A Book of Hours for Sint-Pieters, Ghent
(Amsterdam, UBA, Ms. XXV C 26) :
A fascinating and complex work
Paula L. Pumplin
MA-scriptie, Universiteit van Amsterdam Kunstgeschiedenis van de Middeleeuwen
Studentnummer: 0610836 26 oktober 2011
Table of contents
Introduction
State of research The current study
Part 1 – Description of UBA, Ms. XXV C 26
Date and localization Script and penwork Decoration
Content Illumination
Hand A - Master of the Feathery Clouds Hand B - Master of Willem van Bossuyt Hand C - Master of Gerard Brilis
Hand D – Maître Y of ÖNB, Cod. 1857?
Part 2 – The Hours of the Holy Spirit in XXV C 26 and new iconography of the Virtues
The new iconography in the Northern Netherlands French origins of the new iconography
The Virtues in the Tuesday Hours of the Holy Spirit in XXV C 26 (f. 22r-24v)
Summary and Conclusion Literature consulted
Appendix 1 – Codicological description Appendix 2 - Overview of UBA Ms. XXV C 26 Figures
Introduction
The Book of Hours that is the subject of this thesis is one of the treasures of the Special Collections of the University of Amsterdam. Produced in Flanders during the second half of the 15th century, its most striking feature is a series of eleven full-page miniatures, seven of which accompany the Hours of the Virgin. The remaining four introduce,
respectively, the Seven Penitential Psalms, the Office of the Dead, the Salve regina and the Passion according to John. These miniatures are of such high quality and are accompanied by borders of such great charm and inventiveness that they have been attributed to Lieven van Lathem, one of the foremost Flemish miniaturists of the second half of the 15th century. The manuscript is further richly decorated with 22 column miniatures, 1 two column miniature, 89 historiated initials and border decoration throughout.1
State of research
Until recently, there was almost nothing written specifically about XXV C 26. An A4 sheet of handwritten annotations in German by an unknown author is inserted at the back of the manuscript itself. Judging from the paper and handwriting, these annotations were probably made in the second half of the twentieth century. The author distinguishes three hands, dates the manuscript c.1470 and locates it in Ghent or Bruges. There is an entry for the manuscript in the catalogue of a sale held in Amsterdam in 1929 and in the catalogue of an exhibition held at the University Library in Amsterdam in1977.2
George Dogaer first associated the illumination in the manuscript with Lieven van Lathem and finds that the style of XXV C 26 resembles that of four other Books of Hours related to Lieven van Lathem.3
A basic description of XXV C 26 appears in Alexander Willem Byvanck
Genootschap, Illuminated manuscripts in Dutch collections : preliminary precursor, part 2-3. The Hague, Koninklijke Bibliotheek, 1993, p. 29-31. The identification of the subjects of the painted decoration and texts in this source was very useful when I was compiling an overview of the manuscript (Appendix 2).
Eva Wolf provided a more extensive treatment of XXV C 26 in 1996.4 She included the Amsterdam manuscript in her study of the Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch (Stuttgart,
1
I first encountered UBA Ms. XXV C 26 during the seminar, Toegepaste handschriftenkunde, offered by Prof. J.A.A.M. Biemans in the spring of 2006. His willingness to share this beautiful Book of Hours with us is indicative of his engaging teaching methods. I got to know the manuscript better during the seminar, Het middeleeuwse boek, offered in the autumn of the same year. The course was team-taught by Prof. Biemans, Prof. C.A. Chavannes-Mazel and Dr. K.M. Rudy of the Koninklijke Bibliotheek. I was part of the
“handengroep” whose task it was to sort out and characterize the hands responsible for the illumination. The other members of the group were Ingrid Henkemans (Hand A) and Ellie Verbeek (Hand B). My assignment was Hand C, the artist responsible for the full-page miniatures. I worked closely with Dr. Rudy during this period, and am deeply grateful for her advice and guidance in this matter. When the seminar was over, I realized that there was much more to be learned about the manuscript. As a result, I decided to use it as the subject for my Masters thesis. Dr. K.H. Broekhuijsen gave me much valuable advice at the beginning of my research. I was fortunate to have Prof. Chavannes-Mazel as my thesis advisor. I am profoundly indebted to Prof. James H. Marrow for his willingness to share documentation (including high quality reproductions) relating to the Book of Hours in Saint Petersburg (Hermitage, Graphic arts department, Ms. 6) and his recent insights relating to a Book of Hours in Vienna (ÖNB, S.n. 12908). I am grateful to Klaas van der Hoek for discussing Antonis uten Broec with me.
2
Beumer et al. 1977, p. 12-13 (cat. I-3) and Catalogue 1929, p. 20-21 (lot 41)
3 Dogaer 1987, p. 133. The four Books of Hours are: Madrid, B.N., Ms, Vit. 24-10; Oxford, Bodl. L., Mss.
Douce 381, fols. 78-88 + Douce, d. 19, fol. 71v; Oxford, Bodl. L., Ms. Gough Liturg. 15 and Paris, BN, Ms. nouv. acq. lat. 215. See Dogaer 1987, p. 136.
Landesbibliothek, Cod.brev.162) because, according to her, Hand B of the Stuttgart
manuscript is the same as Hand C in XXV C 26.5 In her catalogue entry for XXV C 26, she identifies three hands responsible for the illumination, briefly describes the style of each artist and indicates two or three folios as examples of their work.6 She states that the borders executed by Hand A are reminiscent of those of the Master of the Feathery Clouds. She also identifies four additional manuscripts where Hand B of the Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch was active.7
While I was beginning work on my thesis, James H. Marrow was (unbeknownst to me) working on an essay that has profound implications for the identification of the hands in XXV C 26.8 He attributes five additional works to Hand B of the Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch (and thus also to Hand C of XXV C 26), and proposes re-naming this artist the Master of Gerard Brilis after the scribe who collaborated with this Master in two Carthusian Bibles now in Malmesbury and Brussels.9 Marrow agrees with Wolf that Hand A of XXV C 26 is the Master of the Feathery Clouds.10 He calls Hand B the Master of Willem van Bossuyt after a Missal illuminated for an altar endowed by Van Bossuyt in Ghent.11 Unlike Wolf, Marrow “does not see the hand of the Master of Gerard Brilis in the Vienna Hours of Mary of
Burgundy” (ÖNB, Cod. 1857).12 He also finds that the borders accompanying the full-page miniatures in XXV C 26 are “by another painter working in a style related to that of Lieven van Lathem.”13
Marrow‟s work now forms the basis for further discussion of the illumination in XXV C 26.
On a more general level, there have been major developments in research on Flemish illuminated manuscripts, for example, the catalogue of the groundbreaking exhibition,
Illuminating the Renaissance held in Los Angeles and London, 2003, the lectures presented
at the accompanying symposium and Thomas Kren‟s lecture, The Trivulzio Hours and the
inter-urban network of luxury book production in the Burgundian Netherlands, given in
March 2007 at the symposium in honour of Anne Korteweg at the Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague.14 Also of importance is Antoine de Schryver‟s monograph on the Prayer Book of Charles the Bold, published posthumously in 2007, which is a culmination of more than 50 years of research.15 While these sources do not specifically mention XXV C 26, they do provide detailed information about the context in which the manuscript was produced.
5 Idem. In this thesis I will use the same designations as Wolf. 6
Unfortunately, the list of the illumination (p. 238-239) contains a number of errors and omissions.
7
Wolf 1996, p. 316: Roman de Girart de Roussillon, Vienna, ÖNB, Cod.2549 (Wolf, cat.18); Breviary of Grammont, Maredsous, Bibl. de l‟Abbaye, Ms. Fº 3/1-4 (Hand D) (Wolf cat.7); so-called Missal of Pope Pius V, Mondovi, Curia Vescovile (no signature) (Hand B) (Wolf cat.8) and Hours of Mary of Burgundy, Vienna, ÖNB, Cod.1857 (Maître Y) (Wolf cat.16).
8 Marrow 2007. He discusses XXV C 26 on p. 175-176, 187-188 (notes 19-25). I cannot thank Dr. Rudy enough
for bringing this essay to my attention before I began writing my thesis.
9 Carthusian Bible of Herne, Malmesbury, Parish church (no signature); Carthusian Bible from Scheut, Brussels,
KBR, Ms. 201-203, 167; Book of Hours, St. Petersburg, Hermitage, Graphic Arts Department, Ms. 6; Four leaves in a Book of Hours, Vienna, ÖNB, Cod. S.n. 12908, ff. 31v/32r, 44v/45r and Book of Hours, Heribert Tenschert, Bibermühle, Switzerland. See Marrow 2007, p. 176-177, 188-189 (notes 26-33).
10 See also Marrow 1987, p. 308 (note 27).
11 London, British Library, Ms. Add. 17440. See Marrow 2007, 175, 187 (note 21). 12
Marrow 2007, p. 185 (note 2). For Maître Y, see Unterkircher and De Schryver 1969, v. 2, p. 54-60.
13 Marrow 2007, p. 175.
14 Flemish manuscript painting in context : recent research, Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2006. Kren‟s
lecture will be published in a collection of essays edited by K.M. Rudy.
The current study
My primary goal in this thesis is to understand the manuscript as a whole. I therefore began my research by making a codicological description (Appendix 1) and an overview of the manuscript (Appendix 2).16 As James Marrow has rightly noted, XXV C 26 is a
“fascinating and complex book.”17
It is indeed so fascinating and complex that it took me a long time to find a focus for my thesis among the many intriguing possibilities. One of the aspects that interested me was the participation of the Master of the Feathery Clouds, a painter who worked both in Utrecht and in Ghent.18 It occurred to me that the two other artists active in XXV C 26 also had a connection to Utrecht. The style of the Master of Willem van
Bossuyt is related to that of Willem Vrelant, an illuminator who worked in Utrecht before moving to Bruges between 1452 and 1454.19 The Master of Gerard Brilis collaborated on two occasions with a documented Utrechter, Antonis uten Broec.20
Although Lieven van Lathem himself did not contribute to XXV C 26, his influence on the illumination, especially the borders accompanying the full-page miniatures, is evident. Van Lathem also has connections to Utrecht. He was apparently active in Utrecht, providing border decoration in last part of a Book of Hours whose lead artist was the Master of
Catherine of Cleves (The Hague, Museum Meermanno-Westreenianum, Ms. 10 F 50). This was during the period after he left Ghent in the beginning of 1459 because of a dispute with the Painter‟s Guild in that city and 1462 when he was admitted to the Guild of St. Luke in Antwerp.21 It was just about this time that the Master of the Feathery Clouds was working in Utrecht on the Amerongen/Vronensteyn Hours (Brussels, Royal Library, Ms. II 7619). It is certainly possible that Van Lathem and the Master of the Feathery Clouds could have encountered each other during that period. Furthermore, there is at least one direct iconographic connection in XXV C 26 with Utrecht: the depictions of the Virtues in the historiated initials accompanying the Tuesday Hours of the Holy Spirit by the Master of the Feathery Clouds are closely related to a series by the same Master in the
Amerongen/Vronensteyn Hours.
I finally decided to address the following question: What do the careers of the Master of the Feathery Clouds, the Master of Willem van Bossuyt and the Master of Gerard Brilis, and the relationship of their work in XXV C 26 to other manuscripts, tell us about manuscript production in the Low Countries in the second half of the 15th century?
The first section of the thesis is a global description of the manuscript. I date the manuscript to c. 1475 on the basis of a comparison of the full-page miniatures with other work by the Master of Gerard Brilis and the relationship of the Coronation of the Virgin (f. 54v) to the miniature of the same subject (f. 61r) by Simon Marmion in the Berlaymont Hours (San Marino, Huntington Library, HM 1173) which are generally dated to the first half of the 1470s. I concur with Marrow that the inclusion in the calendar of many saints whose relics were venerated at Sint-Pieters Abbey in Ghent indicates a connection to that location. The penwork in the calendar is related to a number of manuscripts where Nicolas Spierinc of Ghent was the scribe. I demonstrate that the decorated initials were probably executed by two different hands. The texts included, and their order, are noteworthy. The Weekday Hours,
16
In the description I follow the model suggested by Prof. Biemans in the Toegepaste handschriftenkunde seminar. I have relied heavily on the descriptions of XXV C 26 prepared by Prof. Biemans and my fellow student, Mark Aussems, for the seminar, Het middeleeuwse boek. I readily acknowledge my indebtedness to them. My thanks to Dr. Broekhuijsen for comparing my description with the manuscript itself.
17 James Marrow, e-mail 17 October 2008. 18
Marrow 2007, p. 175.
19 Marrow 2007, p. 187, note 21. Defoer et al. 1990, p. 116.
20 On the Carthusian Bible of Herne (now in Malmesbury) and on the Missal in Mondovi mentioned in note 9.
See Marrow 2007, p. 176. For Antonis uten Broec, see K. van der Hoek 2004.
which begin immediately following the calendar, are a typical feature of Books of Hours produced in the Southern Netherlands in the 15th century.22 One unusual aspect of the content is the section devoted to the female saints (f. 41v-53v) preceding the Hours of the Virgin (f. 54v-96r). The codicological evidence suggests that these texts are in their original order. An analysis of the content of the book reinforces the impression that it was made to order, and not purchased ready-made. Finally, there is a description of the stylistic characteristics of the artists who illuminated the manuscript. As will be demonstrated, each of the artists has a distinctive style which made the attribution of the painted decoration relatively
straightforward.
The second section focuses on the iconography of the Virtues by the Master of the Feathery Clouds in the Tuesday Hours of the Holy Spirit, which serves as a specific example of an artist who worked in both the Northern and the Southern Netherlands returning to a theme he used earlier in his career. I demonstrate that the Virtues in XXV C 26 are closely related to a depiction of the Virtues by the same artist which accompanies the Short Hours of the Holy Spirit in the Amerongen/Vronenstyen Hours in the Royal Library, Brussels (Ms. II 7619), which is considered to be one of the finest Books of Hours produced in the Northern Netherlands in the second half of the 15th century. William Voelkle has shown that the manner of depicting the Virtues in the Amerongen/Vronenstyen Hours relates to a new iconography of the Virtues that originated in France earlier in the 15th century.23
Using XXV C 26 as a starting point, I show how artists worked on commissions in different configurations, and in roles of varying importance, how compositions were re-used and adapted and the degree of mobility of artists working the Northern and Southern
Netherlands. The Master of the Feathery Clouds is a striking example of the later
phenomenon: the depictions of the Virtues by this artist in XXV C 26, made in Ghent c. 1475, are directly related to the Virtues in the the Amerongen/Vronenstyen Hours, made in Utrecht c.1460 with an entirely different set of collaborators.
22
Wieck 2001, p. 105-106.
Part 1 – Description of UBA, Ms. XXV C 26
Date and localization
The manuscript was produced in one campaign. Thus the discussion of dating and localization applies to the entire manuscript. There is no internal evidence such as an inscription or a computistic table which can used to date the manuscript. This must be done on the basis of stylistic analysis and comparison with other works. The calendar, however, provides a number of clear indications for locating the manuscript.
Wolf dates the manuscript to c. 1465.24 Marrow finds that XXV C 26 is a late work by the Master of Gerard Brilis, most likely produced after 1465 and possibly as late as c. 1470.25 The style of the full-page miniatures is, as far as I can determine from a comparison of high-quality reproductions, more refined than that of other works by the Master of Gerard Brilis.26 This could be a reflection of the influence of Simon Marmion. Marrow rightly notes the relationship between the Coronation of the Virgin on f. 54v (fig. 1) and a similar composition in the Berlaymont Hours (San Marino, Huntington Library, HM 1173, f. 61r) (fig. 2).27 The latter is generally dated to the first half of the 1470s.28 The series of miniatures
accompanying the Hours of the Virgin in the Berlaymont Hours (ff. 28r, 35r, 44r, 47r, 50r, 53r, 56r, 61r)29 is in turn closely related to the miniatures by Simon Marmion accompanying the Hours of the Virgin in the Trivulzio Hours (The Hague, Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Ms. SMC 1, ff. 166v, 186v, 199v, 205v, 211v, 217v, 223v, 232v) dating from c. 1470-1475.30 Wolf, citing remarks made by Antoine De Schryver at a congress on medieval manuscript illumination in the Northern Netherlands (Utrecht, 10-13 December 1989), notes similarities between the borders executed by Maître Y in the Hours of Mary of Burgundy (Vienna, ÖNB, Cod. 1857) and those accompanying the full-pages miniatures in XXV C 26.31 The former, like the Trivulzio Hours, is dated c. 1470-1475.32 If the Coronation of the Virgin in the Amsterdam Hours derives from Simon Marmion‟s composition in the the Berlaymont Hours, the former cannot pre-date the latter. Given the relationship of the Berlaymont Hours to the Trivulzio Hours and the similarities between the borders accompanying the full-pages miniatures in XXV C 26 and those by Maître Y in the Hours of Mary of Burgundy, I think it is possible to date the Amsterdam Hours nearer to 1475.
Marrow states that XXV C 26 “has a graded liturgical calendar containing many rare entries of saints whose relics were venerated in Sint-Pieters Abbey in Ghent.”33 He does not, however, specify which saints these are. In order to ascertain the identity of at least some of them, I compared the entries in the calendar of XXV C 26 to Clark‟s useful Table of strictly
regional feasts in calendars printed or written for Southern Netherlandish and contiguous dioceses, abbeys and colleges before 1559.34 As Clark notes, although most of the saints
24 Wolf 1996, p. 316. 25 Marrow 2007, p. 176. 26
This will be discussed in greater detail below, p. 20.
27 Marrow 2007, p. 175, 188 (note 24). Reproduced Thorpe 1976, plate 14. Marrow 2007, p. 176, also relates the
landscape setting of the Visitation (f. 72v) in the Amsterdam Hours to landscape in a Crucifixion by Marmion in the Ponitifical of the Church Sens (Brussels, Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Ms. 9215, f. 129r).
28
Kren and McKendrick 2003, p. 108 (under cat. no. 12)
29 Reproduced in Thorpe 1976, plates 7-14. Also via
http://dpg.lib.berkeley.edu/webdb/dsheh/heh_brf?Description=&CallNumber=HM+1173 (consulted April 2011).
30 Kren and McKendrick 2003, p. 132 (under cat. no. 17). Reproductions of the miniatures by Marmion in the
Trivulzio Hours via http://www.kb.nl/galerie/trivulzio/index.html (consulted November 2008).
31
Wolf 1996, p. 102-103, 208. The possibility that Hand D of XXV C 26 is Maître Y of ÖNB Cod. 1857 is discussed below p. 35.
32 Kren and McKendrick 2003, p. 137 (under cat. no. 19). 33
Marrow 2007, p. 175.
celebrated at the Abbey of St. Bavo in Ghent also appear in the calendar of St. Pieters (and vice versa), the gradings differ between the two rival abbeys.35 The saints venerated at St. Pieters which occur in the calendar of XXV C 26 are listed below. Entries in the calendar in red are given in bold (unless otherwise indicated, simplex). I follow the terminology used in Clark‟s table and give the information from this source in italics.36
February, f. 3v-4r
5 Depositio Bertulfi abb cf, duplex
Relics of Bertulph transferred to St. Pieters in the 10th century.
9 Ansberti ep cf, duplex
Relics of Ansbert translated to St. Pieters in 944.
March, f.4v-5r
3 Winwaloëi abb
Relics of Winwaloe probably transferred to St. Pieters in the 10th century.
20 Wulfranni ep cf
Relics of Wulfram translated to St. Pieters in 944.
31 Translatio Wandregisili abb cf. Ansberti ep cf, et Wulfranni ep cf
Translation of relics of Wandrille, Ansbert and Wulfram to St. Pieters in 944.
April, f. 5v-6r
19 Elevatio corporis Floriberti abb
Elevation of Floribert, first abbot of St. Bavo, the possession of whose relics was claimed by both that abbey and St. Pieters in the 11th century.
30 Depositio Eremberti ep (with red annotations)
Deposition of Erembert whose relics were translated to St. Pieters in 944.
May, f. 6v-7r
20 Translatio Gurvali ep et Bertulfi abb
Relics of Gudwall and Bertulph translated to St. Pieters in the tenth century.
27 Octava translationis Gurvali ep et Bertulfi abb June, f. 7v-8r
6 Gurvali ep, duplex (?) 25 Adalberti
July, f. 8v-9r
10 Amalberge v, duplex
Relics of Amelberga transferred to St. Pieters in 864.
17 Octava Amalberga v
22 Depositio Wandregisili abb cf
Relics of Wandrille translated to St. Pieters 944. Quite widely celebrated.
29 Octava depositionis Wandregisili abb cf August, f. 9v-10r
1 Translatio Winaloëi abb September, f. 10v-11r
3 Adventus Wandregisili abb cf, Ansberti ep cf, et Wulfranni ep cf, duplex 10 Octava Wandregisili abb cf, Ansbert ep cf, et Wulfranni ep cf
35 Clark 2000, p. 290.
36
I do not specify the page numbers because it is a straightforward matter to find the relevant dates in Clark‟s table.
October, 11v-12r
1 Deposito Bavonis cf
Widely celebrated.
15 Wulfranni ep cf (with elaborate penwork) 27 Adventus Amalberge v
November, 12v-13r 2 Floriberti ab December, 13v-14r
3 Adventus Gurvali ep et Bertulfi abb
The inclusion of so many saints related to the Abbey of St. Pieters in Ghent in the calendar of the Amsterdam Hours indicates a strong connection between XXV C 26 and that place. It is perhaps also relevant that the Master of the Feathery Clouds (Hand A) contributed the frontispiece to the Eerste privilegieboek van de Sint-Pietersabdij te Gent, 1460, Ghent, Rijksarchief, Fonds Bisdom, Ms. B 2956.37
Script and penwork
The text of the manuscript was written by one hand in a littera hybrida (bastarda). The ink used throughout is dark brownish black. There are minor corrections on folios 70v, 71r, 107r, and 124r.
The majority of the penwork occurs in the calendar (figs. 3a and 3b).38 Wolf relates the penwork in the calendar of XXV C 26 to that in Stuttgart, Landesbibl., Cod.brev.162 (Sachensheim-Gebetbuch).39 She in turn relates the penwork in the Stuttgart manuscript to Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum, Ms. James 143; Paris, BN, Ms. n.a. lat. 215; Los Angeles, Getty Museum, Ms. 37 (Prayer Book of Charles the Bold) and Vienna, ÖNB, Cod. 1857 (Hours of Mary of Burgundy).40
In his discussion of the dating of a Book of Hours in Darmstadt (Hess.L- u HSB 1008), Brinkmann links the penwork the Hours of Mary of Burgundy to the manuscripts mentioned by Wolf (except for Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum, Ms. James 143, but
including XXV C 26) and also to Oxford, Bodleian Library, Ms. Douce 219-220 and Madrid, BN, Ms. Vit. 24-10.41 Kren and McKendrick relate the penwork in the Prayer Book of Charles the Bold to the works mentioned by Wolf (including XXV C 26) and also mention a connection to Madrid, BN, Ms. Vit.25-5 (Voustre Demeure Hours).42
Nicolas Spierinc is the scribe in four of the manuscripts with penwork considered comparable to that in XXV C 26: the Prayer Book of Charles the Bold; the Hours of Mary of Burgundy, the Voustre Demeure Hours and Madrid, BN, Ms. Vit. 24-10.43 This could
37 See De Schryver et al. 1975, vol. II, p. 362-363 (cat. no. 594). Reproduced in colour, Smeyers 1998, p. 277,
fig. 65.
38
There is also penwork on folios 15v, 31v, 33r, 62v, 63r, 66v, 67r, 69r, 78r, 101r, 102r, 116r and 140r.
39 Wolf, 1996, p. 237: Motivisch verwandt mit dem Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch, aber jedoch eckiger und kantiger,
weniger ausholend, nicht so lang ausgezogen.
40 Wolf, 1996, p. 250, 294.
41 Brinkman 1992, vol.1, p. 238, note 16. It is worth noting that Dogaer, 1987, p. 133, finds that the illumination
in two of the manuscripts mentioned in the discussion of the penwork (Paris, BN, Ms. n.a. lat. 215 and Madrid, BN, Ms. Vit. 24-10) is stylistically similar to that in XXV C 26.
42 Kren and McKendrick 2003, p. 131, note 14. 43
Kren and McKendrick 2003, p. 128 (under cat. no. 16), 137 (under cat. no. 19) and p. 142 (under cat. no. 20) and De Schryver, 2008, p. 76, respectively.
possibly be relevant to the attribution of the script of the Tenschert Hours to Spierinc.44 I do not have the necessary palaeographical skills to make an informed judgement on the matter, but it would seem to merit further investigation.
Decoration
The beginning of a text is signalled by a historiated initial (see below under
Illumination) or a decorated initial 4 to 5 lines high. The colour of the ground alternates
between blue and terra cotta (in gathering 13, red). A terra cotta (or red) letter is painted on a blue ground and vice versa. The initials are decorated with filigree in white or gold paint. The line endings are executed in the same manner. The use of gold leaf is restricted to the calendar and f. 104r (beginning of the litany). The decorative motif of a blue cross on a gold ground alternating with a gold cross on a blue ground (one line high) appears only on ff. 163r-v. These decorative exceptions are probably indications that the texts they accompany were considered especially important.
The decoration is not of uniform quality, and is possibly executed by two different hands. Compare, for example, the initials at the beginning of the Hours of St. Catherine (f. 41v, D) (fig. 4a) and the Hours of St. Barbara (f. 46r, M) (fig. 4b), both of which are four lines high. The ends of the letter D curve gracefully into the margin, the white filigree on the blue ground is finely modelled giving the initial a three-dimensional appearance and the slightly asymmetrical gold filigree on the terra cotta ground in the eye of the initial conveys a sense of movement. By contrast the M at the beginning of the Hours of St. Barbara looks flat and lifeless; the gold filigree on the blue background between the legs of the initial hangs limply instead of enlivening the space. A similar, if not even greater, contrast is evident in the letter S at the beginning of the suffrage to St. Anthony Abbot (f. 147v) (fig. 4c) and the letter S at the beginning of the suffrage to St. Mary Magdalene (f. 50v) (fig. 4d). The white filigree of the former creates the illusion that the edge of the letter twists and turns; the filigree in the latter makes a two-dimensional and static impression. It seems improbable that these initials could have been executed by the same hand.
In both of the examples given above, the illumination on the pages with high quality decorated initials (Type 1) is by Hand A; Hand B is responsible for the illumination on the pages with less accomplished decoration (Type 2). Type 1 decoration primarily occurs in connection with illumination by Hand A. Type 2 decoration always accompanies illumination by Hand B, but sometimes also occurs with illumination by Hand A, for example on ff. 23r, 25r and 26v.The decoration accompanying illumination by Hand A is not always of a
superior quality. In the Horae pro fidelibus defunctis (f.18v-21v), for example, the decoration has a sketchy quality; on f. 20r it even appears to be unfinished.
Content
A Book of Hours contains a number of standards texts: a calendar, the Hours of the Virgin, the Seven Penitential Psalms and Litany, the Office of the Dead and suffrages to various saints.45 There is, however, a great variety possible in the choice of the remaining texts. There is no systematic survey of the occurrence and order of texts in Books of Hours, so it is not possible to determine with complete certainty the degree to which the texts
44 See below, p. 21.
45
Wieck 2001, p. 28. The text of XXV C 26 is complete, except for the beginning of the Hours of the Dead, originally between sheets 18 and 19. See Verbeek 2008, p. 18.
included in XXV C 26 and their order is exceptional.46 In my opinion, there are a number of unusual aspects which merit special attention.
As Korteweg notes, offices for the seven days of the week are a typical feature of Books of Hours produced in the Southern Netherlands.47 The usual order is as follows: Sunday, Holy Trinity; Monday, Hours of the Dead; Tuesday, Holy Spirit; Wednesday, All Saints; Thursday, Holy Sacrament; Friday, Holy Cross and Saturday, Virgin Mary. In XXV C 26, the Weekday Hours begin in the third gathering following the calendar with the Sunday Hours of the Holy Trinity (f. 15r-18v). The subsequent Hours conform to the order
mentioned above through the Thursday Hours of the Sacrament (f. 27r-29r).48 One would expect that this would be followed the Friday Hours of the Holy Cross. In XXV C 26, however, the Hours of the Passion of the Lord and the Compassion of the Blessed Mary (f. 30r-33v) come next and are the last office in the sequence. The Weekday Hours are followed by a rather lengthy prayer (f. 33v-36v) to the venerable Bede, a saint not automatically associated with the Low Countries.
Perhaps the most striking aspect of XXV C 26 is the section devoted to female saints (f. 41v-53v) preceding the Hours of the Virgin (f. 54v-96r). This begins with the Hours of Saint Catherine (f. 41r-45v), followed by the Hours of Saint Barbara (f. 46r-48v) and
suffrages to nine female saints (f. 49r-53v). The suffrages to the male saints begin on f. 147r, where one would expect them to occur, after the Hours of the Virgin, the Seven Penitential Psalms and Litany and the Office of the Dead.
The codicological evidence confirms that the Hours of St. Catherine are in their original place. The fifth gathering (f. 30-37) includes the last of the Weekday Hours (f.30r-33v) and ends with a prayer, Oratio devota ad dominum, which begins on f. 37r and continues into the sixth gathering (f. 38-45), ending on f. 41r. The Hours of Saint Catherine begin immediately thereafter in the same gathering on f. 41v. The Hours of Saint Barbara and suffrages to the female saints are all contained in the seventh gathering (f. 46-53). Although this gathering could have originally had another location in the manuscript, it seems likely, and logical, that the Hours of Saint Catherine would be followed by the Hours of Saint Barbara. The remnant of a catchwordisvisible on f. 54r, just before the beginning of the Hours of the Virgin, which would indicate that, unless this was ignored at the time the codex was rebound, the beginning of the Hours of the Virgin followed the Hours of Saint Barbara and the suffrages to the female saints.
The Hours of the Virgin are contained in gatherings eight to twelve (f. 54-96), and are followed by the Seven Penitential Psalms and Litany (f. 97v-109r) which begin in gathering thirteen (f. 97-105) and continue into gathering fourteen (f. 106-113). There is also the remnant of a catchword preceding the Seven Penitential Psalms and Litany (f. 97r), which would indicate that these are also most probably in their original location. The Office of the Dead (f. 110v-135r) begins in gathering fourteen and ends in the middle of gathering
seventeen (f.130-137).49
The codiocological evidence strongly indicates that gatherings three to seventeen containing these key texts, the Weekday Hours, the Hours of Saints Catherine, the Hours of Saint Barbara, the suffrages to the female saints, the Hours of the Virgin, Seven Penitential Psalms and Litany and the Office of the Dead, are in their original sequence. It could be
46Neither Kate Rudy nor Klara Broekhuijsen knew of such survey. See Appendix I for a list of the texts in XXV
C 26. According to Korteweg 2005, p. 147, note 1, Leroquis 1927-1943, remains the best source for the texts in Books of Hours.
47
Korteweg 2005, p. 137. See also Wieck 2001, p. 105-106. The Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch (Stuttgart, Landesbibliothek., Cod.brev.162) also includes the Weekday Hours, ff.43r-93v.
48 The day of the week is only specifically mentioned in the incipit for the Hours of the Holy Trinity and the
Hours of the Sacrament.
argued that these fifteen gatherings were re-positioned as a unit when the codex was rebound, but it seems more probable to conclude that the texts in XXV C 26 are in their original order.
The only Dutch in the manuscript is the incipit on f. 162v: Dit is een sonderlinghe
oratie. Ende die suldi smorghens lesen tijlijc.
Judging from the texts included and their order, it would seem safe to conclude that the patron who ordered the Amsterdam Hours was not in the market for a prêt-à-porter Book of Hours. This conclusion is further supported when one considers the extent and quality of the illumination that accompanies the texts and its iconography.
Illumination
The illumination was carried out by four unidentified artists: Hand A, the Master of the Feathery Clouds/Meester van de Vederwolken (also known as the Master of the London Passional); Hand B, the Master of Willem van Bossuyt; Hand C, the Master of Gerard Brilis and Hand D, an artist executing borders in the style of Lieven van Lathem. There is a clear division of labour among the artists. There are only two instances where Hands A and B are active in the same gathering. In the third and eighteenth gatherings, only the column
miniatures on f. 15r and f. 145r, respectively, are by Hand B; the rest of the illumination in these gatherings was carried out by Hand A. The roles of Hands C and D are also clearly delineated: Hand C is responsible for the full-page miniatures; Hand D provided the accompanying borders.
Hand A - Master of the Feathery Clouds
This anonymous artist was dubbed the Meester van de Vedervolken by Hoogewerff in 1936.50 A year later, he was given another name by Byvanck, the Master of the London Passional.51 Of the hands active in XXV C 26, the Master of the Feathery Clouds (MFC) is the best-defined. Some scholars maintain that he was active in the Southern Netherlands c. 1450-1460 before coming to Utrecht to participate in a number of important commissions.52 Others see him as a Northern artist who was also active in the Southern Netherlands.53 Much of the literature deals with his borrowing compositions and motifs from woodcuts, for
example from the Biblia Pauperum.54 The historiated initials by the MFC in XXV C 26 which accompany the Monday Hours of the Dead are based on woodcuts illustrating the Ars
moriendi. 55 Scillia has argued that the MFC did not only borrow from woodcuts for his illumination, but that he also designed them.56
Style
As Delaissé noted, the style of the MFC is easily recognizable.57 His figures have large, angular hands and round heads that are frequently disproportionately large in respect to their stocky bodies. A striking characteristic of facial types is the heavy, puffy eyelids and eyes with prominent pupils which are mostly not in the centre of the eye. His skies are an intense blue with small parallel cirrus clouds, the feathery clouds which feature in one of his
50 Hoogewerff 1936, part 1, p. 537-544. 51
Byvanck 1937, p. 89-91. The manuscript from which the name derives is London, British Library, Add. 18162.
52 See, for example, Cardon 1996, p. 412.
53 Marrow 1987, p. 307-308. Van der Bergen 2009, p. 86, refers to him as the “Utrechtse Meester van de
Vederwolken.” Scillia 1982, p. 25, states that he began his career as a peripheral member in the circle of the Master of Evert Zoudenbalch.
54 See Smeyers 1975, Koch 1977, Scillia 1982, Henry 1983, Cardon and Smeyers 1989 and Cardon 1996. 55 See Verbeek 2008.
56
Scillia 1982.
names of convenience. His landscapes are fairly simple. The figures are primarily confined to the foreground, and the impression of space is created by overlapping hills, a river or a winding road. There are often stylized trees on either side of the scene whose leaves are depicted as a green ground with parallel brownish stripes and dark stipples along the top and edges. His mastery of perspective is not perfect. In scenes which take place indoors, he tries to create a sense of receding space with a tiled floor, but this does not always relate logically to the rest of the interior. His border decoration is, in my opinion, fairly accomplished. He includes birds (especially owls and peacocks), butterflies, bears and assorted drôleries among the acanthus and stylized flowers.
His work is generally characterized as mediocre and rather crude. Delaissé says that his technique is vulgar and heavy; Scillia calls his style homely and inelegant.58 Both have to admit, however, that his work has a certain liveliness and directness.
Works/collaboration
In spite of the shortcomings perceived by 20th century art historians, the MFC participated in a number of important commissions and was also the main artist two large scale manuscripts. Delaissé notes that the MFC was “perhaps the most prolific illuminator in Utrecht around 1460.”59
In addition to XXV C 26, Marrow identifies five manuscripts from the Southern Netherlands with illumination by the MFC:60
Book of Hours, c. 1450, Brussels, KBA, Ms. IV 194
Book of Hours, c. 1450, Madrid, BN, Ms. Vitr. 24-10
Platearius, Le livre des simples medicines, second half 15th century, Paris, BN, fr. 623
Pierre de Vaux, Vie de soeur Colette, c. 1460, Brussels, KBA, Ms. 10980
Eerste privilegieboek van de Sint-Pietersabdij te Gent, 1460, Ghent, Rijksarchief, Fonds Bisdom, Ms. B 2956
Cardon has indicated that the 69 pen drawings illustrating the Speculum Humanae Salvationis (Oxford, Bodeleian Library, Ms. Douce f4) “can be situated in the surroundings of the Master of the Feathery Clouds at the time he was still working in the Southern Netherlands, in
between 1450-1460.”61
Beginning c. 1460, the MFC was active in the circle of the Utrecht Master of Evert Zoudenbalch where he contributed to two major manuscripts: the Amerongen/Vronensteyn Hours, c. 1460, Brussels, KB, Ms. II 7619 and the Bible of Evert Zoudenbalch, c. 1465, Vienna, ÖNB, Cod. 2771-2772. The Master of Gijsbrecht van Brederode also worked on the second manuscript. He and the MFC collaborated on a Book of Hours, c. 1465, Liège, University Library, Ms. Wittert 34; the Master of Gijsbrecht van Brederode was responsible for the 12 historiated initials and the MFC painted the borders on the pages marking the major textual divisions.62
The fluidity of artistic connections within this context can be illustrated by the following example. The Master of Gijsbrecht van Brederode possibly collaborated with the
58
Ibid., p.240 and Scillia 1982, p. 25.
59 Delaissé 1968, p. 72.
60 Marrow 1987, p. 308, note 27.
61 Cardon 1996, p.412. According Cardon the drawings are connected to graphics: engravings by the Master
with the Banderoles, Master E.S. and illustrations in the North Netherlandish xylographic edition of the Biblia
Pauperum. Images via
http://bodley30.bodley.ox.ac.uk:8180/luna/servlet/view/search/what/MS.+Douce+f.+4/?sort=Shelfmark%2CFoli o_Page%2CRoll_&q=Title%3DSpeculum+humanae+LIMIT%3AODLodl%7E1%7E1&pgs=50&res=1&cic=O DLodl%7E1%7E1 (accessed October 2011)
Master of the Boston City of God/ Antonis Rogiersz. uten Broec on a Book of Hours, c. 1460-1465, Cleveland, Otto F. Ege.63 Antonis Rogiersz. uten Broec in turn, worked with the Master of Gerard Brilis on the Missal in Mondovi and the Carthusian Bible from Herne
(Malmesbury). And, of course, the Master of Gerard Brilis and the MFC worked together on XXV C 26.
The MFC did not always merely play a secondary role in the production of
manuscripts. There are two large scale works for which he provided the illumination, the first part of a History Bible, c. 1467, The Hague, Koninklijke Biblotheek, 78 D 39 and a
Passyonael van den Heyligen, van den helen jaer (London Passional), c. 1465-1470, British Library, Add. 18162.64 There are also a number of Books of Hours in which he was the principle artist, The Hague, Rijksmuseum Meermanno-Westreenianum (RMW), Ms. 10 F 3, c. 1465-1470 and Utrecht, Rijksmuseum Het Catharijneconvent. (RMCC), ABM 21 and ABM 22, both c. 1460-1475 and a Life of St. Francis, third quarter of the 15th century, Rotterdam, Gemeentebibliotheek, Ms. 96 B 4. All of these manuscripts were produced in the Northern Netherlands and are in Dutch.
The MFC in XXV C 26
The MFC is responsible for the illumination (11 column miniatures and 54 historiated initials) including the borders in gatherings 3 (except for the column miniature of the Mercy Seat on f. 15r), 4-6, 13, 14, 18 (except for the column miniature of the Presentation of the Temple on f. 145v) and 19.65
The subjects depicted are narrative (column miniature of Pentecost, f. 22r, historiated initials of the story of Joachim and Anna and the early life of the Virgin accompanying the Wednesday Hours of All Saints in gathering 4), allegorical (historiated initials with allegories of the Virtues accompanying the Tuesday Hours of the Holy Spirit in gathering 4)66 or
devotional (column miniature of the Madonna on the crescent moon, f. 142r, historiated initial of a soul being taken up into heaven, f. 111r). As Vermeeren notes, this type of subject matter is typical of the MFC.67 Less common are representations of saints accompanying suffrages. One would certainly expect these in the London Passional, a Flemish translation of Jacobus de Voragine‟s Legenda aurea (with 35 additional saints‟ lives), but, as Vermeeren remarks with some astonishment, not a single saint‟s legend is illustrated.68
There is a depiction of the beheading of St. Barbara by the MFC in the border of Oxford, Bodleian Library, Ms. Douce 381, f. 85r; the miniature is attributed to Master B of the Amerongen/Vronensteyn Hours.69 Judging from the reproductions available, I think it is possible that at least three other folios in Ms. Douce 381 have borders with illumination by the MFC: f. 80r* [sic] (Angels in upper border, peacock at right; compare with angels in upper border of British Library, Add. 18162, f. 19r); f. 81r (Judge upper right corner, martyrdom St. Christopher at right) and f. 87r (right
63 Ibid., p. 212-213 (cat. no. 66) 64
The second part of the History Bible is in Ghent, University Library, Ms. 632. Judging from the reproductions in Henry 1983, the illumination is not by the MFC. The compositions for the illumination in both parts are related to the Biblia Pauperum.
65 My fellow students in the “handengroep” thought that the column miniature on f. 15r was the only
contribution to the manuscript by a fourth artist, but I agree with Marrow 2007, page 188, note 21, that this is by Hand B. The column miniature on f. 145v is also by Hand B. See Appendix 2 for an overview of the subjects of the illumination and the hands responsible.
66 These are based on the depictions of the Virtues by the MFC accompanying the Short Hours of the Holy Spirit
in the Amerongen/Vronensteyn Hours (Brussels, KB, Ms. II 7619, c.1460), ff. 74r, 78r, 83v, 86r, 88r, 90v and 93v.
67 Vermeeren, 1959, p. 202-203.
68 Vermeeren, 1959, p. 201. On p. 203 he states “dat in het gehele tot nu toe bekende oeuvre van deze meester
[i.e. the MFC] géén op het feesteigen der heiligen betrokken verluchting aanwijsbaar is.”
border, St. Veronica holding out a cloth to Christ carrying the cross; man with three nails/spikes).70
In XXV C 26, there are fifteen representations of saints by the MFC, a column miniature of St. Catherine on f. f. 41v and 6 column miniatures and 8 historiated initials accompanying the suffrages to the male saints in gathering 19. These column miniatures of saints show, in my opinion, some of the best work in the MFC‟s oeuvre. He takes pains to place the figures in relatively detailed setting (he is of course constrained by the space available, 60x35 mm), and the saints are carefully modelled. In two cases, the border decoration specifically relates to the saint depicted: the suffrage to St. Anthony Abbot on f. 147v includes a temptress riding a swine at lower left and the suffrage to St. Adrian on f. 150r (fig. 5) contains a scene of his martyrdom at lower left. In other instances, there are vignettes in the border with depictions of the world upside down (mundus inversus): f. 147r (suffrage to St. James) (fig. 6), frog in a robber‟s cape cutting the throat of a stork; f. 149r (suffrage to St. Sebastian), hare/rabbit pushing a man in a wheelbarrow and f. 153v (suffrage to St. Daniel, historiated initial) hare/rabbit pushing a dog in a wheelbarrow. A fox pulling a bird cage on a sledge accompanies the suffrage to St. George, f. 149v. The high quality of the depictions of the saints and the elaborate border decoration might be attributable to the importance of the commission.71
The most attractive openings in the manuscript are those where the full page
miniatures of the Master of Gerard Brilis are faced by a page with illumination by the MFC. The folio opposite the miniature of David in Prayer (f. 98r) (fig. 7) depicts David looking out from his palace in an historiated initial. In the roundel at the bottom of the page, we see the bathing Bathsheba who bears a striking resemblance to the temptress on f. 147v. This provides a fitting illustration to accompany the Seven Penitential Psalms for it is the
beginning of the chain of events which leads David to commit adultery with Bathsheba and for him to arrange for the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite, in battle. 72 It is noteworthy that David sees Bathsheba from a separate area of the page; he looks, as it were, across the text and to see her in the border. A figure at lower right appears to look at Bathsheba over his shoulder.73 This sort of interaction across different fields of the page can also be seen on f. 57v of the Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch (Stuttgart, Landesbibliothek., Cod.brev.162). Here God the Father in the border at upper left has sent out the dove of the Holy Spirit into the miniature of Pentecost by the Master of Gerard Brilis to the right. This in turn is reminiscent of the depiction of God the Father in an historiated initial sending out the dove of the Holy Spirit to the scene of the Baptism of Christ at the bottom of f. 93v of the Turin Milan Hours.74
The miniature of the Raising of Lazarus is faced by another page richly decorated by the MFC (ff. 110v and 111r) marking the beginning of the Office of the Dead. The historiated initial contains a depiction of a soul being taken up into heaven against a blue background with gold stars. In the border, a dog confronts a unicorn at the bottom and a man is harvesting meticulously rendered grapes at right, perhaps a Eucharistic allusion.
If one‟s knowledge of the style of the MFC and the Master of Gerard Brilis was based only on their work in XXV C 26, it would seem unlikely that their hands could be confused. However, in three instances where Marrow believes the Master of Gerard Brilis is active, Cardon and Smeyers attribute the illumination to the MFC: the Breviary of Grammont,
70 Reproductions of Ms. Douce 381 via http://bodley30.bodley.ox.ac.uk:8180/luna/servlet/s/0vs62u (consulted
30 December 2010). I am grateful to Kate Rudy for sharing her images of British Library, Add. 18162 with me.
71 Rudy 2009, p. 202, suggests that XXV C 26 was commissioned “by a high functionary of the Sint-Peterskerk
in Ghent.”
72 The story takes place in 2 Samuel, chapter 11.
73 A similar figure appears in the right border of Madrid, BN, Ms. Vitr. 24-10, f. 84r, but he is looking at the
miniature of the Annunciation to the Shepherds to the left (reproduced De Schryver 2008, p. 163, fig. 50).
1450, Maredsous, Bibl. de l‟Abbaye, Ms. Fº/3/1-4; the Carthusian Bible from Scheut, 1460, Brussels, KB, Ms. 201-203, 167 and the Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch, c. 1455-1460.75 They are not the only ones who mention the MFC in connection with the Breviary of Grammont and the Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch. In his discussion of the relationship of the Stuttgart manuscript to the work of Lieven van Lathem, De Schyrver states that the style of “Master B of the Sachsenheim Hours is close to that of the Master of the Feathery Clouds,” and also says that Master B had previously worked on the Breviary of Grammont.76 The Dutch character of the Stuttgart manuscript was first noted by Delaissé, who found that the originality of the
iconography was reminiscent of contemporary Dutch Books of Hours, and also indicated that it possibly provided evidence for the presence of artists from the Northern Netherlands in Flanders who had not yet adapted their style to their new surroundings.77 One specific connection is the motif of a couple being married in a historiated initial attributed to the Master of Gijsbrecht van Brederode in the Bible of Evert Zoudenbalch which also appears in an elongated medallion in the border by the MGB in Cod.brev 162, f. 127r.78
A comparison of the miniature of the Madonna and Child with two female saints by the Master of Gerard Brilis in the Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch (f. 95r) (fig. 8) with the miniatures of the Madonna of Humility and the Madonna on the Crescent Moon by the MFC in XXX C 26 (ff. 25r and 142r, respectively) (figs. 9a and 9b) does indeed show a number of similarities: the boxy shape of the body of the Christ Child, the large hands of the Virgin, the facial types of the female figures and their long, reddish brown hair. Although these similarities may not be close enough to warrant an attribution of the work of Hand B in the Stuttgart manuscript to the MFC, I think it is possible to conclude that, at least during a certain period in their careers, the styles of these two masters had something in common.
Hand B – Master of Willem van Bossuyt
The Master of Willem van Bossuyt (MWvB) was identified by Marrow in 2007. He attributed illumination in eight manuscripts to this Master, including XXV C 26. Willem van Bossuyt was abbot of St. Bavon, Ghent, between 1418 and 1457. The name work is a Missal (London, British Library, Add. 17440) which the MWvB illuminated for use on an altar commissioned and endowed by Van Bossuyt. Although there is limited documentation for some of the works attributed to the MWvB, there is nothing specifically written about him except for Marrow‟s brief discussion.79
Style
The MWvB was obviously influenced by the prolific Willem Vrelant, an illuminator known to have worked in Utrecht before moving to Bruges between 1452 and 1454.80 Compare, for example, the Mercy Seat/Trinity on f. 15r of XXV C 26 with the depiction of the same subject in a Books of Hours illuminated by Vrelant c. 1460 (The Hague, Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Ms. 76 F 7, f. 15v) (figs. 10 and 11). The compositions are almost identical and the depiction of the figures shares a two-dimensional quality. A comparison of two female saints from these manuscripts shows that, although the MWvB works in the style of Willem Vrelant, his work is more simplistic and less refined (St. Christina, XXV C 26, f. 52va and St.Catherine, 76 F 7, f. 27v) (figs. 12 and 13).
75 See Cardon and Smeyers 1989, p. 85-86.
76 De Schryver 2008, p. 177. On page 176 De Schryver states that he is now convinced that Lieven van Lathem
did not contribute to the Stuttgart manuscript.
77
Delaissé 1959, p. 168-169 (cat. no. 206).
78 ÖNB, Cod. 2772, f. 10r. Reproduced Defoer, H.L.M. et al., 1990, p. 203, fig. 107 (under cat. no. 61). See De
Schryver 2008, p. 177.
79
Marrow 2007, p. 175 and 187-188 (note 21).
His elongated figures have oval faces on thin necks. The facial expressions are consistently doll-like, frequently bordering on the vacuous. He employs bright colours which have an almost opaque quality, and defines his figures with a dark outline. His use of tiled floors to create a feeling of depth sometimes results in a clash of patterns and colours (XXV C26, f. 49r, for example), but the interiors remain flat and airless. Like the Master of the Feathery Clouds, he includes fruit, flowers, birds, animals and drolleries in his borders. These share the linear, naïve quality of his column miniatures and historiated initials.
Works/collaboration
Of the eight manuscripts which Marrow attributes to the MWvB, two were made for known patrons: the name manuscript in the British Library dated 1483 and a Book of Hours made in Ghent for Jacob Donche, counsellor to Philip the Good, and his second wife, Philippa Utenhove, possibly on the occasion of their marriage in 1473 (Claremont, CA, Scripps
College, Denison Library, Kirby Ms. 1).81 A Book of Hours in Latin and Dutch which was auctioned at Christie‟s, London, in 2001, was presumably made for the couple shown praying in historiated initials on ff. 21r and 82r.82
The five remaining manuscripts are all works for personal devotion: Prayer Book, c. 1475, private collection, Pennsylvania; Book of Hours, c. 1470, Sale, Christie‟s London, 17 November 2004 (lot 19); Book of Hours, c. 1450-1460, Turin, Museo Civico d‟arte Antica, inv. no. 449/M; Book of Hours, second half of the 15th century, New York Public Library, MA 39; Book of Hours, c. 1450, Rostock, Universitätsbibliothek, Ms. theol. 25 and XXV C 26.83
The Christie‟s sale catalogues are virtually the only sources that attempt to relate works attributed to the MWvB to other manuscripts.84 In the catalogue of the 2001 sale, the illumination is attributed to the Master of the Vraie cronicque descoce (also know as the St. Hadrian Master), an artist whose style derives from Willem Vrelant. Bernard Bousmanne attributed 27 works to this artist, including a Book of Hours in the Walters Art Museum, Baltimore (W. 195) and Book of Hours in the Huntington Museum, San Marino (HM 1136).85 The catalogue of the 2004 sale notes that the simplified figures with features drawn in brown in the manuscript in that sale are close to a Book of Hours, Walters Art Museum (W. 229). Randall notes that the pictorial programme in W. 229 relies on the same designs that were used in W. 195.86
The Book of Hours in Turin contains a full-page miniature of the Last Judgment (f. 121v) where only the heads of the figures emerging from the ground are depicted.87 This detail also occurs in KB 76 F 7, f. 112v. The Last Judgement in the Book of Hours in
81
Ibid. and Dutschke and Rouse 1986, p. 85-89, figs. 26-28. Colour reproductions of some of the illumination via http://www.uncius.be/genea/kirby/index.html and http://www.uncius.be/genea/kirby/global2.html
(consulted January 2011).
82
Christie‟s [auction cat.] London, 9 July 2001. (lot 23).
83 For additional information, see Marrow 2007, p. 187-188 (note 21). 84 Christie‟s [auction cat.] London, 9 July 2001 (lot 23) via
http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot_details.aspx?intObjectID=2092990&CID=5447010005801a (consulted January 2011) and Christie‟s [auction cat.] London, 17 November 2004. (lot 19) via
http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot_details.aspx?intObjectID=4393918&CID=5447010005801a (consulted January 2011). Of course, he is not called the Master of Willem van Bossuyt in these sources since Marrow identified the artist several years later.
85 Bousmanne 1997, p. 58. Alain Arnould, in a review of Bousmanne (Burlington Magazine, 140 (1998)1146, p.
625-626), attributes several additional works to the Master of the Vraie cronicque descoce. For W. 195, see Randall 1997, part I, p. 326-331 (cat. 265); part II, figs. 501, 502 and 585. Reproductions of HM 1136 are available via the Digital Scriptorium http://scriptorium.columbia.edu/ (consulted January 2011).
86
Randall 1997, part I, p. 331-334 (cat. 266); part II, figs. 503, 586.
Rostock (f. 142r) includes the Gate of Paradise and the Mouth of Hell that are in the Turin depiction, but the figures coming out of their graves are shown from the waist up.88
Of the works attributed to the MWvB by Marrow, only XXV C 26 and the Book of Hours in New York have illumination by other artists. There are eleven full-page miniatures in the latter. Five of these, which introduce all the major texts, are attributed to the MWvB. Marrow attributes the remaining six to one of the Masters of the Beady (or Narrow) Eyes (Maîtres aux Yeux Bridés), who were primarily active in Ghent.89 Apart from Marrow, the only information I could find on the New York Book of Hours is the record in the Digital Scriptorium.90 There are images available of two full-page miniatures, Crucifixion on f. 7v and Pentecost on f. 14v (subject incorrectly given as the Death of the Virgin) both of which appear to be by the same artist. The text on f. 8r is identified as the opening of a main text (The Hours of the Holy Cross). If Marrow also considered this an opening of a main text, then according to him, the miniature on f. 7v should be by the MWvB.91 After comparing the image of the Crucifixion in the Digital Scriptorium with the work of the MWvB in XXV C26, I am not entirely convinced that this is the same hand. The palette in the New York
manuscript is less bright (almost chalky) and the facial types lack the doll-like expression that occurs so frequently in XXV C26. The modelling of the face and throat of St. John is also different from the faces in XXV C26, for example, the face of Christ in the historiated initial on f. 162r.
All of the work attributed to the MWvB by Marrow is in the style of Willem Vrelant. Because of the sparse documentation available for these manuscripts, it has been impossible for me to get a really clear picture of oeuvre of the MWvB as a whole. In the reproductions I have been able to find, I see a number of variations in style which make me wonder whether all this work is by the same hand. It is, however, far beyond the scope of this thesis to attempt to resolve this in any satisfactory manner; the idea of entering the Willem Vrelant quagmire is really too daunting for a mere Masters student.
The MWvB in XXV C 26
The MWvB is responsible for the illumination (11 column miniatures, one 2 column miniature and 35 historiated initials), including the borders, in gatherings 3 (only the column miniature of the Mercy Seat on f. 15r; border by the Master of the Feathery Clouds), 5, 7-12, 17, 18 (only the column miniature of the Presentation in the Temple on f. 145v), and 20-22, including the two column miniature on f. 175r.
All of the illumination for the suffrages to the female saints, except for Saint Catherine, is by the MWvB. He also is responsible for the historiated initials depicting the standard infancy cycle which accompany the Hours of the Virgin, the most important text in the manuscript. These have an engaging directness which is quite charming. In a restricted space, the MWvB, presents a fairly detailed representation and there is emotional interaction between the figures. In the Visitation (f. 66r) (fig. 14a), for example, Mary and Elizabeth seem genuinely glad to see one another. There is, however, a certain dissonance in this section which is partly due to the fact that the subjects of the full-page miniatures by the Master of Gerard Brilis and the historiated initials on the opposite page do not match until the
88
Reproduced in Rothe 1968, pl. 84.
89 Marrow 2007, p. 188 (note 21).
90 http://scriptorium.columbia.edu/ (consulted January 2011), search under NYPL MA 039. 91
The text on f. 15r could be the beginning of the Hours of the Holy Spirit, but there is no description of the contents of the ms as a whole.
end of the cycle (Vespers and Compline), and partly because of the contrast in style on either side of the opening.92 The latter probably wouldn‟t have bothered the original owner.
The MWvB seems to be at his best when he depicts a narrative scene. His column miniatures and historiated intials with the female saints in gathering 7 are rather mundane. The depiction of Angels carrying souls to heaven on f. 136r (fig. 14b), however, shows that he is capable of setting multiple figures in a credible landscape. In this case, the sweetness of the expression on the face of the angel on the left is appropriate; it is as if he is trying to reassure the souls who are being transported. The column miniature of the 10,000 martyrs (f. 165r) is even more ambitious. He makes an effort to vary the poses of the martyrs who are impaled on the branches of the tree and imbues the figures on the right with calmness as they await their fate.
The real tour de force of the MWvB in XXV C 26 is the two column miniature of two angels with the Arma Christi on f. 175r (fig. 15) which introduces the Passion narrative of St. John. This is not so much for the execution, but the unusual manner in which the subject is presented. Here the instruments of the passion are depicted as a coat of arms. Perhaps this is a visual pun; in Dutch the Arma Christi are called wapenen van Christus and a coat of arms is a wapen. 93 The Arma Christi are more commonly included as part of another scene, for
example, the Mass of St. Gregory, Christ as the Man of Sorrows, the Last Judgement or the Crucifixion, or arranged on their own against a neutral background. The Crucifixion is the subject of the full-page miniature on f. 174v, so the Arma Christi are nonetheless presented within the context of a scene depicting the suffering of Christ. The border on all four sides is also exceptional in the work of the MWvB in XXV C 26. He takes advantage of the
opportunity to include a man on horseback chasing a larger man at the bottom of the page and a half-naked man astride a griffon in the upper right corner who is taking aim with a long spear at a bird beneath him.
There is an earlier example from the Low Countries of a representation of the Arma
Chrisi as a coat of arms by the Master of the Morgan Infancy Cycle in the Book of Hours, c.
1415, New York, Pierpont Morgan Library, M. 866, f.101v, which accompanies prayer to Christ Crucified, a text that frequently occurs in manuscripts from Delft.94 This is a much more dynamic depiction by a master of great artistic ability. Although there are similar elements in XXV C 26, such as the helmet above a shield with angels on either side, the composition does not seem to derive directly from this source. M. 866 has an added section (f. 194-214), without illumination, that was composed in Flanders, c. 1450.95 Even if the MWvB had no knowledge of the depiction by the Master of the Morgan Infancy Cycle, it would seem possible to say that this usual iconography had made its way from the Northern Netherlands to the South by the middle of the 15th century.
In XXV C 26, the MWvB shows himself to be a competent collaborator who was entrusted with important illumination: the column miniature of the Mercy Seat on f. 15r opens the manuscript; the historiated initials depicting the infancy cycle are an integral part of the Hours of the Virgin and the two column miniature on f. 175r, with its unusual depiction of the
Arma Chrisi, is the last illumination in the book.
92 Of course, since the miniatures have been inserted on single leaves, they could have been re-arranged at some
point. The order of the full-page miniatures accompanying the Hours of the Virgin will be discussed in more detail below.
93 Also Passiewerktuigen or lijdenswerktuigen. 94
Defoer et al. 1990, p. 59-60 (cat. no. 120, fig. 15)
Hand C – Master of Gerard Brilis
The hand of this artist was first recognized by Pächt, Jenni and Thoss in border miniatures on ff. 39r and 72r in the Roman de Girart de Roussillon, Vienna ÖNB Cod. 2549.96 They also identified illumination by the same painter in Breviary of Grammont, Maredsous. Thoss saw additional work by this artist in the border decoration of ÖNB Cod. 2549.97 Marie and Heinz Roosen-Rünge noticed a relationship between these two
manuscripts and the Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch.98 It was Wolf, however, who established the connection with the illumination by Hand B in the Stuttgart manuscript, and who attributed work in three additional manuscripts to this master.99 For her study of the
Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch, Hand B was important because his work in the Roman de Girart de Roussillon
provided an indication of Lieven van Latham‟s relationship to the Roussillon workshop.100
Most recently, Marrow summarized all previous scholarship and added five additional works to the oeuvre of this master. He named the artist after the scribe Gerard Brilis, with whom this Master collaborated in two Carthusian Bibles now in Malmesbury and Brussels.101
Style
The Master of Gerard Brilis (MGB) takes great care in creating a well-defined space for the figures in a scene. His mastery of perspective, his ability to depict various materials and his eye for detail can be seen in the miniature of the Presentation in the Temple (f. 83v) (fig. 30). The landscapes in scenes that take place outdoors, for example the Visitation (f. 72v) (fig. 25), create a convincing illusion of depth. This is achieved by placing the main figures in the foreground with a road winding back into the middle distance where there is a sometimes a bridge or small group of buildings. In the far distance there is often a town on a hill painted in hazy, blue tones.
His figures are slender, almost weightless, and are relatively small in comparison with the setting. The heads are small in relationship to the bodies, and the hands have long, thin fingers. The faces of the all women, except for Elizabeth in f. 72v, have more or less the same oval form. The cheeks sometimes are touched with pink, but there are no cheekbones. The men‟s faces have stronger contours and, as in the case with the women, there is a
different facial type for young and old. Compare, for example the face of the young disciple with those of the older men, including St. Peter, in f. 110v (fig. 42). There is limited
interaction between the figures; they occasionally glance one another, but there is no sense of an emotional exchange. The women witnessing the Massacre of the Innocents (f. 87v) (fig. 33) react to the slaughter of their (or their neighbour‟s) children by clasping their hands and slightly inclining their heads. The MGB is not always successful in his depiction of the human form in different poses: King David is clearly kneeling on the ground (f. 97v) (fig. 38), but the position of his knees is slightly ambiguous; in the Coronation of the Virgin (f. 54v) (fig.1), Mary seems to be hovering instead of kneeling and the pose of the woman (Mary Magdalene?) (f. 110v) is purely decorative and has no relationship with human anatomy.
His colours are clear and deep, but not harsh or bright. A distinctive light pink occurs in a number of miniatures, most frequently used for the exterior of buildings, but also for other details, such as the donkey‟s trough (f. 76v) (fig. 28), an interior wall (f. 87v) or the
cloth on the bench behind Mary and Jesus (f. 167v) (fig. 44).
96 Pächt, Jenni, Thoss 1983-1990, vol. 1, p. 53, 58 and fig. 56 97
Thoss 1989, p. 28-29, figs. 34-39 and plates 10, 19.
98 M. and H. Roosen-Rünge, 1981, vol. 2, p. 301.
99 Wolf 1996, p. 63-64, 315-316. See above, p.3, for more information. 100
Wolf 1996, p. 208.
A small detail, which appears consistently in the miniatures with a landscape as a setting, is a tree whose trunk is twisted in an unusual manner: f. 72v, on the left, next to the margin, and on the rocky hillock at right; f. 92v (fig. 36), to the right, just above the head of the donkey (Joseph‟s staff also has a twist in it); f. 97v, in the middle distance, next to the road; f. 110v, at the left above the shoulder of the young man in the second row and on the right above the figure in red and f. 174v (fig. 46), to the left of Mary‟s head. During the seminar in 2006, I half-jokingly suggested that Hand C should be called the Master of the Twisted Tree-trunk (Meester van de Geknikte Boomstam). Marrow‟s name of convenience is obviously preferable because it links the Master to a known person. Perhaps it is fanciful, but it has occurred to me that it might be possible that “boom” or “stam” could have been part of the artist‟s name, or the name of his birthplace.
It is evident that the style of the MGB evolves during the course of his career, and that the illumination in the earlier works is not as refined as it is in XXV C 26. It has already been noted, for example, that in the Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch (c. 1455-1460) there are certain similarities with the style of the Master of the Feathery Clouds. The variation in style is also apparent in a comparison of the Visitation (f. 65v) (fig. 16) in the Book of Hours in the Hermitage (c. 1460-1465) and the depiction of the same subject in XXV C 26 (f. 72v) (fig.25). Although the basic composition is the same, the figures in the latter are more elongated and slender. In the former, St. Elizabeth almost looks like a buxom farmer‟s wife and the difference in age between the two women is not as pronounced. The palette in XXV C 26 is more subdued and the prominent, rather old-fashioned halos have disappeared. Similar differences can be seen in the Flight into Egypt (Hermitage, f. 104v and XXV C 26. f. 92v), especially in the depiction of the donkey. The long, graceful ears and shaggy coat of the animal in the latter (also to been seen in the Nativity, f. 76v) (fig. 28) make the creature in the Hermitage Hours look like a horse pretending to be a donkey. The style in the Tenschert Hours (c. 1465-1475) comes closest to that in XXV C 26.
Works/collaboration
The MGB makes a modest debut in a manuscript for an important patron, the Roman
de Girart de Roussillon, commissioned by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy (Vienna,
ÖNB, Cod. 2549) and illuminated in Brussels after1448.102 Although the MGB only contributed miniatures in the borders of two pages (ff. 39r and 72r) and some additional border decoration, it must have been a considerable honour to collaborate on this project with the Girart Master, who has been identified with Dreux Jehan, a Parisian artist who entered the service of Philip the Good in 1448.103 This is the only secular work with illumination by the MGB.
After this the MGB worked on a series of large-scale ecclesiastical works, beginning 1449-1450 with the Breviary of the Abbey of St. Adrian, Grammont/ Geraardsbergen (Abbaye de Maredsous, Ms. Fº 3/1-4) where he collaborated with at least five artists,
including illuminators related to the Masters of Guillebert de Mets and the Privileges of Ghent and Flanders.104 The MGB made a significant contribution, both in amount of illumination and the importance of the subjects depicted, for example, the page devoted to the miracle of the shrine of St. Adrian (Fº 3/4, f. 1r) (fig. 17) and the miniature depicting the abbot of the monastery praying before St. Adrian (Fº 3/4, f. 95v). There are numerous roundels in the margins which depict either scenes relating to the subject of the historiated initial or Old Testament scenes which were seen as prefigurations of New Testament subjects. Similar
102 Marrow 2007, p. 170. Wolf 1996, p. 316.
103 Kren and McKendrick 2003, p. 212. Smeyers 1998, p. 414, maintains that the illumination in the
Sachsenheim-Gebetbuch which has been connected to Lieven van Lathem is closer to the work of Dreux Jehan.
