being!related!to!the!conflict.! Therefore!the!Colombian!diaspora!is!not!perceived!as!a!'classic%example%of%a%political% diaspora%(idem:!213)'.!In!addition,!the!complexity!of!the!conflict!discourages!research!on!this! topic!(ibid.).!Therefore,!the!diaspora!politics!of!Colombian!migrants!has!been!underexposed.!! ! The!peace!process!presents!an!interesting!event!to!study.!As!Bermúdez!argues:! 'Contexts%in%home%and%host%countries%matter%(2016:!220)'.!Over!the!years!initiatives!came!up! or!were!dissolved!depending!on!the!situation!in!Colombia.!As!a!result!of!the!last!peace! process,!diaspora!civil!society!engagement!in!peace!work!has!been!reinvigorated!(idem:!220T 221).!Bermúdez!takes!an!initial!step!in!assessing!the!diaspora!politics!around!halfway! through!the!peace!process!and!shows!that!Colombian!migrants!take!part!in!diaspora!politics! both!at!an!individual!level,!through!protests!(idem:!213),!as!well!as!collectively!through! human!rights!and!peace!organizations!that!work!on!issues!in!Colombia!(idem:!218T!220).!She! further!mentions!the!example!of!the!Foro%Internacional%de%Víctimas%(FIV).%These!forums! were!held!in!nineteen!European!cities!to!increase!the!visibility!of!victims!of!the!conflict! abroad!and!to!include!them!in!the!peace!process!(idem:!221).!! ! Overall!the!Colombian!diaspora!has!thus!been!reluctant!to!formally!engage!in!the!
conflict!due!to!issues!related!to!personal!circumstances,!the!makeup!of!the!diaspora! communities!and!the!nature!of!the!conflict!and!political!situation!in!Colombia.!! ! Nonetheless,!their!involvement,!mainly!in!informal!and!civic!forms!of!politics,!must!not!be! disregarded.!This!research!looks!at!the!diaspora!politics!of!Colombian!migrants!in!London! throughout!the!peace!process.!It!builds!on!Bermúdez's!initial!step!in!reviewing!Colombian! migrants'!diaspora!politics!in!Europe!with!regard!to!the!peace!process!and!goes!more!inT depth.!It!shows!both!the!formal!and!informal!engagement!in!the!peace!process!of!a! subgroup!within!the!Colombian!community!in!London,!which!has!been!characterized!as! reluctant,!and!looks!into!why!this!group!became!active!in!setting!up!and!taking!part! initiatives!related!to!the!peace!process.!Additionally,!in!assessing!the!former,!this!research! also!provides!insights!into!how!the!process!and!the!engagement!of!this!group!in!it!has!had! an!influence!on!them!individually!and!on!the!wider!Colombian!community!in!London.!As!Luis! Eduardo!Guarnizo,!Alejandro!Portes!and!William!Haller!(2003)!state:!'...%the%meaning%and% scope%of%political%transnationalism%is%not%uniform.%Although%there%are%common%forces%bearing% on%all%immigrants,%the%particular%circumstances%of%each%community%also%affects%the%extent% and%character%of%these%activities!(1235)'.!In!the!next!section!the!approaches!of!social! movement!theory!will!be!discussed!that!will!be!utilized!to!assess!how!and!why!members!of! the!Colombian!diaspora!in!London!mobilized!in!relation!to!the!peace!process!and!what! influence!this!had.!! 2.5.Social.movement.theory... In!this!research!approaches!that!are!part!of!social!movement!theory!will!be!utilized.!It!is! therefore!important!to!point!out!that!the!mobilization!of!this!subgroup!within!the!diaspora! in!London!is!not!perceived!as!being!similar!to!the!creation!of!a!social!movement.! Nonetheless,!social!movements!share!similar!analytical!puzzles!with!diasporas!about!how! groups!go!from!inactive!to!active.!Therefore!approaches!from!social!movement!theory!can! aid!in!explaining!how!these!individuals!became!involved!in!setting!up!and!taking!part!in!a! range!of!initiatives!through!which!they!engaged!with!the!peace!process,!which!converged! around!the!time!of!the!referendum,!albeit!at!a!small!scale.!What!factors!played!a!role!in! this?!In!social!movement!theory!different!approaches!focus!on!the!political!contexts,!the! resources!that!are!available,!and!cultural!aspects!such!as!identity!and!values!and!beliefs!that! have!an!influence!on!people!becoming!involved!in!social!movements.!In!addition,!social! movement!scholars!have!looked!into!the!effects!on!individuals!from!taking!part!in!social! movements,!which!can!be!used!as!a!starting!point!to!assess!the!effects!of!the!engagement! of!this!group!in!the!peace!process.!!
! Within!social!movement!theory!there!are!three!main!strands!of!approaches.!The! first!one!focuses!on!the!political!process.!Sidney!Tarrow!(1994)!defines!political!opportunity! structures!as!'...!consistentT%but%not%necessarily%formal,%permanent%or%nationalT%dimensions%or% the%political%environment%which%either%encourage%or%discourage%people%from%using%collective% action%(18)'.!Social!movements!arise!when!people:!'...!respond%to%changes%in%opportunities% that%lower%the%costs%of%collective%action,%reveal%potential%allies%and%show%where%elites%and% authorities%are%vulnerable%(Tarrow!1994:!18)'.%The!most!classic!changes!include!'the%opening% up%of%access%to%power,%from%shifts%in%ruling%alignments,%from%the%availability%of%influential% allies%and%from%cleavages%within%and%among%elites%(ibid)'.%Through!collective!action! movements!in!turn!create!new!political!opportunities!(Tarrow!1994:!17).!This!approach!thus! views!people!as!rationally!calculating!whether!to!engage!in!collective!action!or!not.!Scholars! in!this!approach!also!speak!of!windows!of!opportunity!that!seem!to!set!things!in!motion.! These!moments,!however,!do!not!suddenly!arise!and!their!importance!may!differ!per!case.! As!the!conflict!furthers,!the!likelihood!of!this!window!appearing!increases!and!so!these! moments!should!not!be!seen!as!the!absolute!starting!point!of!a!movement!(McAdam!et!al.! 2001!in!Kriesi!2004:!80T!81).!In!the!case!in!this!research!the!question!can!thus!be!asked!if!and! how!a!change!in!political!opportunity!structure!can!explain!the!mobilization!of!this!group!in! London.!! ! The!second!strand!turns!its!attention!to!resource!mobilization.!It!follows!the!logic! that!the!availability!of!resources!increases!the!chances!of!a!social!movement!arising! (Edwards!&!McCarthy!2004:!116).!Although!one!would!tend!to!mainly!think!of!financial! resources,!there!is!a!range!of!resources!that!have!been!identified!that!can!contribute!to!the! mobilization!of!social!movements.!These!include:!moral,!cultural,!socioTorganizational,! human!and!material!resources!(idem:!125T!128).!Studies!on!resource!mobilization!have,!for! example,!focused!on!how!resources!can!be!acquired!(idem:!131T!135)!and!the!context! dependency!of!resources!(idem:!129T!131).!!Yet!again,!in!this!research!the!question!can!be! asked!whether!the!availability!of!resources,!or!a!change!herein!facilitated!the!activity!of!this! group.!! ! The!third!strand!of!social!movement!theory!focuses!on!the!cultural!aspects.! Whereas!the!aforementioned!structural!approaches!focus!on!the!societal!environments,!the! context,!in!which!these!social!movements!take!place!and!the!influence!hereof!on!the! movement,!these!cultural!approaches!tend!to!have!a!more!"movementTcentric"!approach.! This!entails!that:!"The%facets%that%are%studied%are%the%movement,%the%people%that%are%part%of% it%and%meanings%associated%with%the%movement%(Williams!2004:!94T!95)".!James!Jasper!
(1997)!is!one!of!the!scholars!adhering!to!this!approach.!In!taking!a!constructivist!view,!he! adheres!to!the!idea!that:!'...%we%humans%together%create%everything%that%we%know%and% experience,%or%at%least%the%interpretive%frameworks%through%which%we%filter%all%our%experience% (Jasper!1997:!10)'.!Therefore!it!follows!that!protest!is!constructed!as!well,!and!that!our! interests!and!goals!are!entrenched!with!cultural!interpretation!(ibid.).!He!identifies!culture! as!consisting!of!three!parts:!'Our%cognitive%beliefs,%emotional%response,%and%moral% evaluations%of%the%world![...]%are%inseparable,%and%together%these%motivate,%rationalize,%and% channel%political%action%(Jasper!1997:!12)'.!Yet!culture!does!not!provide!the!answer!to! everything,!as!it!cannot,!for!example,!be!equated!with!the!economic!resources!of!a! movement.!Therefore!Jasper!assesses!how!culture!interacts!with!resources,!strategies!and! biography,!the!other!three!dimensions!of!protest!he!identifies%(idem:!44).%The!question!can! thus!be!asked!how!cultural!aspects!such!as!identity!influenced!the!mobilization!of!the!group,! but!also!how!it!interacted!with!other!dimensions!of!the!protest.!! ! Furthermore,!whereas!the!three!approaches!above!focus!on!explaining!group! activity,!they!also!correspond!with!motives!of!individuals!to!join!in!collective!action!or!social! movements.!Social!psychology!has!identified!three!categories!of!motivations:! instrumentality,!identity!and!ideology.!These!motives!are!not!mutually!exclusive!or! competing!(Klandermans!2013:!1).!Instrumentality!is!related!to!the!political!process!and! resource!mobilization!theories.!Taking!part!in!social!movements!is!perceived!as!a!rational! decision!based!on!the!expectation!that!the!movement!will!yield!certain!outcomes,!based!on! affordable!costs!(ibid.).!The!motive!of!identity!is!related!to!the!cultural!approach!that! emphasizes!the!role!of!collective!identity!(ibid.).!It!comes!from!the!support!for!the! hypothesis!that:!'...%a%strong%identification%with%a%group%makes%participation%in%collective% political%action%on%behalf%of%that%group%more%likely!(Van!Stekelenburg!&!Klandermans!2010:! 181)'.!The!participants!feel!an!'inner%social%obligation%to%act%on%behalf%of%the%collective! (Klandermans!2013:!2)'.!Ideology,!lastly,!is!also!related!to!approaches!that!focus!on!culture.! It!is!based!on!people's!values!and!their!assessment!of!a!situation.!People's!likelihood!to! engage!in!political!protest!is!intensified!when!a!situation!goes!against!their!values.!They!feel! an!inner!moral!obligation!(Klandermans!2013:!1,!2;!Van!Stekelenburg!&!Klandermans!2010:! 183T!184).! ! Within!social!movement!theory!there!are!thus!three!strands!of!approaches!that! provide!insight!into!why!movements!emerge.!As!part!of!the!cultural!turn!in!the!study!of! social!movements,!scholars!picked!up!on!two!concepts!that!were!pointed!to!earlier!in! relation!to!the!literature!on!the!mobilization!of!diasporas!and!their!engagement!in!diaspora!
politics:!collective!identity!and!framing.!Even!though!the!role!of!political!process!and! resources!will!not!be!neglected,!the!concepts!of!collective!identity!and!framing!are! specifically!relevant!to!assess!why!members!of!this!subgroup!within!the!Colombian!diaspora! in!London!became!involved!in!initiatives!related!to!the!peace!process.!This!will!be!further! detailed!in!the!next!section.! ! 2.6.Collective.identity,.framing.and.personal.biographies.. The!concepts!of!collective!identity!and!framing!are!specifically!interesting!for!gaining!an! understanding!of!why!this!particular!subgroup!within!the!Colombian!diaspora!in!London! engaged!in!initiatives!related!to!the!peace!process.!In!addition,!research!on!biographical! consequences!will!be!discussed!in!this!part!to!give!an!idea!of!how!engaging!in!collective! action!can!influence!individuals!and!the!community!that!they!are!part!of.!! % 2.6.1%Collective%identity% Collective!identity!is!particularly!interesting!to!look!at!when!discussing!the!mobilization!of!a! diaspora.!As!was!detailed!in!the!discussion!of!the!concept!of!the!diaspora,!there!is!a!tension! inherent!to!diasporas!in!which!on!the!one!hand!it!is!argued!that!they!are!bound!together!by! a!homeland!orientation,!a!collective!identity!tying!them!to!the!homeland,!and!on!the!other! hand!there!is!the!observation!that!diasporas!are!increasingly!heterogeneous.!This!is!for! instance!the!case!in!the!Colombian!diaspora,!which!has!been!characterized!as!fragmented.! In!the!case!of!the!mobilization!of!this!subgroup!within!the!Colombian!community!in!London! it!is!thus!interesting!to!assess!the!role!of!collective!identity.!Did!a!collective!identity!form!the! incentive!to!join!in!setting!up!and!taking!part!in!these!initiatives!related!to!the!peace! process?!How!did!collective!identity!play!a!role!herein?!! ! Scholars!have!turned!to!studying!collective!identity!in!different!facets!of!a! movement,!such!as:!in!the!emerging!of!a!movement,!in!choosing!strategies!and!in!the! outcome!(Williams!2004:!92).!With!regard!to!incentives!to!join!movements,!for!instance,! research!has!used!collective!identity!to!explain!participation!through!'norms%of%obligation% and%reciprocity!(Polletta!&!Jasper!2001:!290)'.!It!has!further!shown!that!movements!can!use! identities!strategically,!as!well!as!that!strategies!can!be!chosen!specifically!for!their!meaning! to!the!group!(idem:!296).!Yet!a!cautionary!note!is!issued!by!Jasper!and!Polletta!yet!again!that! collective!identity!has!been!used!to!explain!too!much!analytically.!They!argue!that!research! should!identify!the!relationship!between!cultural!processes!and!structural!ones,!thereby! avoiding!apriori!assumptions!(2001:!284).!For!example,!in!their!review!of!the!research!
conducted!on!collective!identity,!they!show!that!this!connection!between!loyalty!towards! the!group!and!taking!part!in!collective!action!does!not!have!to!be!this!straightforward.!Some! scholars!combine!loyalty!with!rational!choice!or!selfTinterest!to!show!that!for!some! individuals!activism!is!a!'way%to%construct%a%desirable%self%(Polletta!&!Jasper!2001:!290)'.!It!is! thus!important!to!keep!in!mind!that!collective!identity!can!interact!with!other!factors!to!lead! to!mobilization.!The!question!in!this!research!can!be!asked!whether!collective!identity!has! interacted!with!other!instrumental!motives.!! ! Francesca!Polletta!and!James!Jasper!(2001)!define!collective!action!as:!'...!an% individual's%cognitive,%moral,%and%emotional%connection%with%a%broader%community,%category,% practice%or%institution.%It%is%a%perception%of%a%shared%status%or%relation,%which%may%be% imagined%rather%than%experienced%directly...%(285).'!David!Snow!(2001)!adds!to!this:! 'Embedded%within%the%shared%sense%of%"we"%is%a%corresponding%sense%of%"collective%agency."% This%latter%sense,%which%is%the%action%component%of%collective%identity,%not%only%suggests%the% possibility%of%collective%action%in%pursuit%of%common%interests,%but%even%invites%such%action%(2,! quotations!in!original!text).'%The!concept!of!collective!identity!thus!has!an!implicit!link!with! action.!Given!limitations!of!space,!social!psychology!research!that!has!been!conducted!on! the!question!of!how!collective!identity!leads!to!collective!action!will!not!be!discussed!here! (e.g.!Van!Stekelenberg!&!Klandermans!2010).! ! !Collective!identity!interacts!with!two!other!types!of!identity:!social!identity,!which!is! ascribed!by!others!and!based!on!social!roles!or!categories,!and!personal!identity,!which!an! actor!attributes!to!hisT!or!herself!and!may!overlap!with!social!identities!(Snow!2001:!1T2).! These!three!types!of!identity!can!be!distinguished!but!can!overlap!at!the!same!time.! Personal!identities!and!collective!identity!specifically!relate!in!that!collective!identities!are! dependent!on!the!collective!identity!being!a!highly!salient!part!of!the!member's!personal! identity!(Gamson!1991!in!Snow!2001:!3).!! % When!discussing!identity,!it!must!be!kept!in!mind!that!'self'!and!'other'!identification! depend!highly!on!the!situation!and!context.!It!is!fluid!(Brubaker!and!Cooper!2000:!14).!This!is! specifically!relevant!in!relation!to!this!research!on!the!Colombian!diaspora,!as!can!be!read! from!the!following!quote:!! !
'Because% the% world% is% on% the% move,% more% and% more% people% identify% with% and% participate% in% several% communities% at% once% [...]% Migrating% does% not% produce% a% single%linear%shift%from%one%identity%to%another,%but%instead%the%embrace%of%a%set% of% fluctuating% identities% and% allegiances% that% change% in% response% to% lifeTcycle% events,% elections,% climatic% disasters,% and% economic% downturns.% Immigrants% and% their%children,%who%may%never%have%identified%with%or%participated%in%the%politics%
of% their% ancestral% home,% in% response% to% some% external% catalyst,% become% active% protagonists%in%homeland%politics%at%the%same%time%that%they%participate%actively% in%the%places%where%they%settle%(Boccagni!et!al.!2016:!448)'.!% ! People!thus!have!many!identities!that!vary!in!salience!at!times!(Snow!2001:!6).!Specific! events!or!developments!may!thus!have!an!influence!on!which!identity!is!most!salient!at!the! time.!This!might!explain,!for!example,!why!in!groups!of!transnational!activists!there!is!a! small!core!and!a!large!group!of!people!around!them.!Whereas!the!small!core!continuously! stays!engaged!in!homeland!politics,!the!larger!group!only!becomes!active!at!specific! moments!such!as!disputed!elections!or!natural!disasters!(Guarnizo!et!al.!2003:!1238).!It!can! be!questioned!if!in!the!case!of!this!research!a!particular!identity!came!into!being!or!was! made!more!salient!during!the!peace!process!that!led!people!to!engage!with!it.!!!This! observation!fits!within!the!wider!question!of,!returning!to!the!relationship!between! collective!and!personal!identities,!how:!'...%do%the%shared%cognitions%and%feelings%indicative%of% collective%identity%move%center%stage%at%the%individual%level!(Snow!2001:!7)?'!! ! Two!processes!can!provide!an!answer!for!this:!identity!convergence!and!identity! construction.!Identity!convergence!is!the!process!that!takes!place!when!personal!identities! are!already!congruent!with!the!collective!identity!(ibid.).!In!the!case!of!identity!construction,! some!work!is!needed!to!create!an!alignment!between!personal!identities!and!collective! identities.!Corresponding!there!are!four!different!processes!that!may!facilitate!this.!Identity! amplification!entails!a!change!in!the!salience!hierarchy!of!identities.!Identity!consolidation! takes!place!when!two!previously!seemingly!incompatible!identities!are!converged.!Identity! extension!is!the!expansion!of!an!identity!in!a!specific!context!to!match!with!the!collectivity:! 'as%when%individuals%come%to%see%themselves%as%representatives%for%a%specific%cause%that% transcends%other%role%obligations%and%identities%(Snow!2001:!8).%Lastly,!identity! transformation!happens!when!a!complete!change!takes!place!in!the!way!that!individuals! perceive!themselves,!for!instance!when!individuals!join!a!new!group!(Snow!&!McAdam!2000! in!Snow!2001:!8).!In!this!research!it!can!thus!be!assessed!which!of!these!four!processes!took! place!amongst!those!in!the!subgroup!within!the!Colombian!community!in!London.!The! mechanisms!underlying!these!processes!are!framing!and!taking!part!in!collective!action! (Snow!2001:!8).!! ! The!relationship!between!collective!identity!and!collective!action!cannot,!however,! be!limited!to!collective!identity!being!an!incentive!to!join!in!collective!action.!Snow!describes! the!influence!of!taking!part!in!collective!action!as!following:!'...!engagement%in%collective% action,%as%when%direct%observation%or%experience%functions%as%a%demonstration%event%gives%
rise%to%a%situationally%specific%collective%identity%or%affirms%collective%claims%and%thus%helps%to% render%salient,%and%perhaps%pervasive,%what%was%previously%a%secondary%or%marginal%personal% or%social%identity!(ibid.)'.!There!is!thus!a!twoTway!connection!between!collective!identity!and! collective!action.!Collective!identity!is!needed!for!collective!action!to!take!place!but!taking! part!in!collective!action!can!in!turn!strengthen!or!reshape!the!collective!identity.!! ! Together!these!insights!of!research!into!collective!identity!thus!provide!a!sense!of! how!collective!identities!are!created,!as!well!as!into!what!way!they!can!play!a!role!in! different!phases!of!collective!action.!By!identifying!how!a!collective!identity!was!created!in! the!Colombian!diaspora!in!London!and!what!it!consists!of,!one!can!assess!its!influence!on! the!engagement!of!these!people!in!the!peace!process!and!on!their!collective!action.!In!the! next!part!the!process!of!framing!will!be!discussed,!which!besides,!as!mentioned,!being!one! of!the!mechanisms!that!facilitates!the!creation!of!collective!identity!is!also!used!to!create! the!important!collective!action!frame.!! ! 2.6.2%Framing% Sense!making!'...%involves%contextualizing%a%particular%cue%or%experience%in%the%context%of%a% learnt%frame,%narrative%or%category,%as%the%contextual%template,%which%then%produces%and% enables%interpretation%(Weick!1995:!109T!110!in!Holt!&!Cornelissen!2014:!525)'.!An! experience!is!thus!made!sense!of!when!it!can!be!placed!in!a!frame,!narrative!or!category! that!allows!for!understanding.!Rather!than!focusing!on!how!choices!inform!action,!in!sense! making!the!central!component!is!interpretation!(Weick!et!al.!2005:!409).!How!one!interprets! a!situation!informs!what!opportunities!one!sees!to!act.!! ! One!way!of!operationalizing!sense!making!is!through!the!concept!of!framing,!utilized! in!this!research.!Framing!is!part!of!the!interactionist!tradition!in!which!scholars:!'...!have% been%particularly%interested%in%the%interpersonal%processes%through%which%people%understand% what%they%are%doing%and%how%they%find%the%ideational,%moral%and%emotional%resources%to% keep%doing%it!(Williams!2004:!93)'.!Robert!Benford!and!David!Snow!use!William!Gamson's! definition!of!frameworks!to!come!to!the!following!definition!of!framing:!"Framing%entails% 'schemata%of%interpretation'%that%enable%individuals%to%'locate,%perceive,%identify,%and%label'% occurrences%within%their%life%space%and%the%world%at%large.%Frames%help%to%render%events%or% occurrences%meaningful%and%thereby%function%to%organize%experience%and%guide%action! (Goffman!1974:!21!in!Benford!&!Snow!2000:!614,!quotations!in!original!text)".!Frames!thus! aid!people!in!ordering!moments!and!events!to!make!sense!of!them!and!thereby!to!inform! the!choice!of!actions!that!they!can!undertake.!Collective!action!frames!do!this!as!'actionT
oriented%sets%of%beliefs%and%meaning!(Benford!&!Snow!2000:!614)!that!have!as!a!goal!to! mobilize!people!and!to!garner!support!(Snow!&!Benford!1988:!198!in!Benford!&!Snow!2000:! 614).! ! Collective!action!frames!have!three!core!framing!tasks:!diagnostic!framing,! prognostic!framing!and!motivational!framing!(idem:!615).!Based!on!the!aforementioned! definition!it!seems!evident!that!diagnostic!framing!refers!to!identifying!the!cause!of!blame! or!responsibility!(ibid.);!that!prognostic!framing!refers!to!articulating!a!solution!to!the! identified!problem!and!thus!the!action!that!can!be!undertaken!(616);!and!that!motivational! framing!refers!to!identifying!a!rationale!to!join!in!collective!action!(617).!Relating!it!to!this! specific!case!of!Colombians!abroad!engaging!in!the!peace!process,!in!the!frames!used!it! might!not!so!much!be!about!who!or!what!is!to!blame!for!a!specific!situation.!In!this!research! the!frames!that!initiatives!have!created!can!be!studied!to!understand!how!the!people!that! have!set!up!this!initiative!and!that!take!part!in!it!perceive!the!peace!negotiations.!What!issue! or!point!do!they!diagnose!to!focus!on!and!how!do!they!either!support!or!challenge!this?!The! role!that!they!have,!the!action!that!they!can!take,!as!part!of!prognostic!framing,!is!then!also! decided!in!this.!The!motivational!framing!task!is!less!relevant!given!that!those!that!take!part! in!the!initiatives!are!also!the!ones!that!are!involved!in!setting!them!up.!Framing!can!thus!be! used!in!this!research!to!assess!how!members!within!the!Colombian!diaspora!in!London! became!engaged!in!the!peace!process,!by!looking!into!the!issues!that!they!identify!and!the! role!that!they!have!created!for!themselves!in!this.!! ! 2.6.3%Personal%biographies% Lastly,!in!the!study!of!social!movements,!the!question!of!influence!on!individuals'!lives!of! taking!part!in!social!movements!has!been!studied.!This!is!also!relevant!in!the!study!of! transnational!political!practices!in!that,!for!example,!Guarnizo!et!al.!have!stated!that! transnational!activism:!'!...!endows%immigrants%with%a%renewed%sense%of%efficacy%and%selfT worth%that%facilitates%their%integration%into%the%political%institutions%of%their%new%country% (Guarnizo!et!al.!2003:!1239).'!!These!outcomes!of!social!movements!are!called!personal!or! biographical!consequences!(Giugni!2004:!489).!In!asking!how!individuals!have!engaged!with! the!peace!process!insights!can!simultaneously!be!gained!into!the!question!of!what!type!of! influence!the!diaspora!politics!activities!related!to!the!peace!process!of!this!group!has!had! on!the!participants!individually!and!at!the!community!level.!This!question!of!the!influence!on! individuals!within!a!diaspora!of!engaging!in!issues!in!the!homeland!specifically!related!to! conflict!has!not!been!assessed!rigorously!before.!Therefore!it!is!intriguing!to!take!an!initial!
look!at!the!effect!hereof!on!this!group!within!the!Colombian!community!in!London,!even! though!this!will!only!provide!insights!into!shortTterm!effects.!! ! Earlier!research!on!social!movements!has!shown!that!effects!can!be!both!in!terms!of! sustained!participation!in!new!movements!or!other!forms!of!political!activity!!(Giugni!2004:! 494;!McAdam!1989:!759),!as!well!as!in!lasting!organizational!and!personal!networks!that! these!participants!remain!part!of!(McAdam!1989:!759).!It!has!also!been!shown!that!that! participation!tends!to!have!a!lasting!impact!on!participants'!identities,!both!for!those!that! are!strongly!involved!and!those!that!are!more!casually!taking!part!(Polletta!&!Jasper!2001:! 296).!Additionally,!as!has!been!detailed,!there!is!an!interaction!between!collective!identity! and!collective!action!with!the!latter!leading!to!changes!in!the!former!(idem:!284).!One!can! thus!also!question!what!effect!it!has!had!on!the!larger!group!in!London.! ! 2.7.Theoretical.relevance.. Through!discussing!the!different!theories!that!this!research!is!embedded!in,!it!has!also! become!clear!how!this!research!can!contribute!to!these!fields.!The!theoretical!relevance!of! this!research!lies!on!the!one!hand!in!that!it!examines!both!the!formal!and!informal! engagement!of!the!Colombian!community!abroad!in!diaspora!politics.!In!earlier!research!the! informal!transnational!political!engagement!of!the!Colombian!diaspora!has!largely!gone! unnoticed.!In!addition,!in!earlier!research!the!diaspora!has!been!characterized!as!reluctant! to!engage!with!issues!taking!place!in!Colombia.!This!study!thus!provides!new!insight!into!the! role!of!the!Colombian!diaspora!in!its!homeland!conflict.!! ! Furthermore,!this!study!adds!to!the!research!on!the!mobilization!of!diasporas.!In! research!on!the!question!of!what!factors!influence!engagement!in!transnational!politics,!and! thus!also!the!mobilization!of!diasporas,!a!myriad!of!factors!have!been!identified!leading!to!a! fractured!picture.!In!discussing!the!becoming!active!of!diasporas,!their!mobilization,!the! concept!of!collective!identity!is!interesting!in!that!collective!identity!is!one!of!the!factors!that! influences!mobilization,!yet!it!is!also!central!to!a!tension!within!the!concept!itself.!One!the! one!hand!a!diaspora!is!supposed!to!be!bound!by!a!homeland!orientation,!connected!to!its! collective!identity,!on!the!other!hand!there!is!the!acknowledgement!that!diasporas!are! heterogeneous.!The!Colombian!case!is!an!example!of!this!fragmentation.!This!research!then! adds!to!research!on!collective!identity!and!diasporas!in!looking!into!how!collective!identity! plays!a!role!in!the!mobilization!of!fragmented!diasporas!that!do!not!have!this!shared! identity.!!
! Lastly,!this!research!provides!insight!into!how!engaging!in!transnational!politics,! particularly!diaspora!politics,!has!an!effect!on!diasporas,!in!this!case!in!the!practical!sense!of! engaging!in!initiatives!related!to!the!peace!process.!This!question!of!the!influence!on!the! diaspora!of!this!engagement,!instead!of!solely!the!effect!the!engagement!has!on!the!conflict,! has!not!been!assessed!rigorously!before.!! ! In!this!theoretical!framework!several!issues!have!been!discussed.!To!start!of!the!concept!of! diaspora!was!discussed.!This!highlighted!the!tension!in!the!concept!of!diaspora!with!it!being! perceived!as!bounded!by!a!homeland!orientation!but!simultaneously!with!it!being!internally! diverse.!Then,!it!was!argued!that!studying!diasporas!is!important!for!the!study!of!conflict! resolution,!by!discussing!research!on!the!different!roles!that!diasporas!can!take!on!in!conflict! and!specifically!through!transnational!political!practices.!Within!this,!studies!were!discussed! that!provide!insight!into!the!myriad!of!factors!that!influence!transnational!political! engagement!and!the!mobilization!of!diasporas.!Next,!earlier!research!on!the!Colombian! diaspora!was!discussed!to!show!how!the!Colombian!diaspora!has!been!reluctant!to!engage! with!issues!taking!place!in!Colombia.!Yet,!it!has!been!argued!that!the!Colombian!diaspora's! informal!and!civic!engagement!deserves!a!more!thorough!investigation,!specifically!with! regard!to!the!changing!context!because!of!the!peace!process!that!was!started!in!2012.! Following!this,!social!movement!theory!was!discussed!that!is!utilized!in!this!research!to!gain! an!understanding!of!why!this!group!of!the!Colombian!community!in!London!mobilized.! Although!the!setting!up!of!smallTscale!initiatives!cannot!be!considered!a!social!movement,! the!studies!of!social!movements!and!the!mobilization!of!diasporas!share!the!same!analytic! puzzle!of!why!groups!mobilize.!The!three!approaches!of!social!movement!were!discussed,! and!collective!identity!and!framing!were!pointed!out!as!specifically!interesting!for!this! research.!The!role!of!collective!identity!is!intriguing!given!the!tension!inherent!in!the! concept!of!diasporas!but!also!in!that!it!is!pointed!out!as!necessary!to!start!a!social! movement.!The!case!of!the!Colombian!community!is!therefore!interesting!to!study,!given!its! fragmentation!and!a!lack!of!a!shared!identity.!Framing!is!useful!in!that!it!can!be!utilized!to! lay!bare!the!way!that!these!people!perceived!the!peace!process!and!particularly!in!this!the! issues!that!they!have!pointed!through!which!they!have!created!a!role!to!play!for!themselves! from!abroad.!Following!this,!earlier!studies!on!personal!or!biographical!consequences!were! shortly!explained!that!can!be!used!to!compare!to!the!effects!of!engaging!in!initiatives! related!to!the!peace!process!on!this!group!of!people.!Lastly,!the!theoretical!relevance!of!this! research!has!been!explained.!!
! The!review!of!theories!that!this!research!is!embedded!in!has!led!to!three!sensitizing! questions!for!the!research!question:!!How!have!members!of!the!Colombian!diaspora!in! London!engaged,!both!in!an!informal!and!formal!manner,!in!diaspora!politics!related!to!the! peace!process?!Why!have!they!engaged!in!this?!And!how!has!this!engagement!had!an! influence!on!them!individually!and!on!the!community!in!a!wider!sense?!In!the!next!chapter! on!methodology,!it!will!be!explained!how!these!questions!are!operationalized,!why! specifically!the!case!of!the!Colombian!community!in!London!was!chosen,!and!which!research! methods!have!been!used!to!gather!data!for!this.!.!
